Atomic waste.docx

Department of Civil Engineering Page1
1 SYNOPSIS
A comprehensive system of radioactive waste management
is developed in India which is safe, efficient and
economically viable. This system envisages management of
radioactive waste from generation to disposal. This
strategy is an amalgamation of ice concept and integrated
systems approach. Ice concept stands for identification,
characterization and evolution of all waste streams for
determining how they can be segregate or integrate into
system approach.
Only by utilizing the ice concept, it is possible to
effectively plan for the management of various waste
streams that arise from a facility. The integrated system
approach includes different steps viz. characterization o f
waste, segregation, waste treatment, conditioning and
storage or disposal. The adaptation of system approach has
been found to be effective as radioactive wastes are
subjected to sequence of operations.

2 ABSTRACT
Rising expectations best characterize the current prospects
of nuclear power in a world that is confronted with a
burgeoning demand for energy, higher energy prices, energy
supply security concerns and growing environmental
pressures. It appears that the inherent economic and
environmental benefits of the technology and its excellent
performance record over the last twenty years are beginning
to tilt the balance of political opinion and public acceptance
in
favor of nuclear power. Nuclear power is a cost-effective
supply-side technology for mitigating climate change and
can make a substantial contribution to climate protection.
Nuclear power stands as an immediate and sustainable
solution for satisfying the emerging energy crisis in India.
Successful execution of any national ‘nuclear power
program’ is keyed to its effective ‘high level nuclear waste’
management strategy. Towards this, India has recently
developed sodium-barium-borosilicate glass matrix to
immobilize sulfate containing high level waste. Currently,
efforts are underway to explore the possibilities of using the
same matrix or its modified versions to condition nuclear
wastes likely to be generated from ‘closed thorium fuel
cycle’. Apart from conventionally used ‘hot wall induction
furnace technology’, India has recently acquired
expertise in operations of indigenously developed ‘Joule
heated ceramic melter’ and ‘Cold crucible induction melter’
for development of suitable inert glass matrices.

3 INTRODUCTION
Radioactive wastes are the leftovers from the use of nuclear
materials for the production of electricity, diagnosis and
treatment of disease, and other purposes. The materials are
either naturally occurring or man-made. Certain kinds of
radioactive materials, and the wastes produced from using
these materials, are subject to regulatory control by the
federal government or the states. The Department of Energy
(DOE) is responsible for radioactive waste related to nuclear
weapons production and certain research activities.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and some states
regulate commercial radioactive waste that results from the
production of electricity and other non-military uses of
nuclear material.
Various other federal agencies, such as the Environmental
Protection Agency, the Department of Transportation, and
the Department of Health and Human Services, also have a
role in the regulation of radioactive material.

4 HISTORY
 The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was first
realized by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd in 1933. He
filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor
the following year.
 The first artificial nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, was
constructed at the University of Chicago by a team led
by Enrico Fermi in 1942.
 The first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall
in Sellafield, England was opened in 1956 with an
initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).
 Tarapur Atomic Power Station (T.AP.S.) was the first
nuclear power plant in India. Tarapur Atomic Power
Station is located in Tarapur, Maharashtra (India).
 The construction of the plant was started in 1962 and
the plant went operational in 1969.With a total
capacity of 1400 MW, Tarapur is the largest nuclear
power station in India
 The facility is operated by the Nuclear Power
Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
 The 320 MW Tarapur nuclear power station housed two
160 MW boiling water reactors (BWRs), the first in
Asia.
 The Tarapur Plant was originally constructed by the
American companies Bechtel and GE, under a 1963 123
Agreement between India, the United States.

5 POWER PLANT IN INDIA
Currently, twenty nuclear power reactors produce 4,780.00 MW
(2.9% of total installed base)
Power
station
Operator State Type Units
Total
capacity
(MW)
Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 220 x 4 880
Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 220 x 2 440
Kalpakkam NPCIL Tamil Nadu PHWR 220 x 2 440
Narora NPCIL Uttar Pradesh PHWR 220 x 2 440
Rawatbhata NPCIL Kota Rajasthan PHWR
100 x 1
200 x 1
220 x 4
1180
Tarapur NPCIL Maharashtra BWR (PHWR)
160 x 2
540 x 2
1400
Total 20 4780

The projects under construction are:
Power station Operator State Type Units
Total
capacity
(MW)
Kudankulam NPCIL
Tamil
Nadu
VVER-1000 1000 x 2 2000
Kalpakkam Bhavini
Tamil
Nadu
PFBR 500 x 1 500
Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 700 x 2 1400
Rawatbhata NPCIL Rajasthan PHWR 700 x 2 1400
Total 7 5300

