Biology Form One

SIMPLIFIED APPROACH FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
BIOLOGY
FORM ONE
EMANUEL JOHN KISUNTE

Emanuel John Kisunte Page i of 68
COPYRIGHT
Preoared by:
Emanuel John Kisunte
0655 450 712
sokolokisunte@gmail.com
P.o. Box 45 Shebomeza Secondary School, Amani – Muheza Tanga.
@ no production of any kind is allowed without the producer permission.
This pamphlet and many other works are also available in the following link
(https://modernacademicsite.blogspot.com)

Emanuel John Kisunte Page ii of 68
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Primarily, I hereby heartily thank my Almighty God for enabling me to
have strength throughout this fruitful work.
My sincere appreciation also goes to Mr. KROWIN MBWELWA in
collaboration with Mr. KILUWASHA ABDUL, the biology teachers
(Shebomeza Secondary School) who in one way or another tirelessly
helped me to accomplish this work.
It is unforgettable to appreciate the courage and help from Mr. SIMBA
EMANUEL MTINDA who tirelessly used his time to supply materials for
the creation of this pamphlet.
It is indeed impossible to mention every person who helped to improve this
work. I still remember the role of all people, helped me to reach the last
stage of this task. I have nothing to give them; instead may my loving
father in heaven bless them all.

Emanuel John Kisunte Page iii of 68
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COPYRIGHT................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................ii
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY...............................................1
SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES IN BIOLOGY..................................4
THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY ...............................................7
FIRST AID AND SAFETY........................................................17
WASTE DISPOSAL..................................................................27
PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNERS...................31
THE CONCEPT OF HEALTH AND IMMUNITY.................34
STIS, STDS, HIV AND AIDS.....................................................41
CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION .........................47
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS................................52
VIRUSES, KINGDOM MONERA AND KINGDOM
PROTOCTISTA ........................................................................56
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................64

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Biology is the science that deals with the study of living things. The word
Biology originates from two Greek words:
 Bios means Life, and
 Logos means study.
Therefore, biology is a study of life and living organisms.
Biologist – is a person who studies biology.
MAJOR BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
(i) Botany – is the study of plants, such as flowering and
non-flowering plants.
(ii) Zoology – is the study of animals, such as man, cow and
insects.
OTHER BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
(i) Mycology – is the study of fungi such as mushrooms and
moulds.
(ii) Protocology – is the study of proctists such as amoeba.
(iii) Cytology – is the study of cells.
(iv) Ecology – is the study of environment and living things.
(v) Parasitology – is the study of parasites.
(vi) Paleontology – is the study of fossil (remains of living
organisms).
(vii) Physiology – is the study of organisms’ bodies.
(viii) Taxonomy – is the study of classification.
(ix) Virology – is the study of viruses; such as HIV.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
(i) Movement/locomotion – is the action of changing positions.
Living organisms are capable of moving in search of food,
shelter, mate and other needs. animals move the whole body
(locomotion) and plants move their parts in responding the
stimuli (movement of curveture).
(ii) Irritability (sensitivity) – is the ability of an organism to
respond to stimulus. Stimulus (plural; stimuli) is anything that
causes a response in an organism. Examples of stimuli include:
an alarm clock, a smell of breakfast cooking and a fly landing
on the skin. Plants do not have sense organs but are still able to
detect and respond to things like gravity, water and light.

Emanuel John Kisunte Page 2 of 68
(iii) Feeding (Nutrition) – this is the process of taking in food
and breaking it to release energy. Some living things
feed on ready-made organic matter from plants
(heterotrophs). Other organism (plants) manufactures
their own food (autotrophs).
(iv) Respiration - is the breakdown of food within cells to
release energy. It involves the use of oxygen. The energy
realesed is required for movement, growth and
development, as well as functioning of body organs.
(v) Excretion – is the removal of by-products from the
organism’s body. The by-products (excretory products)
include carbon dioxide, water, urea, ammonia and others.
Waste products are removed from the body by excretory
organs such as skin, kidneys, lungs and liver.
(vi) Reproduction - is the process by which living things
produce new individuals of their kind. The new
individual is also called an offspring.
(vii) Growth - Growth is the permanent increase in size and
weight of an organism. Growth is caused by an increase
in number of cells. All living things need food in order to
grow and build up their bodies.
A TABLE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIVING THINGS AND NON-
LIVING THINGS
Living things Non-living things
They respire They do not respire
They grow They do not grow
They respond to stimuli They do not respond to stimuli
They reproduce They do not reproduce
They excrete They do not excrete
They feed They do not feed
They move They do not move
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGY
1. Helps to understand environment. This is because biology deals
with plants, animals and their surroundings.
2. Helps to identify and group living things for easier learning.

3. Provides research skills useful for scientific investigation.
4. It helps to understand ourselves better since we are living things.
5. It provides skills and knowledge for other fields such as
agriculture, forestry medicine, nutrition, pharmacy and veterinary
science.
6. Helps to answer some important questions such as, what do living
things need, why do we resemble with a monkey?
7. Helps to improve our health; since, biology deals with causes,
symptoms, transmission and treatment of various diseases.
8. Helps to clear doubts of inheritance through the knowledge of
genetics. For example albinism, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia,
etc.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENTIFIC FIELD
1. Medicine and Pharmacy – ‘medicine’ involves the prevention,
treatment and cure of diseases. ‘Pharmacy’ deals with the preparation
of medicine. Biology relates with medicine and pharmacy disciplines
because it studies body structure, its functions and body’s response to
diseases through anatomy and immunology respectively. Therefore,
medical doctors, pharmacist and veterinary use a broad knowledge of
biology in treating organisms.
2. Nutrition – In this discipline, biology is very important as it helps
dieticians to understand the composition and value of different food
types. Biologists use knowledge of biology to produce variety of plants
and animals of higher nutritional values. For example, Jersey cattle are
a biological breed, which produces milk of very high nutritional
content.
3. Agriculture – it involves crop production and animal rearing for food or
money. Agriculturalists apply the biology knowledge for proper animal
and plant growth. For example, biology helps to select breeds, soil,
fertilizers and others for the appropriate growth.
4. Forestry – is the science of conserving forest and wild animals for
sustainable use. Biologists use biology knowledge to develop varieties
of trees in different climate and places.

SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES IN BIOLOGY
Basic skills essential for scientific studies are:-
1. Observation
2. Measurement
3. Experimentation
1. Observation – is the collection of information from the environment
by using sense organs. Sense organs are like eyes, ears, tongue and
skin.
2. Measurement – this is the use of specific instruments and units of
measurements in the investigation. International System of Units (SI
units) is the standard system of measurement used by scientists to
ensure uniformity of scientific results.
COMMON MEASURES IN BIOLOGY
(i) Mass – is the quantity of matter in an object. Mass is measured by
Weighing scales. It is expressed in kilograms (kg) or grams (g)
(ii) Length – is the measure of distance from one point to another. It is
measured by using a ruler or tape. The length is expressed in
milimetre (mm), centimeter (cm), metres (m) and kilometres (km).
(iii) Temperature - is the measure of hotness or coldness of an object. It is
expressed in Kelvin (K), degrees Celsius (0
C) and degrees Fahrenheit
(0
F).
Whereby K = 0
C + 273.15
0
F = {( 0
C} + 32
Thermometer – is an instrument used to measure temperature.
Thermometer

Measure SI Unit Other Common Units
Mass Kilogram
(kg)
Grams
Length Metre (m)  Millimeter (mm)
 Kilometre (km)
 Centimetre (cm)
Temperature Kelvin (k)  Degrees Celcius (0
C)
 Degree Fahrenheit (0
F)
Time Second  Minute (min)
 Hour (hr)
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR VARIOUS MEASUREMENTS:
(i) Beam balance – for measuring mass
(ii) Thermometer – for measuring temperature
(iii) Clock/stopwatch – for measuring time
(iv) Ruler – for measuring length
(v) Pulse rate can be measured by using a stethoscope or by pressing
the fingers firmly on the skin.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Science is the knowledge about the structure and behaviour of natural and
physical world based on proof.
Scientific method – is a systematic test of fact. These methods are:-
1. Identifying the problem - this is the observation of work of other
scientists it identify weakness for investigation.
2. Asking question – after observation, the scientist asks questions that
are to be answered by gathering evidence.
3. Formulation of hypothesis
Hypothesis is the suggestion of answer to questions asked. In this step,
the biologist guess the answer to the question asked.
4. Experimentation – experiment is carried out to test hypothesis. An
experiment is a test done under controlled conditions. Hear the
scientist uses variables (factor that can change or be changed) to test
hypothesis.

