Australopithecus Research Paper

Australopithecus Research Paper
Hominin is a group of modern humans, extinct human species and all of our immediate ancestors,
such as members of Australopithecus, Paranthropus and Ardipithecus. Of those members,
Australopithecus is one of the extinct genuses of hominins. Based on paleontological and
archaeological findings, the Australopithecus genus evolved in Eastern African around 4 million
years ago. During this time period, different australopithecine species emerged, including A.
afarensis, A. africanus, A. anamensis and A. garhi – to name a few. Australopithecus anamensis is
the earliest known of the australopithecine and existed about 3.8 to 4.2 million years ago. The first
discovery of an A. anamensis fossil was in 1965. Discovered by Bryan Patterson from Harvard
University and his research team, a single arm bone was recovered in Northern Kenya at the site of
Kanapoi. However, since there were no other human fossils to ... Show more content on
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anamensis was probably around the same size as a modern chimpanzee. However, there was a huge
difference in body size between the males and females. This body difference between genders is an
example of sexual dimorphism and was similar to the difference between modern gorillas and
orang–utans. There is not much fossil evidence in regards to the brain size of A. anamenis but
enough to determine that the species probably had a relatively small brain. Portions of the tibia that
were discovered were human–like and as mentioned before, indicated that the species was able to
walk on two legs (bipedalism). Marks on the wrist bones that were found showed that A. anamensis
had strong hand tendons that would have been useful for tree climbing. As for the elbow joint, it
showed that it was more human–like due to the flexible rather than the rigid elbows that four–legged
apes have in order to be able to support their bodies as they move about. Also in regards to climbing,
A. afarensis' forearms were pretty long and ape–like so they could be used to climb
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Comparing Oedipus And Australopithecus
Australopithecine or Australopith, is an informal term used, primarily, to describe all species in the,
related, Australopithecus and Paranthropus genera (McHenry 2017). The clade does, however, also
include; Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7–6 mya), Orrorin tugenensis (6 mya), Ardipithecus kadabba
and Ardipithecus ramidus (5.8–4.4 mya), Kenyanthropus platyops (3.5–3.2 mya), and other human–
like primates (McHenry 2017; Szpak 2017). The distribution of Australopithecines stretches across
Africa, encompassing species of varying ages and complex relationships (McHenry 2017).
Paranthropus and Australopithecus are often referred to as 'robust' and 'gracile' clades of
Australopithecine, respectively, as opposed to individual genera (Szpak 2017).
Australopithecines

Special Ear Morgies
A defining characteristic of mammals is special ear bones. These bones allow for sound
amplification. It includes the incus, stapes, and the malleus. These new bones allows for mammals
to hear in our environment. We can hear when a predator is nearby thus helping with our survival.
Hopping in mammals evolved convergently, meaning that it evolved independently multiple times.
Ancient ancestors of Australian kangaroos had long feet, making it less efficient to walk. Walking
was thus an insufficient mode of locomotion, leading to their hopping which was more efficient for
speed when evading predators.
Animals in the desert evolved many different adaptations to survive the extreme heat. One example
is they evolved horns whose sheaths direct the extreme heat away from the ... Show more content on
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I am invited to Morgies' reunion. Since Morgie is the first mammal and I am a mammal, I am
invited. Morgie and I share the fact that we both have hair, 3 special ear bones, and produce milk
with mammary glands.
With every generation, the giraffe's neck vertebra grew allowing for them to reach higher up in trees
to get their food. In order for the necks to continue to function properly, giraffes evolved valves in
their necks. This ensured the healthy regulation of blood in necks. When the giraffe lowers its neck,
the valves ensures that blood doesn't rush to the giraffe's brain.
Gorillas are more closely related to humans than orangutans. This is because we share a more recent
common ancestor with them and also their are fewer nodes between us and gorillas than us with
orangutans. Monkeys form a polyphyletic group.
Three hominin species that existed concurrently with early Homo sapiens are the Homo habilis,
Homo rudolfensis, and Homo erectus. Four hominin species that were alive 2.5 million years ago
consist of Homo erectus, Homo floresiensis, Homo heidelbergensis, and Homo

Olduvai Gorge: Impact Of The Excavation Site
Olduvai Gorge In this paper I will be discussing the impact of the excavation site Olduvai Gorge had
on the world as it holds the most important key to understanding human history. Over the course of
six pages I will be investigating the geological importance of site, the people behind the dig, the
significance of the find, and life of our ancestors millions of years ago. The purpose of this essay is
to dig deeper into Olduvai Gorge as it plays a major role in history and anthropology. To truly
understand why Olduvai Gorge became the most important location in the world to hold ancient
artifacts is the geology. Olduvai Gorge is a ravine in the East Africa's Great Rift Valley that is
located on the outskirts of Tanzania. Millions of years ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both Leakey's were anthropologist who were motivated to live through harsh climate of Tanzania,
paid very little, and lost a lot of respect from the anthropology community to explore Africa to find
the earliest known human. At the time no one would've expected the earliest known human to be
there as most anthropologists believed human were not from Africa. The team arrived in the early
1930's at Olduvai Gorge trying to find at least one fossil to prove their theory. For decades they
found many ancient of mammal fossils, stone tools, and evidence that intelligent life once lived in
the surrounding area but, not one hominid fossil. The search was starting to become very hopeless
and tiresome but, on July 17th, 1959 Mary Leakey saw a bone sticking out of the ground and with a
little bit of investigation she realized it looked very similar to hominid teeth. She called he husband
to gather the excavation team to the site to start digging to see what else they could uncover. They
found hundreds of skull fragments which when they reconstructed it proved the existence of early
hominids in East Africa. This discovery would rock the anthropology community as hard evidence
proved Mary and Louis Leakey right about their theory. The skull was classified as Australopithecus
Boisei and held a nickname with the Leakey's as "Dear Boy." After this groundbreaking discovery
nearly two years later Louis's son Jonathan found a second type of hominid known as Homo Habilis
in the same dig site. Both of these fossils would not be the last major discoveries as their finds
brought paleoanthropological and anthropologist from all over the world to East Africa where tons
of more skeletal bones were found. The Leake's stayed in Africa for another six decades searching
for more answer about our