6 SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE
Radioactive (or nuclear) waste is a byproduct from nuclear reactors,
fuel processing plants, and institutions such as hospitals and research
facilities. It also results from the decommissioning of nuclear reactors
and other nuclear facilities that are permanently shut down. The
Nuclear Regulatory Commission separates wastes into two broad
classifications: high-level or low-level waste. High-level radioactive
waste results primarily from the fuel used by reactors to produce
electricity. Low-level radioactive waste results from reactor
operations and from medical, academic, industrial, and other
commercial uses.
7 ABOUT NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear power plants use the heat produced by nuclear fission to
generate steam that drives turbines, like in fossil fuel plants. However,
no greenhouse gases are produced in this fission process, and only
small amounts are produced across the whole fuel cycle.
Nuclear fuel can be used in a reactor for several years. The used fuel
that remains after this time must be stored and then either recycled to
make new fuel or carefully disposed of. However, because the amount
of fuel used to generate electricity is so much less than that used in
fossil fuel plants it is much more practical to do this with used nuclear
fuel than with the wastes and emissions from fossil fuels.
Nuclear power plants can run for many months without interruption,
providing reliable and predictable supplies of electricity.
8 HOW A NUCLEAR REACTOR MAKES
ELECTRICITY
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from
splitting the atoms of uranium.
Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling
water to make steam which drives turbine generators. Except for the
reactor itself, a nuclear power station works like most coal or gas-
fired power stations.

9 HOW URANIUM ORE IS MADE INTO
NUCLEAR FUEL
Uranium is a naturally-occurring element in the Earth's
crust. Traces of it occur almost everywhere, although mining
takes place in locations where it is naturally concentrated.
To make nuclear fuel from the uranium ore requires first for
the uranium to be extracted from the rock in which it is
found, then enriched in the uranium-235 isotope, before
being made into pellets that are loaded into the nuclear fuel
assembly.
10 URANIUM FUEL CYCLE
India's main fuel cycle complex is central, at Hyderabad. It plans to
set up three more to serve the planned expansion of nuclear power
and bring relevant activities under international safeguards. The first
of the three will be at Kota in Rajasthan, supplying fuel for the 700
MWe PHWRs at Rawatbhata and Kakrapar by 2016. Capacity will be
500 t/yr plus 65 t of zirconium cladding. The second new complex
will supply fuel to ten 700 MWe PHWRs planned in Haryana,
Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. The third will supply fuel for light
water reactors.
DAE's Nuclear Fuel Complex at Hyderabad undertakes refining and
conversion of uranium, which is received as magnesium diuranate
(yellowcake) and refined. The main 400 t/yr plant fabricates PHWR
fuel (which is unenriched). A small (25 t/yr) fabrication plant makes
fuel for the Tarapur BWRs from imported enriched (2.66% U-235)
uranium. Depleted uranium oxide fuel pellets (from reprocessed
uranium) and thorium oxide pellets are also made for PHWR fuel
bundles. Mixed carbide fuel for FBTR was first fabricated by Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in 1979.
Heavy water is supplied by DAE's Heavy Water Board, and the seven
plants are working at capacity due to the current building program.

Fuel bundles
Fuel assembly

A very small centrifuge enrichment plant – insufficient even for the
Tarapur reactors – is operated by DAE's Rare Materials Plant at
Ratnahalli near Mysore, primarily for military purposes including
submarine fuel, but also supplying research reactors. It started up
about 1990 and appears that it is being expanded to some 25,000
SWU/yr. Some centrifuge R&D is undertaken by BARC at Trombay.
10.1 Fuel fabrication at up to 900 t/yr is by the Nuclear Fuel
Complex in Hyderabad, which is setting up a new 500 t/yr PHWR
fuel plant at Kota in Rajasthan, to serve the larger new reactors. It will
have 500 t/yr capacity, from 2017. Each 700 MWe reactor is said to
need 125 t/yr of fuel. A third fuel fabrication plant is planned, with
1250 t/yr capacity. The company is proposing joint ventures with US,
French and Russian companies to produce fuel for those reactors.
Under plans for the India-specific safeguards to be administered by
the IAEA in relation to the civil-military separation plan several fuel
fabrication facilities will come under safeguards.
10.2 Reprocessing: Used fuel from the civil PHWRs is
reprocessed by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) at Trombay,
Tarapur and Kalpakkam to extract reactor-grade plutonium for use in
the fast breeder reactors. Small plants at each site were supplemented
by a new Kalpakkam plant of some 100 t/yr commissioned in 1998,
and this is being extended to reprocess FBTR carbide fuel. Apart from
this all reprocessing uses the Purex process. A new 100 t/yr plant at
Tarapur was opened in January 2011, and further capacity is being
built at Kalpakkam. As of early 2011 capacity was understood to be
200 t/yr at Tarapur, 100 t/yr at Kalpakkam and 30 t/yr at Trombay,
total 330 t/yr, all related to the indigenous PHWR program and not
under international safeguards.
India will reprocess the used PWR fuel from the Kudankulam and
other imported reactors and will keep the plutonium. This will be
under IAEA safeguards, in new plants.
In April 2010 it was announced that 18 months of negotiations with
the USA had resulted in agreement to build two new reprocessing
plants to be under IAEA safeguards, likely located near Kalpakkam