5. Observation and data recording
This is the observation to the experiment. The scientist observes what
happens from beginning until the end of the experiment and note all
the changes happening. Data recording is the noting down of the
changes made during the experiment.
6. Data interpretation - this is the analysis of observation and data
recorded during the experiment. Trends or patterns in the data are
considered.
7. Conclusion – is a statement that summarizes what happened during the
experiment. Scientist states whether the data supports the hypothesis
or not.
DIAGRAM: STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Problem Identification

THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY
A biology laboratory is a special room or building for carrying out
biological experiments.
A biology laboratory should have:
1. Large windows and big space to allow enough air ventilation and
light for proper visibility.
2. Shelves – for keeping chemicals, specimens, apparatus and
models.
3. Supply of gas, electricity and water
4. Working benches
5. An emergence door in case of danger occurs.
6. Storage room
THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY RULES
Biology laboratory has sophisticated instruments and hazardous chemicals,
needed to be handled with special care and attention.
The following laboratory rules should be adhered for special care and
attention:
1. Do not enter in the laboratory without permission from the teacher
or laboratory technician.
2. Do not play, or run unnecessarily in the laboratory.
3. Do not eat or drink in the laboratory.
4. Do not use chemicals or handle apparatus or specimens without
instruction from the teacher or technician.
5. Report to the teacher or laboratory technician in case of any
accident or damage.
6. Label chemicals and specimens to avoid confusion.
7. Keep flammable substances away from flames.
8. Turn off water and gas taps after use.
9. Never point the open end of the test tube to your fellow or
yourself when heating.
10. Never smell substances, specimens, chemicals or gases directly.
11. Wash your hands with soap after the experiment.
12. Clean the apparatus and benches after the experiment.
13. Return the apparatus and chemicals to their normal position after
use.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE BIOLOGY LABORATORIES FROM OTHER SCHOOL
FACILITIES
Laboratory is different from other school facilities such as classrooms, the
library, physics and chemistry laboratories because biology laboratory has:
Equipment Diagram/picture Role
Special
equipment
such as
Dissecting kit
and the
microscope
Contains
apparatus used
during the
dissection of
specimen.
Models e.g ear
model
Illustrate organs
of living
organism
especially
human being.
Refrigerators
and oven.
Refrigerators
and ovens used
for storing and
drying
specimens.
Keeping units Used to keep
specimen.
Chemicals Used for
biological
experiments .
Preserved
specimen
Specimen stored
for future use.

Gases and
Electric supply
Used as source
of heat and
power during
the experiment.
Cages Keep live
animals such as
rabbit.
Aquaria Keeps live
aquatic
organisms such
as fish
SOME APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY.
Equipment Diagram/picture Role
Microscope Magnifies
smallest
substance.
Thermometer Measures
temperature
Hand lens Magnifies
object
Motor and
Pestle
Grind solid
and hard
specimen.

Dissecting
tray
Carries
specimen
during the
dissection
Measuring
cylinder
Measures
liquid
volume
Bunsen
Burner
Act as a
source of
heat
Test tube Holds
chemical or
heat
substances.
Specimen
bottles
Keep
specimen
Pair of
scissors
Cutting
dressing
materials
Funnel Separates
solids from
liquids
Surgical
blades
Used for
dissection
Spatula Used for
picking
powder or
crystalline
substances.

Beam
balance
Dropping
pipette
Adds drop
of liquids
during an
experiment
Beaker Used to
mix or
measure
liquid
Test tube
holder
Holds test
tube when
heated
Syringes Transfer
small
quantity of
gas or
liquid
Cork
stoppers
Used to
seal test
tubes and
other
container
glass
Mounting
needle
Lifts small
delicate
specimens
Watch glass Is a dish for
evaporating
surface or
cover for
beakers
COMMON CHEMICALS USED IN THE BIOLOGY LABORATORY
1. Benedict’s solution
2. Lime water (calcium hydroxide)

3. Sodium hydroxide (slaked lime)
4. Cobalt chloride
5. Hydrochloric acid
6. Copper (II) sulphate
7. Sudan III
8. Alcohol
9. Stains e.g. carmine red, methylene blue
10. Sodium bicarbonate
11. Potassium permanganate
12. Iodine solution
THE MICROSCOPE
This is an instrument used to magnify too small objects to be seen by
naked eyes.
IMPORTANCE OF THE MICROSCOPE
 Helps Physicians and biologists, to examine bacteria and blood
cells.
 Helps scientists and engineers to study crystal structures within
metals and alloys (metal mixtures).
 It helps to study computer chips and other tiny electronic devices.
TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
a. Light microscope
b. Electron microscope
(a) LIGHT MICROSCOPE
This is the microscope depending on light to illuminate and magnify tiny
objects.

PARTS OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
1. Eyepiece – Magnifies objects under observation since it consists
of magnifying lenses.
2. Body tube – Hollow tube attached to the arm. It holds eyepiece
lens and revolving nose piece.
3. Revolving nose piece – Holds objective lenses in place.
4. Coarse adjustment knob – It lowers and raises the body tube so
that a clear image is obtained.
5. Fine adjustment knob – Raises and lowers the body tube to obtain
a fine focus.
6. Objective lens – Brings image into focus and magnifies it.
7. Stage – is a place where specimen is placed.
8. Clips – Hold the slide or specimen in position.
9. Mirror – Reflects and directs light to the object under observation.
10. Diaphragm – it regulates light for clear illumination of the
specimen.
11. Condenser – Concentrates light reflected by the mirror.
12. Base or stand – Supports the microscope steadily.
13. Arm or limb – Supports the body tube and stage. It is used to hold
the microscope
14. Hinge screw – Raises and lowers the stage.

MAGNIFICATION
Magnification power is symbolized by a number and abbreviation X. For
example a 10X magnifying glass magnifies an object by 10 times. An
object is magnified by multiplying the eyepiece lens magnification and
objective lens magnification.
Example:
Magnification = eyepiece lens x objective lens magnification = 10 × 20=
X200
A table of magnification
Eye piece lens magnification Objective lens
magnification
Total magnification
5 20 X100
10 20 X200
15 10 X150
10 25 X250
20 20 X400
HOW TO USE A MICROSCOPE
1. Place the microscope on the table.
2. Mount the specimen on a microscope slide.
3. Line the low power objective lens with eye piece lens.
4. Place the slide with the specimen on the stage.
5. Look through the eyepiece while adjusting the eyepiece for proper
direction of light.
6. Adjust the coarse knob to bring the specimen into focus.
7. Rotate the nosepiece to a higher power objective lens for more
observation of specimen details.
8. Clean the microscope and store it after usage.
WAYS OF HANDLING AND CARRYING A LIGHT MICROSCOPE
a. Use both hands to carry the microscope. One hand holds the base
and the other hand holds the arm.
b. Do not place the microscope on the edge of the desk or table.
c. Do not touch the microscope with wet hands.
d. Remove and keep lenses in a desiccator when the microscope is
not in use.
e. Regularly lubricate the moving parts of microscope.
f. Keep the stage clean and dry.
g. Remove the slides from the stage immediately after use.
h. Focus with the low-power objective lens first.

i. Focus by moving the lens away from the slide, that is, by
increasing the working distance.
j. Keep the microscope covered when not in use.
k. Ensure the work area clean and tidy.
(b) ELECTRONIC MICROSCOPE
This is the microscope using electric power to illuminate and magnify tiny
objects.
TYPES OF ELECTRONIC MICROSCOPES
a. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) This type of a
microscope passes a broad beam of electrons through a specimen
slice a few hundred angstroms thick.
b. Scanning electron microscope (S E M) This microscope scans a
focused beam across the surface of the specimen.
SAFETY SYMBOLS
Symbol Diagram Meaning
1. Harmful or
irritant
or
This substance is
harmful or
poisonous in body
parts.
2. Radioactive This substance
emits harmful
radiations.
3. Corrosive This substance can
damages the skin
and other tissues.
4. Toxic This substance is
dangerous and can
cause death.
5. Oxidant This substance
reacts easily with
oxygen.

6. Flammable This substance
catches fire easily.
7. Explosive This substance
explodes easily.

FIRST AID AND SAFETY
FIRST AID
This is an immediate help to a sick or injured person before professional
medical help.
IMPORTANCE OF FIRST AID
1. Saves life
2. Reduces fear of death
3. Brings hope and encouragement to the patient
4. Relieves the victim’s pain
5. Prevents the illness or injury from becoming worse
6. Helps a person to recover from shock
7. It shows spirit of helping each other.
First Aid Kit - is a small box that contains items for first aid.
Closed First aid kit Opened First aid kit
COMPONENTS OF THE FIRST AID KIT AND THEIR USES
Components of the First Aid Kit and their uses
Items Picture/Diagram Uses
1. First Aid
Manual
Contains
guidelines on how
to use the items in
the first aid kit.
2. Plaster or
adhesive
bandage
Covering small
cuts or wounds

3. Sterile gauze Covering wounds
to protect them
from dirt and
germs
4. Antiseptic Cleaning wounds
to kill germs
5. Soap Washing hands,
wounds and
equipment.
6. Scissors or
razorblade
Cutting dressing
materials
7. Safety pin Securing bandages
8. Bandage Keep dressings in
place
9. Cotton wool Cleaning and
drying wounds
10. Thermometer Taking body
temperature
11. Petroleum
jelly
Smoothing
chopped skin

12. Liniment Reducing muscle
pain
13. Torch Source of light
14. Whistle Blown to call for
help
15. Pain killer Reduce pain
16. Gentian
violet (GV)
used as an
antiseptic to clean
wounds.
17. Safety pins used for
holding/securing
bandages.
18. Iodine
tincture or
spirit
Clean wounds and
reduces bleeding.
19. A pair of
tongs
holds pieces of
bandages when
cleaning the
wounds.
FIRST AIDER
This is a specialist who gives first aid.