Bipedalism Essay
Bipeds have adapted various associated morphological qualities that understand challenges postured
by frequent bipedalism. These anatomical traits developed over a huge number of years and
contrasts exist amongst prior and later Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and Homo species.
Australopithecine and paranthropine development speaks to an outstanding stride in the
advancement of people on the grounds that these species are among the soonest hominins known to
have evolved. Major morphological elements symptomatic of bipedalism include: the nearness of a
bicondylar point, or valgus knee; an all the more inferiorly placed foramen magnum; the nearness of
a decreased or nonopposable big toe; a higher curve on the foot; a more posterior introduction of the
anterior bit of the iliac sharp edge; a generally bigger femoral head distance across; an expanded
femoral neck length; and a somewhat bigger and anteroposteriorly lengthened condyles of the
femur. Each of these components is a particular adjustment to address issues connected with
bipedalism (eLucy, 2007). The majority of the anatomical adjustments fundamental for constant
bipedalism can be found in the fossil record. By accommodating the fossils proof with the geologic
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The longest trail, known as trail G, was made by no less than two people, one much bigger than the
other. These people were likely individuals from a species called Australopithecus afarensis, with
fossil remains that have been found in different parts of the Laetoli zone from almost the same time,
3.5 million years back (Hawks, 2011). This species lived much sooner than any that researchers call
people, they are not quite the same as us in numerous regards. In any case, the confirmation
demonstrates that they walked bipedally in an extremely humanlike

A Paper On The Genus Hominins Essay
This is going to be a paper on the genus Hominins. Hominins are early human ancestors the first
being Sahelanthropus Tchadensis and ends with Homo Sapiens. A specie is a group of similar
animals, or plants and in our case homo, paranthropus and australopithecus that can interbreed
between each other and have a direct connection in lineage.A genus is a grouping of alike and
related species that all share in many traits. It is an overview of species that are different enough to
be put in one group but similar to be put under an umbrella term. In this paper it will take about the
later half of the hominin genus, from Homo rudolfensis to Homo sapiens. We will be taking a look
into how they are connected if they are, why I did not connect others and the culture behind it all.
Homo rudolfensis was found in 1986 by V.P. Alexeev . 2.4–1.8 Million years ago. Rudolfensis
maybe one of the first Homo Species and can maybe be traced back to kenyanthropus platyops.
Many believed at first glance Homo erectus was close to Homo habilis because they shared many of
the same features, were found near each other and dated to around the same time to 2.4 to 1.8
million years ago for habilis 2.3 to 1.5 million years ago for rudolfensis. Both are put under scrutiny
because many believe that due to the case of them having longer faces and bigger molars that they
are from Australopithecus and should be placed with them.Making them an australopithecus would
mean that it had the largest brain

A History of Humans
Humans are a complex organism. The theory of evolution suggests that we all came from a single
ancestor and have evolved over millions of years to create our species that lives to this day. But
what is evolution? Who did we all evolve from? What makes us different than this ancestor of ours?
What is Evolution?
Evolution is a process that results in heritable changes in a population spread over many
generations. Scientist Charles Darwin believed that natural selection was one of the main reasons for
evolution. He also believed that complex creatures come from simple ancestors that changed over a
period of time. As random mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial
mutations are preserved because they helped survival. A mutation is the changing of the structure of
a gene, resulting in a variant form that might be transmitted to future generations. A gene is a unit of
heredity that is passed down from a parent to offspring and determines some characteristic of the
offspring. Natural selection is the environment choosing which mutations of genes would be
beneficial and which would lead to the extinction of that species. The beneficial mutations are
passed on through genes from parent to their offsprings. Overtime, this process is what formed
humans to be so complex. As the genes of humans randomly mutated and caused a variation of
species, natural selection decided who will live on and who will die out. If there was a bad mutation,
then the species would

The Evolution of Modern Humans
While time travel still remains elusive to us, scientists have been able to discover things about our
past as a species that were practically inconceivable over 150 years ago when Charles Darwin
released his book entitled The Origin of Species. They have especially uncovered many pieces to
our still incomplete puzzle over the past 20 years so that we now have a nearly complete idea of
how our species Homo sapiens came to be. This story of our history includes dozens of species' and
hundreds of fossils and bones, yet fairly few complete or even partial skeletons. Hominids have
gone through many changes to get from one of our earliest species' Ardipithecus ramidus to Homo
sapiens which scientists have been able to discover ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lower part, where it meets the ankle, is fairly wide and thick so it acted as a "shock absorber"
whilst walking. Members of the Australopithecus anamensis species also had long forearms and
wrist bone features which suggest tree climbing. They were thickly–built with long narrow jaws.
Their side rows of teeth were in parallel lines and were heavily enameled which entails that they ate
hard, abrasive foods such as nuts, but researchers also believe that they also ate fruits. These
hominids were possibly the size of modern female chimpanzees and there is evidence of sexual
dimorphism. (Leakey et al, 1995; White et al, 2006) Discovered in 1974, Australopithecus afarensis
is one of the most famous early hominids and they are the direct descendants of Australopithecus
anamensis. Australopithecus afarensis as a species was not named until 1978, after many fossil
discoveries of the same type were found at sites in Hadar, Ethiopia and Laetoli, Tanzania. Some of
the fossils categorized as a part of this species were found as early as in the 1930's. They were
around for more than 900,000 years which makes them the longest lived species and there are over
300 sets of remains of Australopithecus afarensis. One of the most famous hominid skeletons is 3.2
million year old "Lucy" (AL 288–1), discovered by Donald Johanson and Maurice Taieb in Hadar,
Ethiopia in 1974. She was nicknamed the night she was discovered