and near Mumbai – possibly Trombay. In July 2010 an agreement
was signed with the USA to allow reprocessing of US-origin fuel at
one of these facilities. Later in 2010 the AEC said that India has
commenced engineering activities for setting up of an Integrated
Nuclear Recycle Plant with facilities for both reprocessing of used
fuel and waste management.
11 RADIATIONS
Radiation is energy travelling through space.
Sunshine is one of the most familiar forms of radiation. It delivers
light, heat and suntans. While enjoying and depending on it, we
control our exposure to it. Beyond ultraviolet radiation from the sun
are higher-energy kinds of radiation which are used in medicine and
which we all get in low doses from space, from the air, and from the
earth and rocks. Collectively we can refer to these kinds of radiation
as ionising radiation. It can cause damage to matter, particularly
living tissue. At high levels it is therefore dangerous, so it is necessary
to control our exposure. While we cannot feel this radiation, it is
readily detected and measured, and exposure can easily be monitored.
Living things have evolved in an environment which has significant
levels of ionising radiation.
Variation in frequency
Furthermore, many people owe their lives and health to such radiation
produced artificially. Medical and dental X-rays discern hidden
problems. Other kinds of ionising radiation are used to diagnose
ailments, and some people are treated with radiation to cure disease.
Ionising radiation, such as occurs from uranium ores and nuclear
wastes, is part of our human environment, and always has been so. At
high levels it is hazardous, but at low levels such as we all experience

naturally, it is harmless. Considerable effort is devoted to ensuring
that those working with nuclear power are not exposed to harmful
levels of radiation from it. Standards for the general public are set
about 20 times lower still, well below the levels normally experienced
by any of us from natural sources.
Background radiation
Background radiation is that ionizing radiation which is naturally and
inevitably present in our environment. Levels of this can vary greatly.
People living in granite areas or on mineralised sands receive more
terrestrial radiation than others, while people living or working at high
altitudes receive more cosmic radiation. A lot of our natural exposure
is due to radon, a gas which seeps from the Earth's crust and is present
in the air we breathe.
12 RADIOACTIVITY IN MATERIAL
Apart from the normal measures of mass and volume, the amount of
radioactive material is measured in Becquerel (Bq), which enables us
to compare the typical radioactivity of some natural and other
materials. A Becquerel is one atomic decay per second, so a
household smoke detector with 30,000 Bq contains enough americium
to produce that much disintegration per second. A kilogram of coffee
or granite might have 1000 Bq of activity and an adult human 7000
Bq. Each atomic disintegration produces some ionizing radiation.
Ionising radiation - alpha, beta and gamma

12.1 Ionising radiation comes from the nuclei of atoms, the basic
building blocks of matter. Most atoms are stable, but certain atoms
change or disintegrate into totally new atoms. These kinds of atoms
are said to be 'unstable' or 'radioactive'. An unstable atom has excess
internal energy, with the result that the nucleus can undergo a
spontaneous change. This is called 'radioactive decay'. We all
experience radiation from natural sources every day.
An unstable nucleus emits excess energy as radiation in the form of
gamma rays or fast-moving sub-atomic particles. If it decays with
emission of an alpha or beta particle, it becomes a new element. One
can describe the emissions as gamma, beta and alpha radiation. All
the time, the atom is progressing in one or more steps towards a stable
state where it is no longer radioactive.
12.2 Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, in
the form of atomic nuclei. Alpha particles are doubly charged (arising
from the charge of the two protons). This charge and the relatively
slow speed and high mass of alpha particles means that they interact
more readily with matter than beta particles or gamma rays and lose
their energy quickly. They therefore have little penetrating power and
can be stopped by the first layer of skin or a sheet of paper. But inside
the body they can inflict more severe biological damage than other
types of radiation.
12.3 Beta particles are fast-moving electrons ejected from the
nuclei of many kinds of radioactive atoms. These particles are singly
charged (the charge of an electron), are lighter and ejected at a much
faster speed than alpha particles. They can penetrate up to 1 to 2
centimetres of water or human flesh. They can be stopped by a sheet
of aluminium a few millimetres thick.
12.4 Gamma rays, like light, represent energy transmitted in a
wave without the movement of material, just like heat and light.
Gamma rays and X-rays are virtually identical except that X-rays are
generally produced artificially rather than coming from the atomic
nucleus. But unlike light, these rays have great penetrating power and