QUALITIES OF THE FIRST AIDER
1. Must be able to assess the problem and give immediate and
appropriate help.
2. Should be able to act quickly, quietly, calmly.
3. Should be sympathetic to the victim.
4. Should be able to recognize dangerous signs and give immediate
help for example detecting immediately if -breathing has stopped
or is failing -there is severe bleeding-poisoning-fractures
5. Should be able to help the injured person without unnecessary
movement.
SAFETY DURING THE FIRST AID
The First Aider should assure his/her safety against the victims infection;
such as HIV infection. Therefore, first aider should:
1. Wear protective gloves to avoid contact with blood
2. Wear eye protection
3. Wear masks and gowns.
PROCEDURES OF GIVING FIRST AID TO VARIOUS VICTIMS
1. Snake Bites
Sign and symptoms
(i) Immediate pain and swelling after the bite
(ii) The skin becomes purple
(iii) One or two punctured points may be seen where the fangs passed
through the skin
Treatment
(i) Calm and reassure a relief to victim
(ii) Lie or sit down a victim
(iii) Tightly tie the area above the bite to slow venom spread.
(iv) Keep wound at heart or lower level to reduce venom spread to
other body parts.
(v) Remove jewellery and tight clothing from the injured limb.
(vi) Wash the wound using soap and water to remove venom from
the bite.
(vii) Do not apply ice or cut the wound.
2. Scorpion Bite
Scorpions are armed with a single curved stinger in the tail. Through
this, they inject powerful venom that may produce convulsions and
temporary paralysis. The affected area feels burn signs like that of a
hot spark.
Treatment

(i) Apply tourniquet
(ii) Put ice on the injured area to relieve pain and prevent spread of
the poison
(iii) Treat for shock
(iv) Rush the person to the hospital
3. Dog Bite
When someone is bitten by a dog, keep the dog under observation to
see whether it has rabies. If the dog has rabies, it will become restless,
excitable, refuse to eat and barking tone will change. Later the dog
then starts barking excessively.
How to help a victim of dog bite
(i) Wash your hands well with soap and water
(ii) Remove the dog’s saliva using soap and running water.
(iii) Cover the wound with clean gauze.
(iv) Bandage it carefully
(v) Take the victim to the hospital.
4. Insect Bites
(i) Spider bites: the black spiders are dangerous to man. The
injured person becomes weak and dizzy, feels nauseated and
the muscles of the stomach may become hard especially in
children.
(ii) Black and fire ants, bees: these insects cause immediate
severe pains. The person may be shocked, itching and
swelling may follow. A victim of spider bite can be helped by
attending to the hospital.
How to help
(i) Remove the insect’s sting
(ii) Apply household ammonia and ice cubes.
(iii) Treat for shock
5. Chocking
It is caused by lodging of food in the windpipe. First notice if a
person can talk, breath or cough. If so stay with that person until
the air way is cleared by coughing. Do not slap the person on the
back. The slapping may cause the food to become more deeply
ledged in the wind pipe.
If a person cannot talk or cough and appears to have a difficult in
breathing, apply quick abdominal thrusts as follows;
(i) Stand behind the chocking victim

(ii) Put your arms around the person, placing your firsts just
below the breast bone as shown above.
(iii) Give a series of quick, sharp upward and inward thrusts
(iv) These thrusts push in on the diaphragm and the thoracic
cavity suddenly decreasing its volume. Air pressure is exerted
below the obstruction which projects it forcefully from the
windpipe.
6. Electric Shock
How to help
(i) Switch off the electricity immediately.
(ii) If not possible to switch off the electricity, take the
victim away from the source of electricity using a dry
wooden material or rope.
(iii) Loosen any tight clothes
(iv) If the person is unconscious, apply mouth to mouth
respiration.
(v) Treat for shock
(vi) Take the person to the hospital immediately
7. Bruises
A bruise is an injury beneath the skin. Bruises can be identified by pain,
swelling or a mark under the skin.
How to treat bruises
(i) Wash your hands using water and soap.
(ii) Wash the bruised part.
(iii) Apply cold clothes or ice immediately to reduce pain and
swelling.
(iv) If swelling continues take the victim to the hospital.
8. Vomiting
Vomiting is an involuntary ejection of substance from the stomach
through the mouth.
Possible causes of vomiting
(i) Allergic reactions
(ii) Diseases such as malaria
(iii) Physiological condition; for example, pregnancy
(iv) Food poisoning
(v) Unpleasant smell or taste
(vi) Drinking a lot of water when thirsty.

How to help
(i) Give the person a rehydration drink or oral rehydration salts
solution.
(ii) Allow the person to have a complete rest
(iii) If vomiting continues, take the patient to the hospital.
9. Muscle Cramps
These are sudden, involuntary and painful contractions of muscle (s).
it is caused by poor coordination of muscles during an exercise, cold,
excessive loss of salts body fluid through sweating, diarrhea and
vomiting.
How to help
(i) Lay the victim down.
(ii) Massage the cramped area gently.
(iii) Apply some anti-cramp ointment to the affected area.
(iv) If the problem persists seek for a medical help.
10. Bleeding
How to help the victim
(a) Light bleeding
1. Calm and reassure the victim.
2. Lay the victim down.
3. Raise the injured part and support it in position.
4. Do not move the injured part if pains the victim.
5. Wash the wound from the middle outwards in case it is dirty.
6. Cover the wound with sterile dressing and clean its surroundings.
7. Dry the skin with sterile dressing.
8. Dress the wound and firmly bandage it.
9. Take the victim to the hospital in case of more bleeding.
(b) Severe bleeding
1. Use finger to apply direct on the bleeding area.
2. Gently, press together sides of wound.
3. Lay down the victim in comfortable position.
4. Raise the injured part and support it in position.
5. Carefully remove unwanted object from the wound if possible.
6. Dress and cover the wound with soft dress.
7. Bandage the wound.
(c) Nose bleeding usually occurs near the tip of the nose. The bleeding
may be a result of diseases such as:-

1. High blood pressure
2. Rheumatic fever Or
3. Injury
How to help
1. Let the victim sit quiet.
2. Let the victim lean the head slightly backward or make him/ her
lie down on his/ her back.
3. Press on the side of the nose where the blood is flowing for about
10 minutes.
4. Allow the victim to breath through the mouth
5. Apply cold, wet compression over the nose and face. If this does
not work take the victim to the hospital
11. Burns and Scalds
A burn is caused by dry heat. A scald is caused by a steam or boiling
water.
Treatment
(i) Remove any wet clothing in scald’s injured part. In case of
burns, clothing should be left in place.
(ii) If clothes are burning cover the victim with a heavy blanket
to cut off the air supply.
(iii) Dip the burning limb into clean cold water or press the
affected area gently with an ice block.
(iv) Do not break the blisters.
(v) Cover the injured area against bacterial infection.
(vi) Take the victim to the hospital immediately in case of serious
situation.
12. Chemical Burns (Acids and Alkalis)
Treatment
(i) Strip off all clothing contaminated by the chemical.
(ii) Wash the affected area with plenty of water.
(iii) Apply moist packs soaked in a weak solution of baking soda.
(iv) Use vinegar in case of alkaline burns.
13. Hiccups
These are short, repeated, noisy intakes of air.
Treatment
(i) Pulling out the tongue.
(ii) The victim may swallow finely crushed ice.
(iii) Hold a breath for a long time.

(iv) Children can be given a teaspoonful of a weak solution of sodium
bicarbonate or lemon juice.
SAFETY AT HOME AND SCHOOL
COMMON ACCIDENTS AT HOME AND SCHOOL
An accident is unexpected situation that may cause injury or death.
Accidents may be difficult to predict and prevent. The following are an
accidents that might happen at home or school.
1. Bites; for example, snake bite, insect bite, scorpion bite and dog
bite.
2. Burns caused by hot liquids, cooking pot, lamps, hot food, steam,
burning wood, charcoals and those caused by corrosive chemicals
such as concentrated acids and strong alkalis.
3. Falls, such as wall falls, tree falls, bed falling, etc.
4. Cuts and scratches caused by knives, hoes, razor blades and other
sharp objects.
5. Choking caused by drinks, food or objects
6. Electric shock due to unguarded electric outlets and lightning.
7. Poisoning caused by taking chemicals and excessive intake of
medicines.
8. Foreign bodies in the eye, ear and nose
9. Drowning which may occur in very small amount of water such as
baths, ponds, pit latrines, wells and water tanks.
10. Nose bleeding, bruises, suffocation, fainting etc.
WAYS OF PREVENTING ACCIDENTS AT HOME AND SCHOOL
1. Medicines and potential poisonous chemicals should be out of
children.
2. Children should be monitored closely when playing.
3. Sharp objects like broken bottles, razor blades and laboratory
equipment should be well disposed of.
4. Laboratory chemicals should be labeled with appropriate warning
signs.
5. One should not take medicine unless prescribed by the doctor.
6. Clean bushes and tall grasses around the house to avoid
harbouring snakes, bees and other dangerous animals.
7. Students should observe and adhere to laboratory rules.
8. Dismantle walls and trees that are at a risk of falling down.
9. Keep Flammable substances properly.
10. Burry pits around the house.

11. Avoid using charcoal to warm oneself during night when sleeping
as continued inhalation of carbon monoxide from the charcoal
may lead to death
12. Burning candles should be put off when sleeping.
13. Players should adhere to game rules.
14. Laboratory doors should open outwards for easy exit in case of
fire.
15. Equipment like hoes, axes and knives should be properly kept
16. Turn off all the gas taps after experiment.
WAYS OF MAINTAINING PEACE AND SAFETY AT HOME AND SCHOOL
1. Avoid risk behaviours such as playing near deep ponds, playing
with knives, alcoholism etc.
2. Keep away from children dangerous things such as drugs.
3. Report any dangerous event that someone engages in.
4. Be positive and supportive to each other.
5. Social problems occurring at home or school should be solved
keenly.
6. Parents should give their children education on how to live and
interact with others.