The Lecture Notes On The Paranthropus Aethiopicus Species
Dating back to the 2.3–2.7 mya according to the lecture notes, the Paranthropus aethiopicus species
was one of the earliest known robust forms of the Australopithecus genus. The Paranthropus
aethiopicus species was first founded in Omo, Ethiopia by Camille Arambourg and Yves Coppens,
and because of its black color, it was nicknamed the "Black Skull". With this emerged the fossil find
KMN–WT–17000 who, according to Erin Wayman from Smithsonianmag.com, was founded by
paleoanthropologists known as Alan Walker and Richard Leakey (Wayman 2012:1). In 1985, these
paleoanthropologists found the KMN–WT–17000 "Black Skull" which was located in West
Turkana, Kenya. According to Wayman, "The species highlights the trouble of identifying parallel ...
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The Paranthropus aethiopicus species thus focused most of its chewing on the back of their strong
jaws. In my opinion, I believe this feature gave this species the ability to grind down and digest a
wider variety of species that let's say the Australopithecus africanus which was not able those same
species because it did not have as strong of a jaw as the Paranthropus aethiopicus. Lastly after
viewing the Paranthropus aethiopicus myself on Humanorigins.si.edu, I was finally able to make
sense of why it was nicknamed the "Black Skull". This species basically had very dark, black spots
around its skull. When rotating the image displayed on the website, I noticed that the species had the
most black spots on the front and top of the skull. I found this fascinating as in my opinion, I felt
like it had to do with the large sagittal crest that I described which would make sense because those
black spots are exactly in the positions where they are known for having strong molars and
premolars. One reason why this fossil and species is significant in understanding human evolution is
the fact that it shares many traits in common with the early Homo as mentioned by Erin Wayman
(Wayman 2012:2). Evidence suggests that due their independent evolution, the Paranthropus species
doesn't really have any side or branch in the human family tree. This is still refuted today in many

Paleoanthropology
One of the most significant concerns in paleoanthropology is the ancestral origin of the modern
humans. The story of human evolution dates back to antiquity, and explains a long process that
hominids went through to become the modern humans. These processes have been explained
through the study of fossils and understanding of the underlying evolution theories. Although new
fossil records are uncovered from time to time, scientist maintains the basic evolution story. It is still
debatable on which hominid gives ancestry to modern humans. Therefore, the essay attempts to
compare and contrast the hominids that lived about 2 million years ago in Central East Africa like
Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, and Parantropus boisei, and which one of them ... Show more
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The species existed about 2million years ago, and it is the widely accepted as the first Homo genus
member following Australopithecus and preceding Homo erectus (Tobias, 2011). In Kenya, the
Homo habilis fossils were found in Olduvai Gorge. Homo habilis means 'handy man" with the
ability to make tools. He was the first species to use stone tools. He differs from australopithecines
because of his cranial morphology and shares some traits like a postcranial skeleton. Homo habilis
had a bigger brain, weak brown ridges, narrow cheekbones, and vertical forehead, small and less
projective face and jaws compared to australopithecines (Lewin, 2011). Homo habilis shared some
features like bipedalism (leg muscle crucial for climbing) with great apes. He was bipedal with
abducted big toe and well–developed foot arches to allow movement and the feet to support the
body weight and absorb shock during bipedal movement. Homo habilis fossil records indicate that
his legs were elongated. The feature is similar to those of australopithecines, except for the long
forearms. His hand had a human–like and mosaic characteristics of great ape (Tobias, 2011). Homo
habilis had thick and curved finger bones like those of apes, broad, and attached to palms similar to
modern humans. The dental analysis shows that he was highly

Australopithecine Comparison
In terms of lower limb proportions comparing Australopithecines and Paranthropus, only a few post
cranial remains have been discovered. Comparing the post cranial remains of these genera to those
of modern day non–human and human apes can give great insight to the locomotion and stature of
Paranthropus and Australopithecines. OH–8 is a partial left foot found from Bed I and Bed II in
Olduvai Gorge. When it was initially discovered in 1960 by L.S.B. Leakey, it was classified as a H.
habilis partial foot. It was classified as such due to how much it resembled modern humans. This
thought has been challenged by some, such as Day and Napier (1964) and Day and Wood (1968).
Day, Napier and Wood suggest that due to the lack of H. habilis femurs and other post cranial
remains that it seemed logical to group more modern looking bones with the more ... Show more
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habilis. They also suggest that it is just as reasonable to associate OH–8 and others found with P.
boisei as it is to associate them with H. habilis. OH–8 has a robusticity pattern of 1>5>3>4>2 ,
which can be either identical or very similar to that of modern humans, who have patterns such as
1>5>4>3>2 or 1>5>3>4>22. (efossils). The size of the foot is consistent with that of modern
humans, the size of the foot relative to the body size, versus the foot length ratio in apes. (Bone
Viewer). The possible adducted hallux that is also similar to that of modern humans. The lateral
metatarsals are robust. This suggests that there was a greater amount of weight placed upon the
metatarsals. This finding is not consistent with quadrupedal primates. There is articulation between
metatarsals I and II. (University of Texas). This suggests the lack of an opposable hallux,

