The memorandum recommends that the Washington Department of Natural Resources increase their use of prescribed fires to help prevent future wildfires. Climate change is expected to significantly increase wildfire risks in the state. Prescribed fires can reduce wildfire risks and costs by removing hazardous vegetation. They are also more cost-effective than mechanical thinning alone. However, strict smoke limitations have prevented widespread use of prescribed fires. The memorandum argues the economic and environmental benefits of prescribed fires outweigh the costs if implemented appropriately.
1: Strong Public Private Partnerships
2: Resilience in the Built Environment
3: Risk‐sensitive Investments and Accounting
4: Positive Cycle of Reinforcement for a Resilient Society
5: Private Sector Risk Disclosure
Grand Challenges for Disaster ReductionFrancisYee1
The Grand Challenges for Disaster Reduction outlines a ten-year
strategy crafted by the National Science and Technology Council’s
Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction (SDR). It sets forth six Grand
Challenges that, when addressed, will enhance community
resilience to disasters and thus create a more disaster-resilient
Nation. These Grand Challenges require sustained Federal
investment as well as collaborations with state and local
governments, professional societies and trade associations, the
private sector, academia, and the international community to
successfully transfer disaster reduction science and technology
into common use.
To meet these Challenges, the SDR has identified priority science and technology
interagency implementation actions by hazard that build upon ongoing efforts.
Addressing these implementation actions will improve America’s capacity to prevent and
recover from disasters, thus fulfilling our Nation’s commitment to reducing the impacts
of all hazards and enhancing the safety and economic well-being of every individual
and community. This is the wildland fire-specific implementation plan. See also sdr.gov
for other hazard-specific implementation plans.
Changes in climate will also influence the future occurrence of wildfire and the area burned through various pathways that involve weather conditions conducive to combustion, fuels to burn and ignition agents. As humans manage fire in most parts of the world, the resulting changes in fire occurrence patterns will also be contingent on human activity, government policies, and institutional development. The Provincial Veld Fire Management Plan(VFRP) is aimed at healthier veld and farmlands ecosystems; communities that are less at risk from fire and smoke; and a more cost-effective fire suppression program. This contingency plan is based upon relevant provisions in the National Veld fire Strategy, National Veld and Forest Fire Act No. 101 of 1998 (as amended) and it is also intended to provide an assessment at the policy level, to support operational assessments and mitigation plans in the provincial and local spheres of government.
This presentation looks at Eco Terrorism:
Eco Terrorism is growing in terms of risk. All level of government need to look at the issues including water management, land management, forest management and building codes
CO2 is the cop put, why? It is easy to blame CO2 on natural disaster vs the real issue which is urban planning.
All level of governments are failing to do proper risk management plans in terms of mitigating impact of disasters.
1: Strong Public Private Partnerships
2: Resilience in the Built Environment
3: Risk‐sensitive Investments and Accounting
4: Positive Cycle of Reinforcement for a Resilient Society
5: Private Sector Risk Disclosure
Grand Challenges for Disaster ReductionFrancisYee1
The Grand Challenges for Disaster Reduction outlines a ten-year
strategy crafted by the National Science and Technology Council’s
Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction (SDR). It sets forth six Grand
Challenges that, when addressed, will enhance community
resilience to disasters and thus create a more disaster-resilient
Nation. These Grand Challenges require sustained Federal
investment as well as collaborations with state and local
governments, professional societies and trade associations, the
private sector, academia, and the international community to
successfully transfer disaster reduction science and technology
into common use.
To meet these Challenges, the SDR has identified priority science and technology
interagency implementation actions by hazard that build upon ongoing efforts.
Addressing these implementation actions will improve America’s capacity to prevent and
recover from disasters, thus fulfilling our Nation’s commitment to reducing the impacts
of all hazards and enhancing the safety and economic well-being of every individual
and community. This is the wildland fire-specific implementation plan. See also sdr.gov
for other hazard-specific implementation plans.