WASTE DISPOSAL
Waste – Wastes are materials that are no longer needed. Waste
contaminates water, pollute water and air.
SOURCES OF WASTES
Wastes come from four different areas:
1. Construction (construction wastes) – these include wood,
metals, bricks, plaster, roofing materials and glass.
2. Agriculture (agricultural wastes) – they include herbicides,
insecticides and empty containers such as that of fertilizers.
3. Industries (Industrial wastes) – they include waste water
sludge and metals.
4. Domestic (domestic wastes) – they include food wastes, Kans
and others.
TYPES OF WASTE
(a) CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL STATE
(i) Solid wastes
(ii) Liquid wastes
(iii) Gaseous wastes
(i) Solid wastes - are wastes comprising 73% solid wastes.
Examples include vegetable remains, scrappers, plastics,
syringes and soiled dressings.
(ii) Liquid wastes - are wastes in liquid form. Examples
include water from sinks, wash basins and baths.
(iii) Gaseous wastes - are wastes in gases form. Examples are
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide.
(b) TYPES OF WASTES ACCORDING TO THEIR IMPACTS
(i) Hazardous waste
(ii) Non- hazardous wastes
(i) Hazardous wastes – are wastes posing immediate threat to
health. Some examples include paints, used syringes, lead
and mercury.
(ii) Non-hazardous wastes - are less dangerous wastes to
organism’s health. Examples include packing materials,
papers, plastics, cans and water from basin.

(c) TYPES OF WASTES ACCORDING TO RECYCLING
(i) Recycled wastes
(ii) Non - recycled wastes
(i) Recycled wastes - are wastes useful to manufacture new
products (recycled wastes). Examples include metals, glass,
papers, cow dung, beer bottles and plastic bags.
(ii) Non - recycled wastes – are waste cannot be used again.
Example, soiled papers and cotton wool.
WASTE DISPOSAL
This is a way of removing wastes from the environment.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Reducing – this involves the reduction of the amount of wastes
produced. For example, avoid buying plastic bags.
2. Re-using – involves the use of wastes for other purposes. For
example the use of empty cans to store kerosene or petrol.
3. Recycling - is the change of wastes into new products. For
example, the use of paper wastes for charcoal manufacturing.
METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL
(i) Burying – is a covering of soil on the wastes. This method is
of different forms such as pit latrine (hole in the ground),
tipping and landfills, incinerating and recycling.
(a) Pit latrines – is a hole in the ground covered by wood or
concrete. The pit is used as latrine.
(b) Tipping and landfills – tipping is a creation of dumping
sites such as a dustbin, dumps e.t.c.
(c) A landfill is a place to burry solid wastes in the ground.
A landfill is of two types:
1. An open hole is a ground where waste is put and
later buried
2. A sanitary landfill is a structure built into the ground
to isolate waste from environment using a clay or
plastic liner.
(ii) Incineration - is the complete destruction of waste through
burning. It is carried out in an incinerator.

(iii) Composting – decaying all biodegradable wastes such as
plants and animals into useful fertilizers.
(iv) Recycling – is a turning of waste into usable products. For
example, waste paper is used to make tissues or charcoal.
PROPER WAYS OF DISPOSING WASTE
(i) Recovery – is the change of waste into other categories. For
example changing cow dung into biogas.
(ii) Recycling – is a change of products into new usable products.
(iii) Reduction at use – this involves the minimize of waste expected
materials into the environment.
(iv) Safe waste disposal – is a disposal of waste in a place designed
for waste.
WASTE DISPOSAL AS A PROBLEM
Waste disposal has become a major problem due to the following factors:-
(i) Improper waste disposal. For example, dumping waste on
footpaths and throwing wastes from vehicles.
(ii) The failure by cleaners to remove wastes in public areas.
(iii) Failure of local authorities to enforce punishment to those
who litter public places.
(iv) Improper management of waste; for example, recycling.
IMPORTANCE OF PROPER WASTE DISPOSAL
1. It reduces the spread of infection and risk of injuries to children.
2. It enhances atmospheric condition.
3. It reduces pathogens such as mice, bed bug and others.
4. It discourages the depletion of organism from wastes.
5. It reduces environmental pollution such as, air, water and ground
pollution.
EFFECTS OF POOR WASTE DISPOSAL
(i) Production of bad odors.
(ii) Ruin the areas appearance because of the waste spread.
(iii) Harming of aquatic organisms. Waste imposed or carried into
water bodies might destruct aquatic plants and animals such as
fish.
(iv) Waste acts as an origin of stubborn organisms. This is because
waste becomes a breeding area for cockroach, houseflies, rats and
others.
(v) Waste becomes irritant to health. For example, broken glass and
discarded syringes are hazard to children.

(vi) Encourage bacterial breeding leading to possible infections in the
area.
(vii)Wastes decomposition may produce gases result into ozone layer
depletion. For example, decomposition of cow dung produces
methane.
REDUCTION OF WASTE
1. Use cloth instead of paper to wipe surfaces. For example, wiping
windows and furniture.
2. Invest in cloth or woven shopping bags. this discourages plastic
and glass jars to the environment.
3. Use plastic container to store food. This is because they leak less
and reduce odors in the refrigerators.
4. Avoid disposable batteries instead use rechargeable batteries.
5. Provide environmental awareness to the community.

PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNERS
Personal hygiene refers to individual cleanliness.
Good manner is a socially acceptable behavior.
PRINCIPLES OF PERSONAL HYGIENE
1. Wash the body every day.
2. Wear clean clothes
3. Wash hands soap and clean water after visiting toilet.
4. Brush teeth at least twice a day.
5. Keep environment clean.
6. When sneeze cover mouth and nose with clean handkerchief or
tissues.
7. Keep nails short and clean.
8. Avoid sharing of handkerchief, towels, and clothes.
9. Change bedding regularly.
10. Wear comfortable and well-fitting clothes.
11. Avoid touching other people’s body fluids such as blood, urine,
vomits and others.
12. Relieve in a clean toilet.
13. Keep the pets clean.
PRINCIPLES OF GOOD MANNERS
1. Maintain good sitting or standing posture.
2. In a conversation:
(i) Speak in a clear voice.
(ii) Do not shout when talking.
(iii) Do not interrupt a talk.
(iv) Listen attentively to others.
(v) Do not engage in boring topics.
(vi) Do not dominate the conversation.
(vii)Respect others when disagreeing.
3. Warmly welcome visitors.
4. Be helpful to others.
5. Great people politely.
6. Be punctual when visiting others.
7. Dress properly.
8. Cover mouth when sneezing, yawning or coughing.
9. When eating:-
(i) Chew while closing your mouth.
(ii) Eat at a reasonable pace.
(iii) Use serving spoon to serve food.

(iv) Avoid things that can lose appetite.
(v) Serve your reasonable food.
(vi) Avoid criticizing food for others.
(vii)Do not waste food.
10. Say ‘please’ when questioning for others.
11. Say ‘thank you’ when given something
REQUIREMENTS OF PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNERS
1. Listen the advice from other people.
2. Acquire the items for cleanliness. These items are such as Towel,
Soap, Comb, Brush, Basin, Toothbrush, A pair of scissors, razor
blades, water and Cosmetics.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNERS
1. Reduces chances of pathogen infection.
2. Enhances social acceptance in the society.
3. Prevents choking while eating.
4. Maintains natural body state.
5. Maintains personality of an individual in the society.
6. Enhance respects of one by others.
7. Maintains health of the body and mind.
WAYS OF MAINTAINING PROPER PERSONAL HYGIENE DURING PUBERTY
Puberty is the maturity period. This period involves biological,
psychological and social changes of a child. The puberty age is between 10
to 14 years for girls and 12 to 16 years for boys. Puberty leads to
adolescence.
Adolescence is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood.
WAYS OF MAINTAINING PROPER HYGIENE DURING PUBERTY
CHANGES IN GIRLS AT PUBERTY
1. Body size increases rapidly.
2. Breasts develop.
3. Hair grows in the armpits and pubic area.
4. Waist narrows and hips broaden.
5. Pimple may develop on the face.
6. Menstruation begins.
7. Sweat and oil glands become more active.

CHANGES IN BOYS AT PUBERTY
1. Body sizes increases.
2. Reproductive organs enlarge.
3. Muscles grow.
4. Hair grows on face (beards), armpits and pubic region.
5. Voice deepens.
6. Shoulders and chest broaden.
7. Sperm production begins.
8. Wet dream begins.
9. Pimples may develop on face.
10. Sweat and oil glands become active.
GOOD MANNERS DURING PUBERTY
Puberty leads people to undergo:
1. Emotional changes (confusion or sadness develops).
2. Attraction to members of the opposite sex.
MEASURES FOR GOOD MANNERS ACHIEVEMENT
1. Resist negative peer pressure; for example, consumption of drugs.
2. Get counseling from reliable person. For example, parents and
religious leaders.
3. Apologize in case of hurting others.
4. Do not engage in sexual activities.
5. Respect to elders.
6. Involve in extracurricular activities like sports and games.