Similarities Between Homo Habilis, Homo Rudolfensis, And...
For a long time, it had been assumed that evolution happened in a systematic manner and that no
two or more species of human ancestors existed at the same time. Because of such an assumption, it
has become very hard to determine the exact ancestors when two populations dated to the same
geographical location and time. In this essay, I will discuss the difference between the Homo
Habilis, Homo Rudolfensis, and the Paranthropus Boisei in order to show why I believe the Homo
habilis is our direct ancestor despite the three populations having existed within the same region and
time span.
The fossils of Home habilis species were discovered by Dr Louis Leakey in Tanzania. Among the
distinguishing characteristics include the increased cranial size as compared to its ancestor, the
africanus. The fossil also indicated an increased grip hand size due to size and type of hand bones.
The other feature is that the fossil indicated a reduced size of the teeth. The evidence showed that
the ancestor had molars longer instead of wider. As a result of the increased grip, it was concluded
that this human ancestor used tools for survival. Homo habilis means the handy man because the
scientists thought the species to be the first to make tools (Denis, 2008).
Due to the features of their teeth type, these species are thought to have been consumers of softer
food and than their ancestors. According to the gathered evidence, scientists have been able to link
the evidence to the consumption of meat

Homo Naledi : An Ancestral Investigation Of The Human Species
Homo naledi: An Ancestral Investigation of the Human Species There is no denying the fact that
fossil records show an excellent representation of species of the past. Details of human evolution
can also be identified and new discoveries are being found. Homo naledi is the most recent
discovery within the Homo genus. This new discovery could potentially be a very important key in
studying the evolution of the human species. H. naledi was first discovered in 2013 in South Africa.
Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker, two cavers, were exploring the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star
cave in Gauteng when the fossils were discovered (Berger 4). The entrance to the cave is rather
narrow. This proposes many questions for scientists as to what this species was, what it did, and how
the members of this species found their way into this cave. The remains contained both skeletal and
dental fragments. Archeologists were able to identify over fifteen hundred bones from
approximately fifteen different members of this new species (Berger 4). Since the entrance of the
cave was so narrow, retrieving the fossils took cooperation, precision, and technology. Two
"underground astronauts" were lowered into the cave on a cable. They had cameras, which projected
an image onto a television screen for the other scientists on the project could be "in the cave" with
them. This technology made it possible for scientists all over the world to follow along with the
expedition. 3–D models of the fossils

Ardipithecus Research Paper
Ardipithecus and other early Australopithecines lived in a habitat much wetter than the environment
of Aramis, Ethiopia today. The set for scene one could at times experience a "rain fall," and should
include a woodland habitat with patches of denser forest and an abundant amount of monkeys just as
what would have been seen between five and three million years ago. In 1992, an expedition led by
Tim White of the University of California, Berkeley discovered the fossil of Ardipithecus ramidus,
dating back to 4.4 million years ago. The skeleton nicknamed "Ardi" ended up weighing around 112
pounds, stood almost four feet tall, (somewhat larger than a male chimpanzee but smaller than a
female gorilla) and was most likely a female. Ardi's ape sized brain has a cranial capacity of only
300 to 350 CC. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The size of Ardi's teeth and the U–shaped dental arcade is also similar to that of a chimpanzee,
however, Ardi's incisors were slightly smaller. A large amount of commonalities with chimpanzees
may make a living, trained, male chimpanzee the best and cheapest option to play the role of
Ardipithecus ramidus. The special effects crew could utilize CGI in order to alter the structure of the
chimpanzee's face in close up shots. White's research team found little sexual dimorphism present
between male and female Ar. ramidus' based off the only slight differentiation in tooth size. The
scene might then only include hominins relatively close in size. Ardipithecus ramidus most likely
lived in a community similar to the social structure of chimpanzees, comprised of adult males and
females and their offspring. Anthropologist Owen Lovejoy believes that there was even an
intensified male parental

Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
For centuries humans have been left wondering how they were made and where they came from.
Many found hope in the name of god. They had no choice to believe that they were created by god,
different cultures having their own beliefs and ideas. However, in the modern era there is a different
ideology, people have started to think logically and science has come a long way. It is now believed
that evolution has resulted in the changes on planet Earth and human kind was not just simply
created by a 'God'.
What is evolution? What was Charles Darwin's contribution to ideas about evolution?
Biological evolution is the descent of organisms with modifications. Simply, the central idea of
evolution is that all life forms which exist as of now or had ... Show more content on
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Gradualism o New species are not created suddenly, but gradually
5. Natural Selection o Change happens mainly through variation between individuals, therefore
some modifications give the specific specie extra survival probability
Darwin considered all these theories as part of one grand idea at the time, as he thought that they all
occur together at the same time. How was it possible to prove all these theories? Well there have
been a lot of evidence left over for scientists to observe.
What are fossils?
One of the most helpful forms of evidence are fossils. Fossils are the remains of past life which have
been preserved in rocks, soil or amber over a long period of time. They are the remains of hard parts
of organisms, mainly bones and shells. There are four types of fossils:
FIgure 1: A tablet displaying Trace Fossils
1. Trace Fossils
These fossils are the preserved evidence of an animals activity or certain behavior, rather than any
actual remains of the organism.
2. Fossils with organic material preserved
As animals are deceased and degraded over time, some remains can undergo a variety of changes
during fossilization; therefore some organic matter can be preserved in the fossil.
3. Mineralized fossils
Such fossils are formed when organic matter in remains is gradually replaced with different types of
minerals, eventually converting them into remains such as 'rocks'.