can pass through the human body. Mass in the form of concrete, lead
or water is used to shield us from them.
Ionizing radiation
The effective dose of all these kinds of radiation is measured in a unit
called the Sievert, although most doses experienced are much lower
than a Sievert, so figures are given in millisieverts (mSv), which are
one-thousandth of a Sievert.
13 URANIUM RESOURCES IN INDIA
India's uranium resources are modest, with 102,600 tonnes U as
reasonably assured resources (RAR) and 37,200 tonnes as inferred
resources in situ (to $260/kgU) at January 2011. In February 2012,
152,000 tU was claimed by DAE. Accordingly, India expects to
import an increasing proportion of its uranium fuel needs. In 2013 it
was importing about 40% of uranium requirements.
* 38% vein-type deposits, 12% sandstone (Meghalaya), 12%
unconformity (Lambapur-Peddagattu in AP), and 37% other – 'strata-
bound' (Cuddapah basin, including Tummalapalle).
Exploration is carried out by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for
Exploration and Research (AMD). Mining and processing of uranium
is carried out by Uranium Corporation of India Ltd (UCIL), also a
subsidiary of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), in Jharkhand
near Calcutta. Common mills are near Jaduguda (2500 t/day) and
Turamdih (3000 t/day, expanding to 4500 t/day). Jaduguda ore is

reported to grade 0.05-0.06%U. All Jharkhand mines are underground
except Banduhurang. Another mill is at Tummalapalle in AP,
expanding from 3000 to 4500 t/day. In 2005 and 2006 plans were
announced to invest almost US$ 700 million to open further mines: in
Jharkand at Banduhurang, Bagjata and Mohuldih; in Meghalaya at
Domiasiat-Mawthabah (with a mill) and in Andhra Pradesh at
Lambapur-Peddagattu (with mill 50km away at Seripally), both in
Nalgonda district.
In 2005 and 2006 plans were announced to invest almost US$ 700
million to open further mines: in Jharkand at Banduhurang, Bagjata
and Mohuldih; in Meghalaya at Domiasiat-Mawthabah (with a mill)
and in Andhra Pradesh at Lambapur-Peddagattu (with mill 50km
away at Seripally), both in Nalgonda district.
In Jharkand, Banduhurang is India's first open cut mine and was
commissioned in 2007. Bagjata is underground and was opened in
December 2008, though there had been earlier small operations 1986-
91. The Mohuldih underground mine was commissioned in April
2012. The new mill at Turamdih serving these mines was
commissioned in 2008. It is 7 km from Mohuldih.
In Andhra Pradesh there are three kinds of uranium mineralisation in
the Cuddapah Basin, including unconformity-related deposits in the
north of it. The Tummalapalle belt with low-grade strata-bound
uranium mineralisation is 160 km long, and appears increasingly
prospective – AMD reports 37,000 tU in 15 km of it.
In Andhra Pradesh the northern Lambapur-Peddagattu project in
Nalgonda district 110 km southeast of Hyderabad has environmental
clearance for one open cut and three small underground mines (based
on some 6000 tU resources at about 0.1%U) but faces local
opposition. Production is expected from 2016. In August 2007 the
government approved a new US$ 270 million underground mine and
mill at Tummalapalle near Pulivendula in Kadapa district of Andhra
Pradesh, at the south end of the Basin and 300 km south of
Hyderabad. Its resources have been revised upwards by AMD to
53,6500 tU (Dec 2011) and its cost to Rs 19 billion ($430 million),
and to the end of 2012 expenditure was Rs 11 billion ($202 million).
The project was opened in April and first commercial production was
in June 2012, using an innovative pressurised alkaline leaching