THE CONCEPT OF HEALTH AND IMMUNITY
Health is a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing.
HOW TO REMAIN HEALTHY
(i) Avoid smoking
(ii) Avoid unhealthy food such as chips and bottled juice.
(iii) Exercise regularly.
(iv) Get sufficient sleep in a well-ventilated room.
(v) Relax and avoid stress.
(vi) Allow time for leisure.
(vii) Take medical drugs when necessary.
(viii) Avoid recreational drugs such as heroine.
(ix) Eat a well-balanced diet.
(x) Drink plenty of clean and safe water.
(xi) Keep the body clean.
ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL HEALTH
(i) Nutrition: Balanced diet improves body health, growth and
development.
(ii) Exercise: Exercises keeps body healthy and fit.
(iii) Rest and sleep: Help to overcome fatigue and restore energy to
the body.
(iv) Cleanliness: Cleanliness prevents the growth of bacteria and other
germs that can cause diseases.
(v) Medical and dental care: Regular check-ups by dentist and
physician play an important role in safeguarding health.
(vi) Avoiding risk behaviours: behaviours such as Smoking,
alcoholism, and drug abuse have various defects to the body
including cancer, affection of nervous system and addiction
respectively.
MENTAL HEALTH
Mental health is as important as physical health and to a great extend
depends on it.
ELEMENTS OF MENTAL HEALTH
(i) Emotional development - Experiences during childhood strongly
influence a person’s mental health throughout life. Children remain
dependent for many years. At this period, they learn certain guidelines

for relating to other people. Thus, children develop the knowledge
necessary to deal with difficult situations in life.
(ii) Handling stress - Stress handling is essential for avoiding both mental
and physical illness. Feelings of stress are the body’s response to any
threatening or unfamiliar situation.
(iii) Social relationships - Close personal relationships with friends and
relatives provide opportunities for communication, sharing and
emotional growth. Such relationships also provide strength and
support for dealing with challenging situations or personal problems.
IMPORTANCE OF GOOD HEALTH
1. Enables people to enjoy life and have opportunity to achieve their
goals.
2. Sets someone free from attack by diseases.
3. Enables people to work effectively and efficiently.
4. Good health helps people to participate in social issues.
5. Enables mothers to deliver healthy babies.
6. Raises the family economy, which in turn ensures peace and
security within the family and the surrounding community.
Immunity – is the ability of the body to resist infection and diseases. It
is influenced by the body immune system. Immune produces
antibodies to fight against antigens (cause of disease and infection).
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
1. Natural immunity
2. Artificial immunity
1. Natural Immunity - Is an inherited body resistance against
diseases.
TYPES OF NATURAL IMMUNITY
(i) Natural active immunity – present before or after
infection. For example, when a person gets wound the
body produces antibody to prevent wound from antigens.
(ii) Natural passive immunity – is a mother to child
immunity obtained through pregnancy and breast-
feeding.
2. Artificial immunity–is an induced body resistance against
diseases. It is obtained through vaccine.

TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
(i) Artificial Active Immunity – is the immunity obtained
through vaccination using vaccines. This vaccine weaken
or kill antigens. Vaccine can be taken orally or injected.
(ii) Artificial Passive Immunity
Is the injection of one’s antibodies into another
individual. It provides instant response but it is short
lived in the body. It also applicable in fatal disease such
as tetanus.
COMPONENTS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
Human immune system consists of:
(i) White blood cells.
(ii) The lymphatic system.
(iii) Spleen.
(iv) Thymas.
(v) Skin and the bone marrow.
These component need to be kept in good condition for adequate
immunity
FACTORS AFFECTING IMMUNITY
(i) Poor Nutrition – imbalanced diet with improper quantities of
nutrients influences body attaction by diseases.
(ii) Lack of Vaccination – lack of vaccination to human body
influences infection.
(iii) Genetic Disorders – these are inborn conditions affecting
immunity. For example, albinos are bon with their skin less
resistant to sunrays; hence, they are vulnerable to skin cancer.
(iv) Incomplete Treatment - incomplete treatment dosage
influences infection or diseases and affect immunity. For
example, consuming 2 instead of 3 tablets results to
incomplete treatment.
(v) An Attack by Pathogens – these are microorganism that attack
and destroy body cells.
(vi) Extreme Stress – extreme stress lowers body immunity and
hence triggers infection and diseases attack.
(vii) Skin Damage – this allows free entrance of antigens into the
body and weakens the immunity.
INFECTION AND DISEASES
This is an infection that occurs when pathogens invade the body.
Pathogens - are microorganisms that cause disease.

A disease – is a condition that interferes body health. It can be caused by:-
(i) Infection.
(ii) Inborn condition.
(iii) Environmental factors.
Note: infection is an entrance of pathogens into organism’s body; while, a
disease is a condition of feeling unhealthy.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DISEASES
1. body weakness
2. Increased cost of health care.
3. Increase of stress to the victim and family.
4. Reduced productivity due to inability of work.
5. Permanent damage to the body.
6. Death.
CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES
(i) Communicable diseases
(ii) Non-communicable diseases
(I) COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
These are diseases that spread from one person to another. They are caused
by pathogens such as viruses bacteria and protozoa. The pathogens can be
spread in the following ways:-
1. Droplet infection – infected secretions from the north or mouth to
another person. Secretions are produced in form of droplets
through sneezing, spitting, coughing, or speaking.
2. Through Contact – infection is spread when a person come into
contact with infected skin, clothing, combs or dressing. Measles is
one among the diseases spread by contact.
3. Through Sexual Intercourse – unsafe sexual contact results to
transmission of diseases like gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV/AIDS.
4. Through Contaminated Food and Water
This is the transmission of pathogens through contaminated food
or water.
5. Vectors
Vectors are organisms that spread pathogens. These organisms are
such as fleas, mosquitoes and lice.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Communicable diseases are classified according to their occurrence.
1. An epidemic disease – It affects a large number of people in a
short period. Examples, meningitis, tuberculosis and plague.
2. Pandemic Disease – is a widespread disease over the geographical
area. For example, HIV/AIDs has spread all over the world.
3. Endemic Disease – is a disease that occurs constantly in a given
area. For example, malaria and bilharzias occur in stagnant water.
4. Sporadic disease – occurs occasionally and at random intervals.
TABLE: COMMUNICABLE DISEASES AND INFECTION.
Disease Cause/transmission Signs/sym
ptoms
effects Prevention/control
Cholera Vobrio cholerae/contaminated
food or water
Diarrhoea,
vomiting,
weight loss,
Wrinkled
skin, muscle
cramp.
 Dehydration
 Weight loss
 Wash hands after
toilet
 Boil/treat water.
 Wash hands before
eating.
 Wash fruits before
eating.
 Eat hot food.
 Vaccination.
 Medical treatment.
Menengitis Bacteria and virus spread
through droplets after
coughing, sneezing or kissing.
 Feaver
 Headache
 Vomiting
 Seizure
 Stiff neck
 Delirium
 Brain damage
 Poor
movement
coordination.
 Deafness
 Paralysis
 Isolation of patients
 Vaccination
 Medical treatment
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Spread by droplets from
coughing or sneezing.
 Prolonged
cough.
 Blood-
stained
sputum.
 Fever
 Poor appetite
 Weight loss.
 Lack of
energy.
 Night
sweats.
 Lung
damage.
 Kidney
damage.
 Bone
infection.
 Hunchback
 Damage to
the immune
system.
 Vaccination.
 Nose and mouth
coverage during
sneezing.
Plague Yesinia pestis
Spread by fleas from rats.
 Lymph node
inflammation
.
 Fever.
 Internal
bleeding.
 Anaemia
 Pneumonia
 Vaccination
 Elimination of rats
and fleas.

 Body aches.
 Coughing
and
shorteness of
breath.
Bilharzia/sch
istosomiasis
 Caused by Blood flukes
Spread by water snails.
 Blood-
stained
faeces and
urine.
 Abdominal
pain.
 Diarrhoea.
 Fever.
 Tiredness.
 Enlarged
liver and
spleen.
 Anaemia.
 Kidney
failure.
 Liver
damage.
 Brain
damage.
 Spleen
damage.
 Killing mosquitos.
 Use treated
mosquitos.
 Drain stagnant
water.
 Slash long grass.
 Anti-malaria drugs.
Scabies Caused by microscopic mites.
Spread by skin-to-skin contact
or sharing clothing, towels
and bedding.
 Intense
itching.
 Rashes and
burrows on
the skin.
 Sores on the
skin.
 Persistent
skin rashes.
 Good personal
hygiene.
 Wash contaminated
clothes.
 Avoid sharing
personal items
especially clothes
and towels.
Rabies Caused by bites or saliva from
animals.
Spread by organ transplants
from infected people.
 Fever
 Pain at the
site of the
bite.
 Difficulty in
swallowing
 Restlessness.
 Muscle
spasms.
 Convulations
 Loss of
feeling.
 Drooling.
 Foaming at
the mouth.
 damage to
nervous
system.
 Brain damage.
 Paralysis.
 Vaccination.
(II) NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
These are diseases that do not spread from one person to another.
Examples are such as kwashiorkor, obesity, sickle-cell, anaemia and
diabetes. They may be caused by:
(i) Deficiency of nutrients.
(ii) Pollutants such as smoke or radiation.
(iii) Food poisoning.
(iv) Genetic defects.
(v) Body overweight.

(vi) Stress and age.
TABLE: NON-COMMUNICABLE
Diseases Cause Signs/Symptoms Effects Prevention/Control
Diabetes  Insulin
disorders
 Genetic
disorders
 Excessive
body
weight.
 Fatique.
 Weight loss.
 Excessive thirst.
 Excessive hunger
 Poor healing of
wound.
 Frequent
infections.
 Altered mental
status.
 Frequent urination.
 Blindness
 Kidney failure.
 Nerve damage.
 Damage to
arteries.
 Impotence in
males.
 Control body weight.
 Regular exercise.
 Stop alcohol
consumption.
 Stop smoking.
 Diet restrictions.
 Insulin injection.
Rickets  Calcium or
vitamin D
deficiency.
 Bone pain or
tenderness.
 Bowed legs/knock
knees.
 Muscle spasms
 Bone
deformities.
 Adequate foods rich in
vitamin D and
calcium.
 Exposure to morning
sunshine.
Kwashiorkor  Diet with low
protein.
 Swollen abdomen.
 Reddish hair.
 Lack of energy
 Change of skin
colour.
 Weight loss.
 Retarded mental
development.
 Retarded
physical growth.
 Adequate protein
intake.
Cancer  Mutations or
carcinogen
such as
tobacco
smoke,
chemicals,
infectious
agents such
as viruses,
heredity from
parents.
 Swellings(tumours)
 Bleeding
 Pain and ulcers
 Enlarged liver and
lymph nodes.
 Coughing
 Weight loss
 Poor appetite
 Excessive sweating
 Infection of
lung, prostate
gland, breast,
cervix, and
blood.
 Avoid
carcinogens(tobacco
smoke and radiations).
 Surgery to remove
swellings.
 Radiation therapy (x-
rays)
 Immunotherapy (input
of new antibodies)
 Hormonal therapy
(enhance or block
hormonal functions)
Glaucoma  Old age
 High
pressure in
eyes.
 Diabetes
 Eye pain
 Blurred vision
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Blindness
 Decreased
vision.
 Regular eye check-
ups.
 Pressure lowering eye
drops.