4. Impression

1. Explain Two Major Differences Between Humans And Gorillas
1. Explain two major differences between humans and Gorillas as seen on their skulls in the space
below.
The foramen magnum is located in the center of the human skull while it is placed further back on
the gorilla skull. The gorilla has a sagittal and nucheal crests while the human does not. 2. Explain,
in terms of adaptive change, why those two differences exist in the space below.
The foramen magnum needed to change for bipedalism, the skull needed to stay upright while
walking bipedally in humans and the gorilla is quadrupedal and needed their skull to face upright
while walking on all fours. The sagittal crest was needed for gorillas in order to chew the foods of
their diets. The human diet was changing and did not need to be able to chew through roots and
other food sources. The nucheal crest was needed to attach muscles necessary for keeping the head
upright while walking quadripedally.
3. Explain how, from a biological and evolutionary perspective, humans and Gorillas are closely
related in the space below. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The gorilla branch of the family tree went one direction, while the human, chimpanzee, and bonobo
line went a different direction. 5 to 7 million years ago, the human line branched off from a common
ancestor that it shared with chimpanzees and bonobos which went a different direction. The human
branch developed bipedalism requiring the skeletal changes like the shift in the foramen magnum.
Also, humans diet changed requiring the change in dentition from the gorilla dentition like smaller
molars and smaller canines. Like all primates, humans and gorillas, have "enhanced vision, reduced
sense of smell, opposable thumbs, are dietary generalists, extensive parental involvement,
expanding brains, and social complexity" (Anonymous,

Paranthropus Boisei
Paranthropus boisei is also known as Australopithecus boisei. Paranthropus boisei lived in Eastern
Africa in countries such as Ethiopia at the Konso and Omo River basin, Kenya at Koobi Fora,
Chesowonja, and West Turkana, Tanzania at Olduvai Gorge and Peninj, and Malawi. Paranthropus
boisei lived about 2.3 to 1.2 million years ago. Paranthropus boisei is also known as being the most
robust of the robust australopithecines. Paranthropus boisei had human like features including a
strong sagittal crest that assisted in chewing by having a large bottom and top jaw, with large molars
and premolars. Paranthropus boisei also had flaring cheekbones and a cranial capacity that was 100
cc larger than in the last genus homo within the last one million ... Show more content on
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KNM–ER 406 was found in Koobi, Kenya in 1969 by Richard Leakey and H. Mutua and they said
this finding was about 1.7 million years old. This finding was a complete adult male fossil finding.
KNM–ER 732 A was found in Koobi Fora, Kenya as well by Richard Leakey and H. Mutua, but in
1970. This finding was known to be 1.7 million years old as well and was a partial cranium of a
female paranthropus boisei and gave more insight that there was sexual dimorphism in this early
species. The finding OH 5 was nicknamed the Nutcracker Man, which was found in Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania in 1959 by Mary Leakey. This finding was 1.8 million years old and is the most famous
finding. It was the complete cranium of a male. Peninj Mandible was a well preserved jaw that was
found in Tanzania at the Lake Natron region by Kamoya Kimeu. There was a finding made in either
2010 or 2011 in Tanzania at Olduvia Gorge that composed of bone fragments such as the ulna, tibia,
and femur that gave more information regarding the post cranial structure of paranthropus boisei.
These findings helped prove that paranthropus boisei was sexually dimorphic, more ruggedly built,
showed signed of bipedalism, and had some aboreal behaviors. After looking at many physical
pictures and pictures of their skull, paranthropus boisei do have resemblance of human
characteristics.

Mid-Term on Human Evolution Essay
2) The concept of descent with modification, or evolution, has a great deal of evidence in its
support. Indicate the major types of evidence.
Some of the major types of evidence that supports evolution are from the similarities that organisms
living on distant locations have to one another. Charles Darwin logic when he summarized his
findings of five year collecting evidence around the world while he was on the HMS Beagle.
Darwin noticed the similarities between animals and plants on the same continent though they were
diverse.
On a molecular level protein structures and gene sequences is used to determine the evolutionary
relationship with the random mutations in our genes. Our genes contain instruction to create protein
which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An Australopithecus africanus had human–like and ape–like features. Its cranium housed a large
brain with small teethe but its body resembled an ape. It had long arms and a strong sloping face that
juts out from underneath the braincase with a pronounced jaw. The way the pelvis, femur and foot
bones was structured that it walked bipedally. Its shoulder and hand bone shows that they also was
adapting to climbing.
Paranthropus were bipedal hominids that researchers speculate to have descended from the gracile
australopithecine hominids around 2.7 million years ago. They were located in South Africa.
Paranthropus boisei had a specialized skull that had adaptation from heavy chewing. From the top
and side of its braincase to the lower jaw of its chewing mules was anchored by a strong sagittal
crest that was located on the midline of the top of the skull. The Paranthropus boisei had a very wide
and dish–shaped face that it created a large opening to have big jaw muscles to support their cheek
teeth that are four time bigger than one of a human.
5) Explain why variation in skin color is of no use in defining human races.
Variation in skin color does not define human races because with evolution the human species adapt
to where ever they are stationary, Therefor farther away from the origin of that culture is from my
not have the same level of ultraviolent radiation. People that was located near the equator was
exposed strong sun rays