process (this being the first time alkaline leaching is used in India).
Production is expected to reach 220 tU/yr, and in 2013 mill capacity
was being doubled at a cost of Rs 8 billion ($147 million).
An expansion of or from the Tummalapalle project is the Kanampalle
U project, with 38,000 tU reserves. A further northern deposit near
Lambapur-Peddagattu is Koppunuru, in Guntur district, now under
evaluation, and Chitral. Further southern mineralisation near
Tummalapalle are Motuntulapalle, Muthanapalle, and
Rachakuntapalle.
In Karnataka, UCIL is planning a small uranium mine in the Bhima
basin at Gogiin Gulbarga area from 2014, after undertaking a
feasibility study, and getting central government approval in mid-
2011, state approval in November 2011 and explicit state support in
June 2012. A portable mill is planned for Diggi or Saidpur nearby,
using conventional alkaline leaching. Total cost is about $135 million.
Resources are 4250 tU at 0.1% (seen as relatively high-grade)
including 2600 tU reserves, sufficient for 15 years mine life, at 127
tU/yr, from fracture/fault-controlled uranium mineralisation. UCIL
plans also to utilise the uranium deposits in the Bhima belt from
Sedam in Gulbarga to Muddebihal in Bijapur. In Meghalaya, close to
the Bangladesh border in the West Khasi Hills, the Domiasiat-
Mawthabah mine project (near Nongbah-Jynrin) is in a high rainfall
area and has also faced longstanding local opposition partly related to
land acquisition issues but also fanned by a campaign of
fearmongering. For this reason, and despite clear state government
support in principle, UCIL does not yet have approval from the state
government for the open cut mine at Kylleng-Pyndengsohiong-
Mawthabah – KPM– (formerly known as Domiasiat) though pre-
project development has been authorised on 422 ha. However, federal
environmental approval in December 2007 for a proposed uranium
mine and processing plant here and for the Nongstin mine has been
reported.
There is sometimes violent opposition by NGOs to uranium mine
development in the West Khasi Hills, including at KPM/ Domiasiat
and Wakhyn, which have estimated resources of 9500 tU and 8000 tU
respectively. Tyrnai is a smaller deposit in the area. The status and
geography of all these is not known, beyond AMD being reported as

saying that UCIL is "unable to mine them because of socio-economic
problems". Mining is not expected before 2017.
Mine in gogi

Mines in India
Fracture/fault-controlled uranium mineralisation similar to that in
Karnataka is reported in the 130 km long Rohil belt in Sikar district in
Rajasthan, with 4800 tU identified so far.
AMD reports further uranium resources in Chattisgarh state (3380
tU), Himachal Pradesh (665 tU), Maharashtra (300 tU), and Uttar
Pradesh (750 tU).
14 WHAT ARE NUCLEAR WASTES AND HOW
ARE THEY MANAGED?
The most significant high-level waste from a nuclear reactor is the
used nuclear fuel left after it has spent three years in the reactor
generating heat for electricity. Low-level waste is made up of lightly-
contaminated items like tools and work clothing from power plant
operation and makes up the bulk of radioactive wastes. Items disposed
of as intermediate-level wastes might include used filters, steel
components from within the reactor and some effluents from
reprocessing.
By Volume By Radioactive Content
High Level Waste 3% 95%
Intermediate Level Waste 7% 4%
Low Level Waste 90% 1%
Generating enough electricity for one person produces just 30grams
of used fuel each year. High level wastes make just 3% of the total
volume of waste arising from nuclear generation, but they contain
95% of the radioactive content. Low level wastes represent 90% of

the total volume of radioactive wastes, but contain only 1% of the
radioactivity.
15 MANAGING USED FUEL
Used nuclear fuel is very hot and radioactive. Handling and storing it
safely can be done as long as it is cooled and plant workers are
shielded from the radiation it produces by a dense material like
concrete or steel.
Water can conveniently provide both cooling and shielding, so a
typical reactor will have its fuel removed underwater and transferred
to a storage pool. After about five years it can be transferred into dry
ventilated concrete containers, but otherwise it can safely remain in
the pool for up to 50 years.
Nuclear fuel storage pool
But this used fuel is also a valuable resource, and 96% of it can be
recycled. Currently, but means that the sustainability of nuclear
power is enhanced. In this case about 1% of the fuel is recycled
promptly into mixed oxide fuel (MOX), the rest is usually stored for
the future while about 3% of the original mass remains as waste to be
disposed.
The high-level wastes (whether as used fuel after 50 years cooling, or
the separated 3% of such fuel) will be disposed of deep underground
in geological repositories.