STIS, STDS, HIV AND AIDS
Introduction
 STIs – Sexually Transmitted Infections.
 STDs – Sexually Transmitted Diseases.
 HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV is a pathogen that
weakens the immune system.
 AIDs – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
STIS AND STDS
STIs are infections and STDs are diseases spread through sexual
intercourse or sexual contact. Both are sometimes known as venereal
infections or diseases.
Disease/Infectio
n
Cause/Trans
mission
Signs Effects Prevention
Gonorrhea  Caused by
Bacteria
 Spread by
Sexual
intercourse;
item sharing
such as
towels, and
under wears;
mother to
child at
birth.
 Penis/vagina yellow
discharge.
 Pain when urinating.
 Urine retention in
males.
 Private parts itching.
 Irregular menstruation.
 Infertility
 Swollen and
painful
joints.
 Abstain from sex.
Avoid sexual
contact.
Avoid sharing
personal items.
Medical treatment.
Syphilis  Caused by
bacteria
spread by
sexual
intercourse;
mother to
her foetus in
womb and
blood
transfusion.
 Occurs in three stages
such as
1st
stage (3 – 4 weeks
after infection) sex
organs painless sore in
a week.
2nd
stage (8 – 14 weeks
after infection); fever,
join pains, rashes,
raised humps on skin
and swollen lymph
nodes.
3rd
stage (2 years after
infection) effects of
syphilis are noticed.
 Damage to
bones, teeth,
skin,
digestive
system, eyes
and nervous
system.
 Mental
instability
 Blindness
 Stillborn
babies.
 Hearing
problems.
 Death.
Abstain from sex.
Avoid sexual
contact with
infected people.
Use safe blood for
transfusion.
Testing and
treating pregnancy
women.
Trichomoniasis  Protozoa
spread by
sexual
intercourse,
sharing
personal
items such
as towels
and
 Frothy smelly yellow
discharge from the
vagina, vaginal itching,
pain when urinating.
 Men show no
symptoms.
 Low birth
weight of
babies.
 Premature
births.
Avoid sexual contact
with infected people.
Do not share
personal items such
as towels.

underwear.
Genital herpes  Viruses
spread by
sexual
contact.
 Recurrent fever.
 Ulcers or blisters
around the penis or
vagina.
 Pain in or around the
sex organs.
 Headache.
 Recurrent
painful
ulcers.
 Death of
babies.
Abstain from sex
Hepatitis B  Viruses
spread by
sexual
intercourse,
infected
mother to
her baby at
birth.
 Abdominal pain.
 Skin and eyes
yellowish.
 Dark urine.
 Pale-coloured stool
 Nausea and vomiting
 Whole body itching.
 Feeling tired.
 Liver
damage.
 Liver
cancer.
Vaccination.
Avoid sexual
contact.
Avoid sharing
clinical needles and
blades.
Use safe blood for
transfusion.
Chlamydia  Bacteria
spread by
sexual
intercourse,
infected
mother to
child during
birth.
 Vaginal bleeding after
sexual intercourse.
 Bleeding between
menstrual periods.
 Lower abdominal pain.
 Pain during urination.
 Penis/vaginal discharge.
 Pain in the testicles.
 Infertility Abstain from sex
Vaccination
Medical treatment
for both partners
Candidiasis  Fungus
spread by
sexual
contact,
sharing
personal
items such
as towels
and
underwear.
 Thick white discharge
from the vagina.
 Vaginal itching
 Thick white patches in
the mouth.
 Inflammation of the
penis glans.
 Skin rashes.
 Infection of
the blood
stream.
with infected person.
Do not share
personal items.
HIV AND AIDS
HIV is a deadly disease, which attacks white blood cells essential for
immunity.
CAUSE
Is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).The Virus attack the
body's immune system weakening it and making it more susceptible to
infections and some cancers.
It is important to realize that, infection with the HIV virus does not
necessarily result in AIDS. As with other diseases, some people remain
symptomless and are said to be carriers.

TRANSMISSION OF HIV
The virus is found in the body fluids such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid,
tears, saliva, urine and breast milk. Semen, blood and vaginal fluids have
high concentrations of viruses. Sweat, saliva and tears have low
concentrations of the virus.
HIV SPREAD
HIV can be spread by:
(i) Sexual intercourse with an infected person.
(ii) Blood transfusion from an infected donor.
(iii) Organ transplants from an infected donor.
(iv) Breast feeding from infected mother to child.
(v) Use of infected sharp tools for example blades, needles and
scalpels.
(vi) Sharing toothbrushes, shaving blades or nail cutters with
infected people.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF AIDS
STAGES OF HIV AND AIDS
(a) Primary Stage or window stage - in this stage the HIV test is
negative and a person looks healthy.
(b) Asymptomatic stage – it has no symptoms but the HIV test is
positive. The person looks healthy.
(c) Symptomatic sage – it is characterized by severe damage of
immune system.
(d) Full-blown AIDS – a person becomes very ill and weak.
The following signs and symptoms may be noticed during the symptomatic
and full-blown stages:-:
1. Fast loss of weight
2. Persistent fever
3. Chest pain
4. Diarrhoea for no obvious cause
5. Coughing for more than one month
6. Shortness of breath getting worse over several weeks
7. Itchy skin rashes
8. Thrush in the mouth and throat
9. Loss of hair
10. Genital rashes
11. Swollen glands especially in the neck and armpits.

EFFECTS OF HIV AND AIDS
(i) Chest infections such as pneumonia and tuberculosis.
(ii) Brain infections (mental confusion)
(iii) Stomach infections leading to diarrhea.
(iv) Skin cancer. For example, Kaposi’s Sarcoma.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF HIV/AIDS
(i) Use the ABC method to prevent the disease:
Whereby: A-Abstain from sex
B- Be faithful to your only partner
C- use Condom.
(ii) Avoid sharing sharp tools with the infected individuals.
(iii) Use safe blood during blood transfusion.
(iv) Pregnant should attend clinic for treatment.
(v) Avoid risk behaviours and practices such as drug abuse,
prostitution, rape, anal sex, oral sex that may enhance HIV
transmission.
MANAGEMENT OF STIS AND HIV/AIDS
Ways to avoid risk behaviours.
(i) Abstain from sex before marriage.
(ii) Applying non-penetrative sex, such as kissing and hugging.
(iii) Delaying technique; for example, I am required at home just now
let’s meet tomorrow.
(iv) Discouraging/negative words; for example, I am HIV positive
(v) Discouraging peer pressure.
(vi) Engaging in sports and games which distract one’s mind from
concentrating to sex.
(vii)Showing a sense of dislike to express the way you are by wearing
T-shirts, caps with various messages such as ‘say no to sex’,
‘practice safe sex’, ‘AIDS kills’ and others.
NECESSARY SKILLS FOR AVOIDING RISKY BEHAVIOURS, PRACTICES AND
SITUATIONS
1. Avoid sexual intercourse. It is possible to live a healthy normal
life without having sexual intercourse.
2. Use a condom correctly, every time you have vaginal sex.
3. Avoid multiple partners.
4. Avoid alcohol and drug abuse as they affect decision-making.

5. Avoid sharing needles and other skin piercing tools.
6. Avoid contracting other STIs because they increase the chances of
HIV and AIDS infection.
7. Avoid risky behaviours such as going to night clubs, negative peer
pressure and taking alcohol or drug abuse.
8. Prevent mother to child transmission by encouraging the use of
alternative feeding (milk) instead of breastfeeding.
9. Prevent transmission through organ and tissue transplants by
screening both the donor and the patient.
10. Encourage effective treatment of the victim.
CARE AND SUPPORT OF PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS (PLWHA)
IMPORTANCE OF CARE AND SUPPORT TO PEOPLE WITH HIV/AIDS (PLWHA)
1. It enables them to prolong their lives in case they are administered
with ARVs.
2. It reduces fear of death.
3. It enables them to perform their daily activities without fear.
4. It reduces depression and self-dislike.
NECESSARY CARE AND SUPPORT SERVICES PROVIDED TO PEOPLE LIVING WITH
HIV/AIDS IN THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND AT SCHOOL.
1. show love, respect and support;
2. know the facts about HIV/AIDS and talking openly about the
disease.
3. Help to reduce stress and stressful situations.
4. Help to provide balanced and nutritious meals.
5. Seek for support from family and friends as well as from other
people who are HIV positive.
6. Encourage them to live with hope;
7. Do not stop them from doing things they like.
8. Spend time with the sick person. For example, help them to
prepare their meals, clean their rooms, make their beds and take
them to a walk if they can walk.
9. Encourage them to get treatment if they are sick.
10. Clean their houses, utensils, clothes, among others.
11. Try to relieve any pain the person may be feeling, for example by
administering painkillers.
12. Treat them with respect and dignity making them as comfortable
as possible.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS AND STIS
1. Do not touch body fluids such as blood, stool and urine with bare
hands, instead use gloves to assure self-protection.
2. Wash the gloves or plastic bags in hot water every time after use.
3. Wash the bedding and clothes with soap. Hang them where there
is a plenty of sunshine and air circulation to dry well.
4. Do not share toothbrushes, razors, skin piecing instruments, or
needles.
5. Cover your wounds with a clean and sterile bandage.
6. Dispose off properly the vomits or bandages used when dressing
wounds.
7. Learn about the ways HIV can and cannot be transmitted.
THE EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION AND STIGMA TO PEOPLE LIVING WITH
HIV/AIDS TO THE INDIVIDUAL, FAMILY AND SOCIETY
1. Loss of income and livelihood.
2. Loss of marriage and childbearing options.
3. Poor care within the health sector.
4. Withdrawal of caregiving in the home.
5. Loss of hope and feelings of worthlessness.
6. Loss of reputation.