A Brief Note On The And Detective Work
In police and detective work, not all crime scenes are fairly recent. Some can be weeks, or months,
old. There are even cold cases, which can be from decades before, where evidence is sparse at best.
The ultimate cold cases are those in which the bones have fossilized, and the case is transferred to
the area of paleontology. Fossil hominins (that is, any species on the human side of the split between
the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees), such as Neanderthals, leave their remains
behind in this form. Through analysis of these bones, and comparison to known species, scientists
have a catalogue of between 7 and 17 species of the genus Homo, depending on the classification of
some species (such as the skull of Homo rudolfensis, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With strong, gorilla–like jaws, and hugely pronounced crests atop their skulls for muscle
attachments, they had a diet that included more tough plant material than our own. Paranthropus was
driven to extinction by the changing climate of Africa, and the simple ability of species like H.
habilis and H. rudolfensis to adapt better. In forensic science, it 's important to look at all parts of a
crime scene, but the body itself is the pièce de résistance, the most direct evidence. In paleontology,
finding remains is the goal itself, and studying their death (and life before) is a perfect field between
the two. In the same way that a forensic specialist has to look at the shape of the leg bones to
determine height, paleoanthropologists investigate the thigh bone of Orrorin tugenensis to determine
whether or not it was bipedal. Scientists of both fields have to compensate for deformation, thus
arising questions like whether H. floresiensis is its own species of hominin, or simply H. erectus or
H. sapiens with a type of cretinism or dwarfism (Palmer, 2010, 124 & 127). Another question of
deformation is in the foundation of an entire genus: whether the badly deformed skull of
Kenyanthropus platyops is evidence of an actual genus, or a badly deformed Australopithecine or
hominin. Forensic specialists also have to look at the fine detail.

Paranthropus Illustus Analysis
This article talks about Paranthropus robustus fossils that were from the Pleistocene time period.
These fossils were found in Swartkrans, South Africa. Williams talked about how the dental features
looked the way they did because of the excessive grinding of hard objects. The main purpose of this
study was to look at three different specimens of Paranthropus robustus that had not been examined
before. They wanted to compare how the enamel characteristic have evolved over time in southern
African during the early Pleistocene. They look at the extant primate taxa by using a dental micro
wear texture analysis to see how the enamel had evolved. In order to understand how and why the
enamel, molars, and premolars have changed they had to look

Diet Quality Shapes Moolar Area
All in the all, figure one indicates that diet quality shapes molar area. The primates with larger molar
area had lower diet quality scores and the primates with smaller molar areas, had greater diet quality
scores. This supports my hypothesis that molar area is positively correlated and relative to diet
quality. Lower quality diets require bigger teeth to break it down. This diet can consist of seeds and
leaves. Lower quality diets tend to not provide as much energy and nutrients. In contrast, high diet
quality is correlated with smaller molar area. High quality diet consists of fruits, meat and much
more. Smaller molars are needed to chew the food that larger incisors break down. Using the
equation provided in figure one, predictions can be made about the diets of the fossil species. When
plugged into the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This makes sense their molar areas are quite large. Their diets could've potentially consisted of
mainly vegetation which is harder to eat. Homo erectus on the other hand, could have had a high
diet quality which makes sense since it has a smaller molar area. This diet could have consisted of
more fruits and even meat. Additionally, it can be seen in figure two that there is a correlation
between daily travel distance and diet quality. This supports my hypothesis that there is a positive
correlation between the two. Species with higher diet quality scores also have higher daily travel
distances. It can be inferred that because they eat foods that are harder to find they have to travel
further to obtain them. The primates that fit this mold are chimpanzees, baboons and humans. This
makes sense because chimpanzees and baboons eat fruits which are much harder to find because
they are seasonal and grow in small groups, so they travel further. The same applies to humans since
we eat fruits, meat and much more which require travelling to find. Similarly, species that have

Fossil Mosaic Evolution
Fossil records indicate that the earliest hominins separated around the end of the Miocene period.
Fossil remains reveal to us that the remain is hominin because of its dental pieces and its
characteristics that include bipedal locomotion, a large brain size, and toolmaking behavior.
Although hominins developed these traits, they did not developed at the same pace but rather they
evolved at different rates in the last several million years. This is known as mosaic evolution, which
is the physiological and behavioral system (characteristics) that evolved at different rates. Because
of fossil remains we learn about several hominins that evolved in the past. One of the earliest
hominins are grouped as pre– australopiths. We came to know about

AMU ANTH 100: Be An Anthropologist Essay
1. The concept of descent with modification, or evolution, has a great deal of evidence in its support.
Indicate the major types of evidence? The concept or idea that species change and evolve into new
and different species was described and was an established concept in Darwin's day this was
described as descent with modification. The Concept of descent with modification has major
evidence in support, in fact we no longer refer to the this adaption as descent with modification,
rather it is now called biological evolution. According to our text species of living things are related
in some fashion similar to a branching tree. However the process is not quite that simple adaption
relies on several processes and to prove this or the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also non human primates mature much more rapid than that of a human. The human brain is far
more larger that that of any other primate human brains are three–times the size predicted against
human body weight thus a larger brain indicates human primates are more intelligent than that of
other primates like monkeys, or apes
3. Distinguish between members of genus Australopithecus and Paranthropus in terms of time,
location, and physical features
The earliest known and accepted fossils are categorized as Australopithecus or the southern ape. A
well known and famous fossil known as Lucy belongs to this fossil group, fossils of
Australopithecus's have been found in areas such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Chad, and South
Africa and are dated as far back as 4.2 – 2.3 MYA. These primates are known as bipedal apes
meaning they walked upright, members of this primate group also had facial features that were
apelike, had brains half the size of chimpanzees, and weighed on average of one–hundred and five
pounds. It is thought these primates adapted to arboreal and terrestrial environments because dental
exams of their teeth indicate a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, and leaves. On the contrary members of
the Paranthropus primates have fossils that have also been recognized these fossils have been found
in places like: Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa which are dated as far back as 2.8 – 1MYA. This
species was thought