Changes in climate will also influence the future occurrence of wildfire and the area burned through various pathways that involve weather conditions conducive to combustion, fuels to burn and ignition agents. As humans manage fire in most parts of the world, the resulting changes in fire occurrence patterns will also be contingent on human activity, government policies, and institutional development. The Provincial Veld Fire Management Plan(VFRP) is aimed at healthier veld and farmlands ecosystems; communities that are less at risk from fire and smoke; and a more cost-effective fire suppression program. This contingency plan is based upon relevant provisions in the National Veld fire Strategy, National Veld and Forest Fire Act No. 101 of 1998 (as amended) and it is also intended to provide an assessment at the policy level, to support operational assessments and mitigation plans in the provincial and local spheres of government.
This presentation looks at Eco Terrorism:
Eco Terrorism is growing in terms of risk. All level of government need to look at the issues including water management, land management, forest management and building codes
CO2 is the cop put, why? It is easy to blame CO2 on natural disaster vs the real issue which is urban planning.
All level of governments are failing to do proper risk management plans in terms of mitigating impact of disasters.
This presentation looks at Eco Terrorism
Eco Terrorism is growing in terms of risk. All level of government need to look at the issues including water management, land management, forest management and building codes
More radical environmentalists are trying to hijack the government agenda when it comes to environment.
Many forest fires have been link to people setting them as part creating disruption within government
CO2 is the cop put, why? It is easy to blame CO2 on natural disaster vs the real issue which is urban planning.
All level of governments are failing to do proper risk management plans in terms of mitigating impact of disasters.
From Local to Global: Realizing Water Security for Sustainable Development - ...Global Water Partnership
Presentation at the European River Restoration Conference in Vienna on 27 October 2014: "From Local to Global: Realizing Water Security for Sustainable Development", by GWP Executive Secretary Dr. Ania Grobicki.
Barrier Analyses and Enabling Framework Report for the Prioritized technologi...Dr. Joshua Zake
This presentation was prepared and delivered during the national stakeholder’s workshop on barrier analyses and enabling framework for prioritized technologies for advancing climate change adaptation in the Agriculture, Forestry & Water sectors and mitigation in the Energy sector in Uganda.
The meeting was organized by the Uganda National Council of Science and Technology (UNCST) in collaboration with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovations (MoSTI). It was held on 16-17th March 2020 1t UNCST offices in Ntinda, Kampala, Uganda.
Personal Health Records reduce risk, lower emissions, and improve patient-doc...mikekoz
Personal health records provide a valuable mix of tools in telemedicine that can help doctors and hospitals meet global resource challenges looming ahead. Through patient participation, doctors can leverage the time that patients take to complete detailed health histories so that they can focus on patient exams, justify their coding, and educating their patients. All of these functions help doctors save time and money, empower patients and contribute to minimizing the carbon footprint of in-person visits.
This presentation looks at Eco Terrorism
Eco Terrorism is growing in terms of risk. All level of government need to look at the issues including water management, land management, forest management and building codes
More radical environmentalists are trying to hijack the government agenda when it comes to environment.
Many forest fires have been link to people setting them as part creating disruption within government
CO2 is the cop put, why? It is easy to blame CO2 on natural disaster vs the real issue which is urban planning.
All level of governments are failing to do proper risk management plans in terms of mitigating impact of disasters.
From Local to Global: Realizing Water Security for Sustainable Development - ...Global Water Partnership
Presentation at the European River Restoration Conference in Vienna on 27 October 2014: "From Local to Global: Realizing Water Security for Sustainable Development", by GWP Executive Secretary Dr. Ania Grobicki.
Barrier Analyses and Enabling Framework Report for the Prioritized technologi...Dr. Joshua Zake
This presentation was prepared and delivered during the national stakeholder’s workshop on barrier analyses and enabling framework for prioritized technologies for advancing climate change adaptation in the Agriculture, Forestry & Water sectors and mitigation in the Energy sector in Uganda.
The meeting was organized by the Uganda National Council of Science and Technology (UNCST) in collaboration with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovations (MoSTI). It was held on 16-17th March 2020 1t UNCST offices in Ntinda, Kampala, Uganda.
Personal Health Records reduce risk, lower emissions, and improve patient-doc...mikekoz
Personal health records provide a valuable mix of tools in telemedicine that can help doctors and hospitals meet global resource challenges looming ahead. Through patient participation, doctors can leverage the time that patients take to complete detailed health histories so that they can focus on patient exams, justify their coding, and educating their patients. All of these functions help doctors save time and money, empower patients and contribute to minimizing the carbon footprint of in-person visits.