15.1 Intermediate and low-level wastes
Intermediate- and low-level wastes are disposed of closer to the
surface, in many established repositories. Low-level waste disposal
sites are purpose built, but are not much different from normal
municipal waste sites.
Nuclear power is not the only industry that creates radioactive
wastes. Other industries include medicine, particle and space
research, oil and gas, and mining - to name just a few. Some of these
materials are not produced inside a reactor, but rather are concentrated
forms of naturally occurring radioactive material.
Civil nuclear wastes from nuclear power plants have never caused any
harm, nor posed an environmental hazard, in over 50 years of the
nuclear power industry. Their management and eventual disposal is
straightforward.
Low-level and Intermediary-level waste (LLW/ILW) repository
One characteristic of all radioactive wastes which distinguishes them
from the very much larger amount of other toxic industrial wastes is
that their radioactivity progressively decays and diminishes. For
instance, after 40 years, the used fuel removed from a reactor has only

one thousandth of its initial radioactivity remaining, making it very
much easier to handle and dispose.
15.2 Total nuclear waste generation in India
Step in nuclear fuel cycle Waste estimate
(2 significant digits)
Uranium mining and milling 4.1 million tonnes
Fuel fabrication 2000 m3
Reactor operations (low-level
waste)
22000 m3
Reactor operations (intermediate-
level waste)
280 m3
Spent fuel storage (not to be
reprocessed)
400 tonnes
Reprocessing (high-level
waste)
5000 m3
Reprocessing (intermediate-
level waste) 35000 m3
Reprocessing (low-level
waste)
210000 m3
16 WHAT IS RADIOACTIVITY?
Radioactivity occurs when unstable nuclei of atoms decay and emit
particles. These particles may have high energy and can have
bad effects on living tissue. There are many types of radiation.
17 RADIOACTIVE WASTES
Radioactive wastes comprise a variety of materials requiring different
types of management to protect people and the environment. They are

normally classified as low-level, medium-level or high-level wastes,
according to the amount and types of radioactivity in them.
Another factor in managing wastes is the time that they are likely to
remain hazardous. This depends on the kinds of radioactive isotopes
in them, and particularly the half-lives characteristic of each of those
isotopes. (The half-life is the time it takes for a given radioactive
isotope to lose half of its radioactivity. After four half lives the level
of radioactivity is 1/16th of the original and after eight half lives
1/256th, and so on.)
The various radioactive isotopes have half-lives ranging from
fractions of a second to minutes, hours or days, through to billions of
years. Radioactivity decreases with time as these isotopes decay into
stable, non-radioactive ones.
The rate of decay of an isotope is inversely proportional to its half-
life; a short half life means that it decays rapidly. Hence, for each kind
of radiation, the higher the intensity of radioactivity in a given amount
of material, the shorter the half lives involved.
Three general principles are employed in the management of
radioactive wastes:
 concentrate-and-contain
 dilute-and-disperse
 delay-and-decay.
The first two are also used in the management of non-radioactive
wastes. The waste is either concentrated and then isolated, or it is
diluted to acceptable levels and then discharged to the environment.
Delay-and-decay however is unique to radioactive waste
management; it means that the waste is stored and its radioactivity is
allowed to decrease naturally through decay of the radioisotopes in it.
Radioactivity arises naturally from the decay of particular forms of
some elements, called isotopes are radioactive, most are not, though
here the focus is on the former. There are three kinds of radiation to
consider: alpha, beta and gamma. A fourth kind, neutron radiation,
Generally only occurs inside a nuclear reactor.

18 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RADIATION
REQUIRE DIFFERENT FORMS OF
PROTECTION:
 Alpha radiation cannot penetrate the skin and can be blocked
out by a sheet of paper, but is dangerous in the lung.
 Beta radiation can be penetrate into the body surface but can be
blocked out by a sheet of aluminium foil.
 Gamma radiation can go deeply into the body and requires
several centimetres of lead or concrete, or a metre or so of
water, to block it.
All of these kinds of radiation are, at low levels, naturally parts of our
environment, where we are all naturally exposed to them at low
levels. Any or all of them may be present in any classification of
radioactive waste.
19 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE
(RADWASTE)
19.1 Exempt waste & very low level waste
Exempt waste and very low level waste (VLLW) contains radioactive
materials at a level which is not considered harmful to people or the
surrounding environment. It consists mainly of demolished material
(such as concrete, plaster, bricks, metal, valves, piping etc) produced
during rehabilitation or dismantling operations on nuclear industrial
sites. Other industries, such as food processing, chemical,
steel etc also produce VLLW as a result of the concentration of
natural radioactivity present in certain minerals used in their
manufacturing processes.The waste is therefore disposed of with