Aps Vs Modern Apes Essay
1.The ancestral characteristics of the species are flat face with forward facing eyes and molars
present because they all contain these features. Sagittal crest, large cranium , similar width of dental
arcade to the length, chain and supraorbital bow are derived characteristics because they are specific
to all hominins and are not found from their ancestor.
2. It can be concluded that both hominins and modern apes share flat face with forward facing eyes
and molars present. The Phylogenetic Tree shows that the modern apes diverged from hominins.
This implies that modern apes and hominins share a same ancestor, but early hominins did not
evolve from modern apes. The closest relative of human (Homo sapiens) is Homo neanderthalensis.
We share many characteristics, such as chain, large cranium and similar width of dental arcade to the
length. One of differences is Homo neanderthalensis has Supraorbital bow, not human does not. ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The skull proportion index conveys the proportional relationship between the face and the cranium.
A larger index indicates a larger cranium in comparison to the face. The skull proportions of Homo
sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo erectus are relatively large, which are around 100. This
suggests that Homos have large brain and cranium. Brain is associated with intelligence. Hence,
homo can perform more complex activities, such as using sophisticated stone tools, cooking, and
mashing food. Meanwhile, the skull proportions of Australopithecus afarensis and Paranthropus
boisei are relative small. This suggests that Australopithecus afarensis and Paranthropus boisei have
small brain and cranium. They can perform relatively simple activities, such as using basic stone
tools, instead of sophisticated stone

Creative Writing: Regulus
What am I doing?
Regulus screamed internally, throwing his wand against the opposite wall. It hit the wall with a few
emerald green sparks before bouncing back, landing on the floor with a crack. Staring at it, he
sighed, before putting his head in his hands.
What am I doing? What am I doing? What am I doing? He repeated the question over and over
again in his head, studying the intricate dark mark on his left forearm. The black skull, accentuated
by a black snake running through caused chills to run down Regulus' spine. He resisted the urge to
moan. What had he gotten into?
He was sixteen. He was sixteen, and a death eater. He was... oh Merlin, he was an actual death eater!
Regulus didn't want to become a death eater– not really. His parents ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
"I'll manage our affairs, you just need to wear this to officially state that you are the heir to the Most
Ancient and Noble House of Black, and will become so when your father dies." Regulus wanted to
scream. This was supposed to be his brother's burden, not his! A small pang of sadness and guilt
made Regulus bite down on his lips.
"Why didn't you give this to me sooner?" Her eyes, if possible, turned frostier and she smirked.
"I always meant to, but now that you're going to Hogwarts, your brother will become envious," she
cackled. Sirius. Regulus felt his eyes moisten slightly, so he turned away and nodded smoothly.
Exiting the room, he felt the weight of the ring suddenly becoming a thousand times heavier.
He knew it was his fault that he had been the reason Sirius left. He so desperately wanted him to
come back, or even just talk to him. He would have apologized a million times over. There was just
one small problem.
He didn't know why Sirius left. He was just there, on that gloomy Friday evening. The next day
unexpectedly transformed into a Monday, leaving two days with no memory of what he had done.
If he had no memory, then why did he feel so

Comparison of 3 Australopithecines Essay example
Kourtney Baley
Professor Marcom
Anthropology 2:30–3:50
April 17, 2011
A Comparison of Three Australopithecines
Just to make it fair for all readers , the Australopithecus is the genus of Pliocene and Pleistocene
hominids. A major characteristic of a hominid is bipedal locomotion or walking upright on two legs.
Several types of Australopithecines have been found but all lived Africa mostly east Africa about
four million years ago. The Australopithecus is the first definite hominid but they all slightly differ
in their features. All species of the Australopithecus can be split into either a gracile or robust
australopithecine. The gracile group consists of species with smaller dentition and lighter facial
features and includes the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Boisei only seemed to eat the unfavorable foods whenever they were forced into a dry open
environment
"The idea is that P. robustus ''fell back'' on less preferred, mechanically challenging items at times of
resource stress when preferred foods were unavailable, much like modern–day lowland gorillas do
with tough foods" ( Unger2).
Many scientists today do not believe that the Australopithecus boisei is an ancestor to modern
humans like the Gracile Australopithecines.
The gracile Australopithecines are much smaller and not so bulky as the Australopithecines
robustus. To describe any of the different species of the gracile australopithecine's compared to the
australopithecus boisei one would include a smaller dentition and lighter facial and dental muscles
than the robust. Many scientists believe that the gracile australopithecines are direct evolutionary
ancestors. Which concludes that a main differentiating point of comparing the two gracile compared
to the robust is that they are more directly related to modern–day humans.
The gracile, australopithecus africanus lived between three to two million years ago primarily in
southern africa during the Pliocene period. The africcanus lived in a semiarid climate very similar to
the climate today. The australpithecus africanus was small with a height ranging from about three
and a half to four and a half feet tall, and a weight from sixty to ninety pounds. Like humans the
Australpithecus africanus is

Australopithecus Garhi Research Paper
Australopithecus garhi is a less robust australopithecine that was discovered in Ethiopia. The first
discovery of a A. garhi fossil occurred in 1990, when a mandible was found at the Bouri Formation.
Through dating of the fossil, it was found that the mandible was to be about 2.5 million years old. At
the time of this find, the only known hominin that would have lived at this time would have been
Paranthropus aethiopicus. This mandible, however, had different morphology and characteristics
than P. aethiopicus, leading researchers to continue searching for more fossils of this unknown
hominin in the Bouri Formation. Following extensive excavation in the Bouri Formation for the
greater part of the 1990's, additional fossils were found that included ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
sediba provides a bit of an enigma. Lee Berger himself hypothesizes that due to their similarities in
morphology and geographic area, A. sediba descended from A. africanus. With a combination of
both primitive and more modern characteristics, it could possibly be the hominin ancestor that
connects directly to the Homo genus. Morphologically, A. sediba had changes in the hip joint and
pelvis that suggest a shift towards obligate bipedalism. Furthermore, the femur bones of A. sediba
are very strong and also lend evidence toward the idea that they practices a more "human" form of
bipedalism. However, it is to note that researchers have found that the manner of the bipedal strides
was unlike any other species. A. sediba would walk with its feet turned inward while most of its
weight was on the outside of the feet. Because of this difference in strides, some speculate that this
is evidence for the theory that bipedalism evolved more than once within human evolution
("Australopithecus Sediba" 2016). There has also been some speculation about A. sediba being
partially arboreal due to its relatively small body and long arms. Evidence into the diet of A. sediba
through isotope analysis adds validity to this claim, as the analysis showed a preference towards
grasses and barks found in forests (Henry et al. 2012). While there is evidence for a connection to
the Homo genus, there still are current debates over whether A. sediba should be