Perth College UHI students Physical Activity project with Older Adults in Car...Alison Clyde
Perth
College
UHI
students
and
staff
will
share
their
experiences
about
their
exciting
physical
activity
project
where
they
worked
with
older
adults
in
care
homes.
They
will
cover
how
they
set
up
the
12-‐week
project
with
the
NHS
and
local
leisure
provider,
Live
Active
Leisure
and
how
they
overcame
the
barriers
to
deliver
their
successful
intervention.
The
students
plan
to
share
their
thoughts
about
how
they
felt
working
with
older
adults
as
well
as
the
feedback
they
gained
from
all
involved.
OECD Green Talks LIVE - Taming Wildfires in the Context of Climate ChangeOECD Environment
Fuelled by climate change, the occurrence of extreme wildfires is growing with unprecedented damages and impacts on communities, the environment and economies. Under future projected warming scenarios, wildfire frequency and severity are estimated to increase, calling for a fundamental shift in wildfire management to focus on climate change adaptation and wildfire risk prevention.
How does climate change affect the occurrence of extreme wildfires? What are the losses and costs observed during recent extreme wildfire events and what can be expected for the future? How are countries’ policies and practices evolving in the face of increased wildfire risk and how can they scale up climate adaptation efforts and limit future wildfire costs?
On 14 September 2023, the OECD Green Talks LIVE series featured a discussion on how to prevent extreme wildfires in the context of a changing climate. Along with a panel of wildfire scientists and country experts, OECD analysts presented key findings and recommendations from the recent OECD report Taming Wildfires in the Context of Climate Change, launched at the 8th International Wildland Fire Conference in Portugal in May 2023.
The report provides a global assessment of wildfire risks in the context of climate change to shed light on the potentially irreversible impacts extreme wildfires may trigger. The OECD worked closely together with Australia, Costa Rica, Greece, Portugal and the United States as well as with the OECD Task Force on Climate Change Adaptation to assess how wildfire management policies and practices need to be adapted to contain future wildfire damages. It summarises the main findings of this work and presents recommendations to support countries in building climate resilience to extreme wildfires.
This is Cat Tales, the e-newsletter of the Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction, for March/April 2015. Included in this issue: Under development: The growing use of planning tools, including development permits, to address wildfire risk to communities; New Global Alliance of Disaster Research Institutes formed; Book excerpt: Flood Forecast; and, ICLR’s Paul Kovacs opens Premiers’ climate change summit.
This presentation looks at Eco Terrorism
Eco Terrorism is growing in terms of risk. All level of government need to look at the issues including water management, land management, forest management and building codes
More radical environmentalists are trying to hijack the government agenda when it comes to environment.
Many forest fires have been link to people setting them as part creating disruption within government
CO2 is the cop put, why? It is easy to blame CO2 on natural disaster vs the real issue which is urban planning.
All level of governments are failing to do proper risk management plans in terms of mitigating impact of disasters.
1: Strong Public Private Partnerships
2: Resilience in the Built Environment
3: Risk‐sensitive Investments and Accounting
4: Positive Cycle of Reinforcement for a Resilient Society
5: Private Sector Risk Disclosure
Forest Management: Climate Change Practices around the Worldpaul young cpa, cga
Environmentalists never discuss carbon absorption by plant life including forests - https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29601644
Climate always changes - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9eQNZu9Sog
Canada may already be carbon neutral - http://business.financialpost.com/opinion/canada-may-already-be-carbon-neutral-so-why-are-we-keeping-it-a-secret
All levels of govts have to revisit how they managed all aspects of their land as well as urban planning
Environmentalists never discuss carbon absorption by plant life including forests - https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29601644
Climate always changes - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9eQNZu9Sog
Canada may already be carbon neutral - http://business.financialpost.com/opinion/canada-may-already-be-carbon-neutral-so-why-are-we-keeping-it-a-secret
All levels of govts have to revisit how they managed all aspects of their land as well as urban planning.