domestic refuse, although countries such as France are currently
developing facilities to store VLLW in specifically designed VLLW
disposal facilities.
19.2 Low-level Waste is generated from hospitals, laboratories and
industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags,
tools, clothing, filters etc. which contain small amounts of mostly
short-lived radioactivity. It is not dangerous to handle, but must be
disposed of more carefully than normal garbage. Usually it is buried
in shallow landfill sites. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted
or incinerated (in a closed container) before disposal. Worldwide it
comprises 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all
radwaste.
19.3 Intermediate-level Waste contains higher amounts of
radioactivity and may require special shielding. It typically comprises
resins, chemical sludges and reactor components, as well as
contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. Worldwide it
makes up 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all
radwaste. It may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal.
Generally short-lived waste (mainly from reactors) is buried, but
long-lived waste (from reprocessing nuclear fuel) is disposed of deep
underground.
19.4 High-level Waste may be the used fuel itself, or the principal
waste separated from reprocessing this. While only 3% of the volume
of all radwaste, it holds 95% of the radioactivity. It contains the
highly-radioactive fission products and some heavy elements with
long-lived radioactivity. It generates a considerable amount of heat
and requires cooling, as well as special shielding during handling and
transport. If the used fuel is reprocessed, the separated waste is
vitrified by incorporating it into borosilicate (Pyrex) glass which is
sealed inside stainless steel canisters for eventual disposal deep
underground.
On the other hand, if used reactor fuel is not reprocessed, all the
highly-radioactive isotopes remain in it, and so the whole fuel
assemblies are treated as high-level waste. This used fuel takes up

about nine times the volume of equivalent vitrified high-level waste
which is separated in reprocessing. Used fuel treated as waste must be
encapsulated ready for disposal.
Both high-level waste and used fuel are very radioactive and people
handling them must be shielded from their radiation. Such materials
are shipped in special containers which shield the radiation and which
will not rupture in an accident.
Whether used fuel is reprocessed or not, the volume of high-level
waste is modest, - about 3 cubic metres per year of vitrified waste, or
25-30 tonnes of used fuel for a typical large nuclear reactor. The
relatively small amount involved allows it to be effectively and
economically isolated.
20 DISPOSAL
The categorization - high, intermediate, low - helps determine how
wastes are treated and where they end up. All radioactive waste
facilities are designed with numerous layers of protection to make
sure that the environment remains protected for as long as it takes for
radioactivity to reduce to background levels. Low-level and
intermediate wastes are buried close to the surface. For low-level
wastes disposal is not much different from a normal municipal
landfill. High-level wastes can remain highly radioactive for

thousands of years. They need to be disposed of hundreds of meters
underground in heavily engineered facilities built in stable geological
formations. While no such facilities currently exist, there feasibility
has been demonstrated and there are several countries now in the
process of designing and constructing them.
20.1 GEOLOGICAL DISPOSAL
The main popular focus continues to be on the geological disposal of
high level waste. The good progress of recent years towards achieving
operational geological repositories is continuing in several countries
and reports from three of them were made at the conference. The
technical discussions at the conference focused on some of the
remaining philosophical difficulties. In the context of geological
disposal, because of the long timescales involved, it is not possible to
demonstrate safety directly and recourse must be made to other, less
direct, evidence. The approaches being used to make the ‘safety case’
for these repositories and to improve confidence in it were discussed.
Providing for protection of the public at long timescales, far beyond
the lifetimes of current generations, requires the use of predictive
models and stylized scenarios to show compliance with radiological
criteria. The subject is difficult and the existing international
radiological guidance is being variously interpreted in different
countries. The subject would therefore benefit from further
international guidance.
20 .2 NEAR SURFACE DISPOSAL
More than one hundred repositories of the near surface type are in
existence in the world and they account for the main part, by mass
and volume, of the disposed radioactive waste. They are used mainly
for the disposal of low and intermediate level waste of short
radioactive half-life. They vary in quality and some are currently
being upgraded to bring them into compliance with modern standards.
The approach for designing near surface repository systems to achieve