Paleoanthropology: Neuroanthropology And Human Evolution
Paleoanthropology and Human Evolution
Throughout the 2,000 plus years of Western World History, it was believed that humans were the
product of God's creation and about the age of the holy bible. In the 17th century religious scholars
dated Creation and Adam and Eve at around 4000 BC. Modern theology puts the estimate at
between 40,000 and 100,000 years (Apologist). As the Western World moved from the dark ages,
through the European Renaissance, into the age of enlightenment, and through industrial revolutions
in both Great Britain and the United States; emerging scientists discovered tying origins of humans
to theology which turned out to be problematic, particularly because some key scientific discoveries
challenged the creationism model. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To this day scientists have discovered four members from this group of primates that were believed
to be the earliest primates to begin walking upright. The next group up the tree is Australopithecus
group of four members. These were the earliest group of primates that began walking upright more
so for longer periods, but still spent time in trees. This is the group that Lucy belonged to, which
occupied Africa from about 4 million to 2 million years ago. The next group up the tree is
Paranthropus, which had three members. This is the group that the newly discovered LD 350–1
fossil belongs to. This group was characterized by large teeth to eat a wide variety of food. This
group is believed to have walked the earth between 1–3 million years ago. The last group at the top
of the tree is the homo. This group appeared on earth at about 2.8 million years ago. This is our
group. Homo sapiens is the scientific classification for modern humans ("Human Family Tree"). It
should be noted that like other animals there were probably many more members of each group.
However, paleoanthropologists can only guess the amount and how they fit to us, at least until more
fossils are

Fossils: The Evolution Of Human Species
Throughout time human species have evolved. It all started seven million years ago. Many different
kinds of ancient humans have roamed Earth. The first species were discovered in Africa and later in
Asia, Europe, Australia, and the Americas. Paleoanthropologists, geologists, anatomists, and
paleoecologists determined when and where new species evolved by analyzing hominid fossils.
They can also tell us how species lived and died, which other species they are related to, what was
the climate like, and the plants and animals people relied on. Analyzing fossils is a difficult task.
Fossils are the most important resources for scientists when it comes to researching about prehistoric
life. Their information can educate society about their past. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This variation comes from recombination, meaning DNA changes when chromosomes shuffle, or
recombine. This normally occurs in the process of making a sperm or an egg. As a result the child or
offspring inherits a unique characteristics from each parent. This can also be a bad thing if the parent
has a medical condition, such as being color blind, which increases the chances of the child
inheriting the same condition.
Mutation can also be a factor explaining why we look slightly different from each other. This can
occur at anytime affecting your DNA. Some mutations affect the visible feature of the individual,
while others can create a resistance to a virus, such as HIV. Depending on the environment mutation
can be a good or bad thing. Humans received information by communicating with each other.
Before they spoke to each other with words, they communicated with gestures and "body language"
in addition to simple sounds. Language probably started with individual words. Linking words into
sentences probably came next. Humans were believed to use music–like phrases similar to the way
parents talk to babies before language was

Evolution And Its Main Contributing Species
Introduction This paper will explore the theory of evolution and its main contributing species. The
Australopithecus is the most primitive common ancestor between humans and apes. Though its
contributions to evolution were few, it was still a vital part in evolution being the first ape–like
creatures to be known as related to modern humans. Homo sapiens are the first species that share a
genus with modern humans. They are slightly more advanced than Australopithecines. Homo
erectus are one of the better known of the genus Homo. Finally, Homo neanderthalensis, our closest
relatives. The fossils found, the structure and the disappearance of these species will be discussed in
further detail throughout this paper.
Australopithecus ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Johanson & Edey, 1981) The next fossil of an Australopithecus was found by Robert Broom. Being
larger and more bulky he decided to call it, Paranthropus (towards man) robustus. (Johanson &
Edey, 1981) This name would later be changed to Australopithecus robustus because in the 1950s all
African ape–men were to be known as Australopithecines. They were divided into two categories, a
burlier more primitive type (Australopithecus robustus) and a slender more delicate type
(Australopithecus africanus). (Figure 1) (Johanson & Edey, 1981) The most complete fossil of an
Australopithecus was found by Donald Johanson in 1974 at Hadar, Ethiopia. (Figure 2)
(Smithsonian Museum, 2016) Johanson and Timothy White named this new species of
Australopithecus in 1978, Australopithecus afarensis. (Johnson & Bjelland, 2011) This nearly half
complete skeleton is known as Lucy. (Johanson & Edey, 1981) She was about three and a half feet
tall, she had a V–shaped jaw and had a tiny brain. (Johanson & Edey, 1981) Lucy's species was
more ape–like and primitive than that of the fossils found by Dart or Broom. (Johanson & Edey,
1981) Lucy provided a certainty about bipedalism (the ability to walk upright) that before had only
been mere guesses. (Johanson & Edey, 1981) Bipedalism was shown by studying the structure of the
fossils found. First noticed by Dart was that the foramen magnum (the holes where the spinal
column nerves connected to the brain) was at the bottom

Australopithecus Research Paper

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