Environmentalists never discuss carbon absorption by plant life including forests - https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29601644
Climate always changes - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9eQNZu9Sog or
Canada may already be carbon neutral - http://business.financialpost.com/opinion/canada-may-already-be-carbon-neutral-so-why-are-we-keeping-it-a-secret
Not enough is being said about either eco-terrorism or poor urban planning
Environmentalists never discuss carbon absorption by plant life including forests - https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29601644
Climate always changes - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9eQNZu9Sog
Canada may already be carbon neutral - http://business.financialpost.com/opinion/canada-may-already-be-carbon-neutral-so-why-are-we-keeping-it-a-secret
All levels of govts have to revisit how they managed all aspects of their land as well as urban planning.
Disaster Logistics Management Evaluation Criteria
In Module 2 SLP, evaluation criteria were developed for the different phases of a disaster. In this SLP, we will now use the criteria developed to assess for management success or failure. First, disasters will be reviewed, and then further research and analysis will need to be accomplished to assess each disaster logistics management.
1. Review three relatively recent widespread US disasters and very briefly describe the event to include when, where, what, type of disaster, damage, fatalities. This can be done in outline form.
2. Develop a table and briefly assess each for logistical management success or failure in each of the phases (preparedness, response, and recovery) based on the criteria developed in Module 2 SLP. Justify your answers.
3. Select one of the disasters evaluated and further discuss some lessons learned for each phase of logistics management at the federal, state, and local levels.
4. For the chosen disaster, what additional actions could be taken by NGOs?
Properly cite your quotations that you use to support your statements. Use in-text references as needed to support your points.
Module 3 SLP 3 4
Disaster Management
Recently Widespread Disasters in the United States
Some of the widespread disasters in the United States include; wildfires, tornadoes, hurricanes, and winter storms. Wildfires have become a common occurrence in the United States. For instance, in the year 2021, wildfires began in the central and western parts of Kansas. The fire resulted in the death of two individuals and injuries to three other individuals. It is also prudent to note that the wildfires destroyed approximately 163,000 acres of wildlife and about 42 structures. The second form of widespread disaster in the United States is tornadoes (LeComte, 2019). The most recent tornado occurred on December 10th, 2021 in Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas. This disaster led to the deaths of approximately 90 individuals and injured many more. Hurricanes have also become one of the most widespread disasters in the United States due to the proximity of most states to water bodies. The most recent hurricane popularly known as hurricane Ida occurred and caused mass destruction along the gulf coast of Louisiana after which it moved north and led to the flooding of households. This hurricane led to the deaths of close to 115 individuals and serious destruction as well. The final widespread disaster in the United States is Winter storms. The most common winter storm occurred on February 13th, 2021. The worst hit state was Texas since it faced a power crisis due to the storms. The storms led to the deaths of 223 individuals.
An assessment of each disaster and how the Government responded to it
Disasters
Assessment of the disasters
Management Failures
Management Successes
Justification
Wildfires
Wildfires occur often in the United States. The most recent one occurred in .
Similar to BCA for Prescribed Fires for the Washington DNR (20)
1. MEMORANDUM
From: Ken Mullins, U.S. Forest Service Policy Analyst
To: Washington Department of Natural Resources
Date: December 15, 2015
Re: Benefit-Cost Analysis for Prescribed Fires
______________________________________________________________________________
Increased summer temperatures, lower soil moistures, and higher evaporation rates are expected
to increase the annual acreage burned by wildfires across eastern Washington by 50% by 2020
and by more than 300% by 2100.1
This requires the Washington Department of Natural
Resources (DNR) to shift their attention from wildfire suppression to wildfire prevention
techniques. To prevent damage from future wildfires, the U.S. Forest Service recommends that
the DNR use prescribed fires in combination with mechanical thinning.
Current Prevention Programs within the DNR
In January, the DNR requested $17 million for mechanical thinning of forests and $3 million for
replanting areas damaged by wildfires from the State Legislature for the next two years, but
received only $10 million. With limited funding, the DNR thinned 5,300 acres annually2
in the
last five years. State officials estimate that more than 4,200 square miles (about 2.8 million
acres)3
of forests in eastern Washington require thinning or planting of fire- and insect-resistant
species, mechanical thinning alone is not an efficient or cost-effective technique.