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
THE CONCEPT OF CELL
A cell is the smallest unit of living things or a cell is a basic unit of life.
Bodies of Plants and animals are made up of cells. The cells are
microscopic; hence, they cannot be seen by naked eyes.
SINGLE-CELLED OR UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
These are organisms whose bodies are made up of one cell or single cell.
Such organisms are like protozoa, diatoms and bacteria.
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
These are organisms whose bodies are made up of many cells.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CELL
1. Cells cannot be seen by naked eyes because of being smallest.
2. Cells are capable of dividing by mitotic process or meiotic
process.
3. Cells contain structures called organelles.
The cell theory - it states that:-
(i) All living things compose of cells.
(ii) All cells are produced from others.
(iii) Cells contain inherited information which controls their activities.
(iv) All cells have the same chemical composition.
(v) All life processes take place in the cell.
(vi) A cell is a basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
TYPES OF CELL
(i) EUKARYOTIC CELL
This is a cell found in organisms called eukaryotes. It can be in a
unicellular (amoeba) or in multicellular organisms (animals and
plants).
CHARACTERISTICS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL
(a) They have a membrane-bound nucleus.
(b) They are bigger and complex than prokaryotic cell.
(c) They have Organelles surrounded by envelopes.
(d) They reproduce by either sexual or asexual means.
(ii) PROKARYOTIC CELLS

These are are cells found in unicellular organisms (prokaryotes) such
as a (bacteria).
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
(a) They do not have nucleus.
(b) They do not have membrane bound organelles such as
mitochondria or Golgi bodies.
(c) They reproduce by binary fission or by conjugation to provide
two identical cells.
(d) They have flagella for locomotion or pili for attachment.
(e) They can be rod-shaped, spherical or spiral in shape.
ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
MAIN PARTS OF A CELL
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
ANIMAL CELLS
1. Cell membrane (plasmalemma)
This is a thin flexible membrane made of protein and lipid. It has the
following functions:
(i) The cell membrane encloses the contents of the cell.
(ii) It is only permeable to water and gases and selectively
permeable to other molecules; for example, it allows food in
but keeps unwanted molecules out. Thus the cell membrane
controls the substances entering and leaving the cell.
2. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a transparent jelly-like fluid. Cytoplasm may contain
particles such as chloroplasts or starch grains or oil droplets. It is a
place where chemical reactions take place. It encloses vacuoles,
nucleus and mitochondria.
3. Nucleus
This is a ball-shaped or oval body located inside the cytoplasm. It is
made up of nucleolus and nucleoplasm fluid. It is surrounded by
nuclear membrane. The nucleus is a cell control centre.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NUCLEUS:
(i) It controls the formation and development of a cell.
(ii) Controls chemical processes in the cell.
(iii) Controls the functions of all parts of the cell.
(iv) Determines cell size, shape and function.
(v) Determine the hereditary characteristics (DNA) of a cell.
4. Vacuole
This is a fluid-filled spaces bound by a membrane. It is secretes and
excretes wastes from the cell and it is responsible for food storage and
osmoregulation.
5. Mitochondria (mitochondrion)
These are oval-shaped organelles that have two membranes. The outer
membrane is smooth and the inner membrane has folds (cristae).
Mitochondrion is responsible for respiration that produces energy
(ATP) for cell functions.
PLANT CELL
Plant cell consists of cell membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus and
mitochondria. Some plants have centrioles while others do not. The
functions of organelles are the same to that of animal cell.
1. Cell wall
This is a strong cover made of cellulose surrounding the cell
membrane. It allows the passage of water and minerals. It protects,
supports the cell and gives the cell its shape.
2. Chloroplast – is the oval organelle containing green pigment
(chlorophyll). It is responsible in photosynthesis of the plant.

3. Cell sap vacuole – this is the large and permanent vacuole in the
central part of the cell. It contains a sap and surrounded by a
membrane called tonoplast. A sap is filled with water helping plants
retain shapes and remain upright.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CELL WALL AND CELL MEMBRANE
Cell wall Cell membrane
It is a non–living structure It is a living structure
It is made up of cellulose It is made up of lipoprotein
It is freely permeable It is selectively permeable
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELLS
1. Both have cell membranes
2. Both contain cytoplasm
3. Both have nucleus
4. Both have mitochondria
5. Both have Golgi bodies
6. Both have ribosome
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELLS
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Have definite shape Have no definite shape
Have chloroplasts Have no chloroplasts
Have large permanent vacuoles Have small temporary vacuoles or no.
Controls usually absent Controls present
it moves Does not move
The nucleus is located at the periphery The nucleus is centrally located
Stores food in form of starch grains Store food in form of glycogen

CELL DIFFERENTIATION (DIVISION OF LABOUR)
This is the specialization of a cell to perform a particular function within
the organism. Or Cell differentiation is the process by which cells become
specialized in order to perform different functions. Similarly, the special
functions of mitochondria, ribosome and other cell organelles may be
termed as division of labour within the cell.
CELL ORGANIZATION
Cells of living things are organized as follow:-
Tissue – is a group of cells that perform the same function.
Examples of tissues are:
For animal include
(i) Bon,
(ii) Muscle and
(iii) Skin
For plant include:
(i) Xylem
(ii) Phloem
An organ – is a group of tissues working together to perform a certain
function.
Animal organs include:-
a. Heart
b. Liver
c. Brain
Plant organs include:
(i) Stem
(ii) Flowers
(iii) Roots
A system is a group of organs working together to perform a certain
function. For example, blood circulatory system consists of the heart and
blood vessels working together to supply blood to all parts of the body.
An organism is a collection of different systems working together.
Therefore, there is a special organization from the cell to the organisms as
shown below:-
Cell Tissue Organ System Organism
THE IMPORTANCE OF CELL DIFFERENTIATION
(i) It leads to division of labour in which each cell does a specific
function.
(ii) In helps the body to carry out all life processes at the same time.
(iii) It enables all body functions to be performed efficiently.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
CONCEPT OF CLASSIFICATION
This is the grouping of organisms based on their similarities and
differences. Similar organisms are placed in one group.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS
1. Classification simplifies the study of living things.
2. Classification makes communication easy among biologists from
different parts of the world.
3. It provides good organized system in which a newly identified
organism can be easily fitted in future.
4. It makes it easier to identify organisms
5. It helps to scientific to predict characteristics of the same
organisms.
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
There are two types of classification
1. Artificial classification
2. Natural classification
1. ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION
This is the classification that groups organisms according to
observable features. For example, the presence of legs or wings
results to grouping of organism accordingly.
ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
(i) It is easy to use since it considers observable features, such as
legs, feathers and others.
(ii) It is not time consuming.
(iii) It is cheap as no skillful person needed.
(iv) It is stable because it is not easily changing from time to time.
DISADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
(i) It places related organisms into different groups instead of
being grouped together. For example, a bat is grouped into
birds instead of mammals.

(ii) Different organisms may be placed in the same group. For
example, bats placed in a group of birds, worms placed with
snakes in the same group.
(iii) It bases on the scientist’s interest.
(iv) It less accurate because of using few observable
characteristics.
(v) It is difficult to incorporate additional information.
2. NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
This is the grouping of organism according to external and
internal features.
In this system organisms are grouped according to:-
(i) Biological processes such as reproduction and
respiration.
(ii) Biochemical activities; such as photosynthesis.
(iii) Development of embryos.
(iv) Internal and external structure.
ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
(i) Closely related organisms are placed in the same group.
(ii) Unrelated organisms cannot be placed in the same group.
(iii) It incorporates deep knowledge through research.
(iv) It is easy to incorporate additional information.
DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
(i) It is difficult since it considers many features.
(ii) It requires high knowledge about organisms.
(iii) It is time consuming.
(iv) It is relatively unstable i.e. it changes from time to time.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NATURAL CLASSIFICATION AND ARTIFICIAL
CLASSIFICATION
Artificial classification Natural classification
(i) Considers few features in
common
Considers many features in
common
(ii) Does not reflect on
evolutionary relationships
Reflects on evolutionary
relationships
(iii) It is easy to classify It is difficult to classify
(iv) Not time consuming It is time consuming
(v) Does not require expertise Requires expertise
(vi) New information cannot be
added
New information can be added.