Prescribed Fires: Benefits
Due to strict limitations enforced by the DNR that prevent smoke from drifting into
communities, the Forest Service burned only 1.4% of the 9.3 million acres of federal lands in
Washington between 2001 and 2014.4
With these limitations, the DNR is losing the potential
benefits of prescribed fires, which include:
● Reducing wildfire risk;
● Reducing suppression costs;
● Minimizing the spread of insects and disease; and
● Increasing economic benefits.
Wildfire Risk
By removing underbrush, small shrubs,
heavy vegetation, downed trees, and
ladder fuels, prescribed fires reduce
wildfire risk for at least 3 years5
(Figure A). Preventing small
wildfires are particularly important
because the cost per acre of
wildfires decreases with size. Data
from the Okanogan National Forest
concluded that small wildfires (<10
acres) cost $5,400 per acre, mid-
sized fires (10 – 100 acres) cost
$3,200 per-acre, and large fires
(>100 acres) cost $500 per-acre.6
2. With the DNR spending $128 million over the last two years on wildfire suppression, preventing
small wildfires has the potential to save the DNR millions of dollars each year.
Suppression Costs
From 2010 to 2014, the DNR spent $200 million on wildfire suppression and only $31 million
on wildfire prevention.7
This unequal spending cut wildfire prevention programs, like the
watershed and vegetation-management program, by 24%. Since every dollar invested in
prescribed fire saves $1.53 in suppression costs,8
continuing fire suppression over prevention is
not a rational economic choice.9
With the State Legislature only granting one-third ($1.2 million)
of Commissioner of Public Lands Peter Goldmark’s request for initial attack10
to suppress small
wildfires quickly, prescribed fires represent a cost-effective alternative by preventing these small
fires from occurring.
Insects and Disease
Without prescribed fires, nearly 2.7
million acres of forests in eastern
Washington are overcrowded and
vulnerable to insects and disease,11
in
particular the mountain pine beetle
(Figure B). The fungi introduced by
the mountain pine beetles causes tree
decay and killed an estimated 2.8
million lodgepole, ponderosa, and
whitebark pine trees in 2014.12
Decaying pine trees are dangerous
because they are susceptible to
crown fires, which spread rapidly
and are difficult to control.
Prescribed fire minimizes this threat
by removing decaying trees and
providing room for the growth of
new, healthy trees.
Economic Benefits
Prescribed fires increase the economic benefits to the DNR by increasing educational
opportunities for hikers to learn about fire behavior and its impact on forest succession. For
example, in Colorado’s National Forests, hiking increased by 346%13
after conducting prescribed
fires. With the DNR managing over 1,100 miles of trails and outdoor recreation opportunities
across 2.2-million acres,14
educational programs centered around fire ecology are potential ways
at attract more visitors. With suppression costs continually rising, additional revenue reduces the
DNR’s dependence on state financial support and helps fund wildfire prevention programs.
Additional benefits of prescribed fire include:
● Improving habitat for threatened and endangered species;
● Removing unwanted species that threaten native species; and
● Providing forage for game.
3. Prescribed Fire: Costs
The costs associated with prescribed fires include:
● Logistics
● Air pollution;
● Cost per-acre; and
● Liability concerns.
Logistics
Logistic costs accrue from canceled fires, and
required personnel and equipment. Prescribed fires
require burn plans that consider temperature,
humidity, wind, fuel moisture, and conditions for
smoke dispersal. If these conditions are not
satisfied, the agency incurs the costs of helicopter
pilots (~$6,300/hour)15
and contracted workers
(~$17/hour)16
on canceled fires. For comparison,
Figure C17
displays the costs of personnel and
equipment needed for a prescribed fire in 1996 in Oklahoma.
Air Pollution
Prescribed fires release high concentrations of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, and
smoke into the atmosphere. In 2009, the Yakima Regional Clean Air Agency fined the Forest
Service $12,00018
for smoke from the Naches prescribed fire. They later rescinded this fine. The
Naches Fire also later served as a firebreak for the
Wild Rose Fire in 2012, saving 25 homes and
limiting the fire to 2,000 acres. Performed in ideal
weather conditions, prescribed fires also generate
less air pollution than wildfires. For example, the
Okanogan Complex Fire in August 2015
generated air pollution 20 times worse19
than the
Naches fire.
Cost Per Acre
Cost per Acre varies due to fuel type, size of area
burned, steepness of slope, location, and site
elevation. Figure D provides an estimation of cost
per-acre for four different environments from
2002. 20
On a per acre basis, prescribed fires are
less expensive than mechanical thinning. In 2015,
the average cost per acre in the Western U.S. for
prescribed fires ranged from $25 to $125, while
mechanical thinning costs ranged from $350 to
$425 per acre.21
With the DNR’s goal of thinning
40,000 to 50,000 acres per year,22
prescribed fires
are more cost-effective than mechanical thinning.
4. Liability Concerns
Liability concerns focus on damage caused by escaped fires and injuries. Federal agencies
complete between 4,000 and 5,000 prescribed fires annually, with 10% reported as “near misses”
or escapes.23
However, a “near miss” is not clearly defined and not all agencies are required to
report “near misses” or escapes. For example, the Cerro Grande Fire in 2000 was a prescribed
fire by the National Park Service intended to burn 900 acres. However, the fire escaped and
burned more than 48,000 acres, destroyed 235 homes, and totaled $1 billion in costs.24
Injuries occur during vehicle
accidents, improper tool use,
and from slips/trips.
Compared to wildfires and
mechanical thinning, injuries
from prescribed fires are less
frequent.25
Figure E
represents all firefighter
injuries in 2014.
Conclusion
In August 2015, three Forest
Service firefighters died
battling the Twisp River Fire.
This tragic accident
emphasizes the importance
of wildfire prevention techniques in reducing the occurrence and damage of catastrophic
wildfires. By lessening smoke limitations to allow for the use of prescribed fires, the DNR
reinforces its mission of ensuring environmental protection, public safety, and a rich quality of
life.26
Since wildfires are unpredictable, dangerous, and expensive, prescribed fires represent a
cost-effective and efficient technique in reducing the risk of wildfires in Washington.
5. 1
"Eastern Washington Forest Health: Hazards ..." 2014. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://file.dnr.wa.gov/publications/rp_fh_leg_report_2014.pdf>
2
"Dry forests have state fearing bad fire season | The Seattle ..." 2015. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/dry-forests-have-state-fearing-bad-fire-season/>
3
"2014 Annual Report-Department of Natural Resources - DNR." 15 Dec. 2015 <http://wa-
dnr.s3.amazonaws.com/publications/em_annualreport14.pdf>
4
"Fighting fire with fire: State policy hampers use of controlled ..." 2015. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/fighting-fire-with-fire-state-policy-hampers-use-of-controlled-
burns/>
5 "Analyzing Trade-Offs Between Fuels Management ..." 2012. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.researchgate.net/publication/227177192_Analyzing_Trade-
Offs_Between_Fuels_Management_Suppression_and_Damages_from_Wildfire>
6
"Wildland Fire Management Program Benefit-Cost Analysis." 15 Dec. 2015
<https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/migrated/ppa/upload/Wildland_fire_literature_review_060812FINAL.pdf>
7
Ibid.
8
Butry, DT, and DT Butry. "ABSTRACT - Repository - North Carolina State University." 2007.
<http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/ir/bitstream/1840.16/3801/1/etd.pdf>
9
Snider, G. "Irrationality of Continued Fire Suppression : An Avoided ..." 2006.
<http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1172&context=barkbeetles>
10
"Not enough money for stopping wildfires early, lands ..." 2015. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.theolympian.com/news/local/politics-government/article26775331.html>
11
Region, PN. "Forest Health Highlights in Washington—2014 - DNR." 2015.
<http://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/rp_fh_2014_forest_health_highlights.pdf>
12
Ibid.
13
Hesseln, H. "The Effects of Fire on Hiking Demand - USDA Forest Service." 2003.