MAJOR GROUPS OF LIVING THINGS
Organisms are classified into five major groups called kingdoms. Such
kingdoms include:-
1. Kingdom monera. It also devided ito:-
(i) Kingdom animalia – divides into phylum.
(ii) Kingdom plantae – divides into division.
Phyla or divisions divide into classes, classes form
orders, orders form families and families form genera
(genus). Genus subdivides into species. This rank of
classification is known as taxonomic unit or taxa.
The diagram to show Taxonomic Unit or taxa
2. Kingdom protoctista
3. Kingdom fungi
4. Kingdom plantae
5. Kingdom animalia
CLASSIFICATION OF SOME COMMON ORGANISMS
Taxonomic
Unit
Human
Being
Dog Maize Plant Eucalyptus
tree
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Plantae
Phylum/division Chordata Chordata Spermatophyta Spermatophyta
Class Mammalia Mammalia Angiospermae Magnoliopsida
Order Primate Carnivore Graminales Myrtales

Family Hominidae Canidae graminaceae Myrtaceae
Genus Homo Canis Zea Eucalyptus
Species Sapience Familiaris Mays Regnans
Scientific name Homo
sapiens
Canis
familiaris
Zea mays Eucalyptus
regnans
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
This is the scientific naming of organisms using a name with two Latin
words. Scientific name has two parts:-
(a) Generic name – is the first part of the Latin name which represents
genus.
(b) Specific name – is the second part, which represents the species. For
example, ‘Homo sapiens’ is the scientific name of human being.
Homo is the ‘generic name’ and ‘sapiens’ is the specific name.
RULES FOR WRITING SCIENTIFIC NAME
(i) Generic name is written before specific name.
(ii) Generic name must begin with the capital letter.
(iii) Specific names must begin with small letter.
(iv) Scientific name is italicized in published document.
(v) Must be in Latin language.
(vi) Specific name accompanies author’s name of a person who
created it.
SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF COMMON ORGANISMS
Common name Scientific name
Earthworm Lumbricus terrestris
Cockroach Periplaneta americana
Amoeba Amoeba proteus
Coffee Coffea arabica
Maize Zea mays
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris
Domestic cat Felis catus
Sisal Agave sisalana
Ashok tree Polyanthia longifolia
Housefly Musca domestica
Neem tree Azadirachta indica
Flamboyant
(Christmas tree)
Delonix regia
Tropical almond
(mkungu)
Terminalia catapa

VIRUSES, KINGDOM MONERA AND KINGDOM
PROTOCTISTA
VIRUS
This is the smallest microorganism. The study of virus is called virology.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES
1. They are smallest living organisms.
2. Viruses do not have cellular structures, as they do not have
nucleus, cytoplasm, golgi bodies, etc.
3. They are parasitic as they reproduce inside the living cells.
4. They consist either a DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein or
lipoprotein coat.
5. They are living or non-living.
6. They are highly specific to their hosts, for example, each virus
recognizes only certain types of cells.
7. Viruses are capable of replicating themselves only when they are
inside the host cell.
VIRUSES AS LIVING THINGS
1. They possess genetic material (RNA or DNA).
2. They reproduce in the host cell (replication).
3. They are capable of identifying their hosts and attack them.
4. They undergo different changes in shape (mutation).
5. They are specific to host like other parasites.
VIRUSES AS NON-LIVING THINGS
1. They crystallize outside the host.
2. They are metabolically inert in isolation.
3. They are non-cellular i.e. they lack cell organelles.
4. They do not perform necessary life processes such as respiration,
excretion nutrition etc.
BACTERIOPHAGE
Bacteriophage is a virus that attacks and kills bacteria. Some of them have
head with a tail sheath.

Bacteriophage
ADVANTAGES OF VIRUSES
1. Viruses are used in developing vaccines, for example, vaccines
for measles, polio and rubella.
2. Viruses are used as biological weapons to kill organisms.
3. They are used as to transfer genes from one organism to another
for improving or treating the defective genes.
4. They help in controlling infections and diseases from bacteria.
5. Viruses are used as weapons in wars and in pest control.
DISADVANTAGES OF VIRUSES
1. They cause diseases to both plants and animals. Examples are
tomato mosaic, cassava mosaic and tobacco mosaic; and animal
diseases are such as measles and small pox.
2. They are difficult to destroy.
KINGDOM MONERA
This kingdom consists of bacteria and blue-green bacteria. The scientific
study of bacteria is known as bacteriology.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KINGDOM MONERA
1. They are mainly unicellular and very small.
2. They are prokaryotic
3. They reproduce by binary fission.
4. Some are autotrophs while others are heterotrophs.
5. They have cell wall made up of protein material and sometimes
lipids.
6. Some have flagella for movement.
7. They have different shape, especially during extreme conditions;
For example, high or low temperatures.
8. Some are aerobes while others are anaerobes.
9. They have a DNA is scattered in the cytoplasm.

10. They lack internal membrane bound organelles such as
mitochondria, chloroplasts.
FORMS OF BACTERIA
There are four main forms with various shapes of bacteria as illustrated
below.
Forms Division Structure Effect
Coccus(plural:cocci)
Micrococcus They cause
sore throat.
Diplococci They cause
pneumonia.
Streptococci Cause sore
throat.
Staphylococci Cause boils,
pneumonia,
food
poisoning
and other
diseases.
Bacilli
(singular:bacillus)
Single rods
(Escherichia coli,
Salmonella typhi)
Cause
typhoid fever.
Rods in chain
(Azotobacter and
Bacillus anthracis)
They cause
anthrax.
Bacilli with
endospores
Central (Bacillus anthracis) Causes
anthrax

Spherical spore, terminal
swollen (Clostridium tetani)
Causes
tetanus
Sub-terminal, swollen
(Clostridium botulism)
Causes
botulism.
Spirilla(singu
lar:spirillum)
Cause
syphilis
SprrillaVibrio(Vibrio
cholerae)
Cause
cholera.
TYPES OF BACTERIA
1. Pathogenic bacteria – are bacteria that cause disease. Example of
plant diseases includes leaf spot, potato blight and tobacco
mosaic. Bacterial diseases for animals include tuberculosis,
typhoid, tetanus, anthrax, cholera, syphilis and gonorrhoea.
2. Non-pathogenic bacteria – are bacteria that do not cause diseases.
THE ADVANTAGES OF KINGDOM MONERA
(i) Helps to clean environment. Since, bacteria neutralize
harmful environment.
(ii) Helps animal to digest food.
(iii) Converts nitrogen to nitrates and provide nutrients to plant
growth.
(iv) Helps the decomposition of dead bodies.
(v) Influences fermentation for the production of cheese,
yoghurt, vinegar and alcohol.
(vi) Helps to produce antibiotics for treating bacterial infections.
(vii) It provides oxygen during photosynthesis vital for respiration.

DISADVANTAGE OF KINGDOM MONERA
(i) Cause infections and diseases.
(ii) Decay and spoil food.
(iii) Reduces nutrients as bacteri convert nitrate to nitrogen.
KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Members of this kingdom include amoeba, paramecia, plasmodia,
trypanosome and euglena.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
1. They are eukaryotic.
2. Most are unicellular and some are multicellular organisms.
3. They live in water or moist places.
4. Some produce their own food (autotrophs) while other obtains
nutrients from other organisms.
5. Some can move while others do not.
6. They can reproduce sexually or asexually.
7. Most of them have locomotory structures such as cilia or flagella.
PHYLA OF THE KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Phylum Example
Rhizopoda Amoeba
Apicomplexa Plasmodium
Euglenophyta Euglena
Ciliophora Paramecium
Zoomastigina Trypanosoma
THE PHYLA OF KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
1. AMOEBA
These are the free-living unicellular organisms. They are found in
ponds and ditches.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AMOEBA
(i) Have two layers of cytoplasm. Outer layer (ectoplasm) inner
layer (endoplasm).
(ii) They live in salt or fresh water.
(iii) They have pseudopodia for locomotion and feeding.
(iv) They have temporary food vacuole.
(v) Their waste product is urea and ammonia secreted through
diffusion.

(vi) They reproduce by binary fission.
(vii) They have contractile vacuole to regulate amount of fresh
water.
ADVANTAGES OF AMOEBA
(i) Help to study cell structure and function in the laboratories.
DISADVANTAGES
(i) They cause diseases, such as amoebic dysentery, teeth and
gum diseases; in human being.
Diagram of Amoeba
PLASMODIUM
This is the parasite that causes malaria in human beings. It is transmitted
by sandflies or anopheles mosquitos.
Diagram of Plasmodium
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMODIUM
(i) They are unicellular.
(ii) They are parasite.
(iii) They reproduce sexually in vector and asexually in the host.
(iv) They attack red blood cells and liver in man.
EFFECTS OF PLASMODIUM
(i) They cause malaria disease.
(ii) Cause difficult vaccine development against malaria due to their
changes in life cycle.

EUGLENA
It belongs to phylum Euglenophyta.
CHARACTERISTICS
(i) They are unicellular.
(ii) Live in both fresh and salt water.
(iii) They move using flagella.
(iv) They have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
(v) They reproduce asexually.
ADVANTAGES OF EUGLENA
(i) They produce oxygen through photosynthesis.
(ii) They are food for aquatic organisms, such as fish.
DISADVANTAGES OF EUGLENA
(i) Euglena blooms produce toxins that aquatic organisms such as
fish.
Diagram of Paramecium

CHARACTERISTICS OF PARAMECIUM
(i) They are unicellular and slipper in shape.
(ii) They are heterotrophic.
(iii) They live in water.
(iv) They use cilia to move and feed.
(v) They have oral groove as a site for feeding.
(vi) They feed on bacteria and other microorganisms.
(vii) They egest through anal pore.
(viii) They reproduce either sexually or asexually.
(ix) Have contractile vacuole to regulate water in cytoplasm.
ADVANTAGES OF PARAMECIUM
(i) They are used as food by small animals in water.
DISADVANTAGES OF PARAMECIUM
(i) They cause intestinal and balantidiasis diseases.
(ii) They feed bacteria that are responsible for sewage decomposition.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, Zanzibar (2008). Biology
for Secondary Schools Forms 1 & 2. Oxford University Press.
Magasi C. S. (2008). New Essentials of Biology for Secondary Schools:
Book One. Nyambari Nyangwine Publishers; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Mackean, D. G. (1997). Introduction to Biology, 3rd
Ed. Great Britain: John
Murray Publishers Ltd.
Most of the diagrams were retrieved from the following link:
(https://www.google.com/search?client)

Biology Form One

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