<http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p029/rmrs_p029_177_186.pdf>
14
"2014 Annual Report-Department of Natural Resources - DNR." 15 Dec. 2015 <http://wa-
dnr.s3.amazonaws.com/publications/em_annualreport14.pdf>
15
"A Taxpayer's Guide to Wildfire Suppression Costs." 2014. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.iawfonline.org/A%20TAXPAYERS%20GUIDE%20TO%20WILDFIRES.pdf>
16
Ibid.
17
"How Much Does it Cost to Burn?." 2012. 15 Dec. 2015 <http://www.noble.org/ag/wildlife/burn/>
18
Ibid.
19
Ibid.
20
The True Cost of Wildfire in the Western U.S." 2009. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.wflccenter.org/news_pdf/324_pdf.pdf>
21
FIRE, P. "Fire Management Today - USDA Forest Service." 2006. <http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fmt/fmt_pdfs/FMT66-
1.pdf>
22
Ibid.
23
"Prescribed Fire Lessons Learned- Escaped ... - NWCG." 2008. 15 Dec. 2015 <http://training.nwcg.gov/pre-
courses/rx301/Rx_Fire_LL_Escapes_Review.pdf>
24
"Independent Review Board Report - Wildland Fire ..." 2005. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/staffride/downloads/lsr6/lsr6_Independent_Review_Team_Report_May_2000.
pdf>
25
"NFPA reports - Firefighter injuries in the United States." 2013. 15 Dec. 2015
<http://www.nfpa.org/research/reports-and-statistics/the-fire-service/fatalities-and-injuries/firefighter-injuries-in-the-
united-states>
26 "About the Washington Department of Natural Resources ..." 2015. 15 Dec. 2015 <http://www.dnr.wa.gov/about-
washington-department-natural-resources>
6. Bibliography
Brunner, Jim, and Hal Bernton. "Fighting Fire with Fire: State Policy Hampers Use of Controlled
Burns." The Seattle Times. 10 Oct. 2015. Web. 15 Dec. 2015.
Bush, Evan. "Dry Forests Have State Fearing Bad Fire Season." The Seattle Times. 20 June
2015. Web. 15 Dec. 2015.
Butry, David. “Estimating the Efficacy of Wildfire Management Using Propensity Scores” North
Carolina State University. 2006. Web. 17 Nov. 2015
Dether, Deirdre M. "Lessons Learned." (2008): Wildland Fire Lessons Learned Center. 29 June
2005. Web. 18 Nov. 2015.
Eastern Washington Forest Health: Hazards, Accomplishments and Restoration
Strategy." Washington Department of Natural Resources. 15 Oct. 2014. Web. 8 Nov.
2015.
Hesseln, H. Fire, Fuel Treatments, and Ecological Restoration: Conference Proceedings; 2002
16-18 April; Fort Collins, CO: Web. 11 Nov. 2015.
Ingalsbee, Timothy. "Dendrophthoe Falcata (Linn. F.) Etting."SpringerReference (2011): 12
Aug. 2010. Web. 16 Nov. 2015.
Interior, U.S. Department Of The. "Wildland Fire Management Program Benefit-Cost Analysis
A Review of Relevant Literature." Wildland Fire Management Program Benefit-Cost
Analysis. Office of Policy Analysis, 14 June 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
Mercer, D. Evans, Rover G. Haight, and Jeffrey P. Prestemon. “Analyzing Trade-Offs Between
Fuels Management, Suppression, and Damages from Wildfire.” The Economics of Forest
Disturbances Forestry Sciences (2008): 247-72. Web.
Santos, Melissa. "Not Enough Money for Stopping Wildfires Early, Lands Commissioner
Says." Theolympian. 3 July 2015. Web. 9 Dec. 2015.
Stevens, Russell, Hugh Aljoe, Terry Stuart Forst, Frank Motal, and Kent Shankles. "How Much
Does It Cost to Burn?" How Much Does It Cost to Burn? The Samuel Roberts Noble
Foundation, Web. 15 Dec. 2015.
Snider, Gary, P.J. Daugherty, DJ Wood. “Irrationality of Continued Fire Suppression: An
Avoided Cost Analysis of Fire Hazard Reduction Treatments Versus No Treatment”
Quinney Natural Resources Research Library. 1 January 2006. Web. 5 Dec. 2015.