safety is well established. For such systems, compliance with the
international radiological protection criteria can be achieved by a
combination of engineered barriers and institutional controls to
prevent inadvertent intrusion into the waste. This contrasts with the
situation at the sites at which large volumes of waste from the mining
and milling of radioactive ores or from other industries producing
waste containing natural radionuclides have been deposited on the
Earth’s surface. At these sites, the radiation exposure of local
populations is often in excess of radiation protection limits for
members of the public.
Because of the large volumes, the practical protection measures which
can be taken are limited. International guidance on their safe
management is not yet adequate and it was recommended that it
should be improved based on, in the first instance, the experience
described at the conference.
20. 3 INTERMEDIATE DEPTH DISPOSAL
Work on some types of disposal at intermediate depths (typically 50–
100 m) was presented. It was emphasized that the safety principles
and methods for assessing safety are no different from those used for
other types of disposal. Ongoing international projects to help remove
the global problem of disused sealed radiation sources by the
technique of borehole disposal were described. Although the approach
promises to be much less costly than alternatives, such as near surface
and geological disposal, it was stressed that safety would not be
compromised and that international standards would be respected. An
important next step for general acceptance of the technique is for a
borehole system to be licensed and then operated in one or more
countries. There was general support for the approach as having the
potential
to solve a real problem existing in many countries in the world.
20.4 Storage and disposal of used fuel and other HLW
There are about 270,000 tonnes of used fuel in storage, much of it at
reactor sites. About 90% of this is in storage ponds (smaller versions
of that illustrated above), the balance in dry storage. Much of the
world's used fuel is stored thus, and some of it has been there for

decades. Annual raisings of used fuel are about 12,000 tonnes, and
3,000 tonnes of this goes for reprocessing. Final disposal is not urgent
in any logistical sense.
Storage ponds at reactors, and those at centralized facilities for e.g.
CLAB in Sweden, are 7-12 meters deep, to allow several meters of
water over the used fuel comprising racked fuel assemblies typically
about 4 m long and standing on end. The circulating water both
shields and cools the fuel. These pools are robust constructions made
of thick reinforced concrete with steel liners. Ponds at reactors are
often designed to hold all the used fuel for the life of the reactor.
Some storage of fuel assemblies which have been cooling in ponds for
at least five years is in dry casks, or vaults with air circulation inside
concrete shielding. One common system is for sealed steel casks or
multi-purpose canisters (MPCs) each holding about 80 fuel
assemblies with inert gas. Casks/ MPCs may be used also for
transporting and eventual disposal of the used fuel. For storage, each
is enclosed in a ventilated storage module made of concrete and steel.
These are commonly standing on the surface, about 6m high, cooled
by air convection, or they may be below grade, with just the tops
showing. The modules are robust and provide full shielding.
A collection of casks or modules comprises an Independent Spent
Fuel Storage Installation (ISFSI), which in the India is licensed
separately from any associated power plant, and is for interim storage
only. About one quarter of India used fuel is stored thus.
For disposal, to ensure that no significant environmental releases
occur over tens of thousands of years, 'multiple barrier' geological
disposal is planned. This immobilises the radioactive elements in
HLW and some ILW and isolates them from the biosphere. The main
barriers are:
 Immobilise waste in an insoluble matrix such as borosilicate
glass or synthetic rock (fuel pellets are already a very stable
ceramic: UO2).
 Seal it inside a corrosion-resistant container, such as stainless
steel.

 Locate it deep underground in a stable rock structure.
 Surround containers with an impermeable backfill such as
bentonite clay if the repository is wet.
Loading silos with canisters containing vitrified HLW Each disc on the floor covers a
silo holding ten canisters
To date there has been no practical need for final HLW repositories,
as surface storage for 40-50 years is first required so that heat and
radioactivity can decay to levels which make handling and storage
easier.
The process of selecting appropriate deep geological repositories is
now underway in several countries. Finland and Sweden are well
advanced with plans for direct disposal of used fuel, since their
parliaments decided to proceed on the basis that it was safe, using
existing technology.

STORAGE OF HLW
21 NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL AND
TREATMENT METHOD
In nuclear fission process, radioactive waste is produced that needs to
be safely dealt with in order to avoid permanent damage to the
surrounding environment. Nuclear waste can be temporarily treated
on-site at the production facility using a number of methods, such as
vitrification, ion exchange or synroc. Although this initial treatment
prepares the waste for transport and inhibits damage in the short-term,
long-term management solutions for nuclear waste lie at the crux of
finding a viable solution towards more widespread adoption of
nuclear power. Specific long-term management methods include
geological disposal, transmutation, waste re-use, and space disposal.
21.1 Vitrification
Vitrification is the process of turning radioactive waste into
glass. Radioactive waste is mixed with a substance that will
crystallize when heated (e.g., sugar, sand) and then calcined.
Calcination removes water from the waste to enhance the stability of
the glass product. The calcinated materials are continuously
transferred into a heated furnace and mixed with fragmented glass In
a hardened state, the radioactive material is encased, preventing it
from leaking. Vitrification allows the immobilization of the waste for
thousands of years.

Vitrification of HLW
21.2 Geological Disposal
The process of geological disposal centers on burrowing nuclear
waste into the ground to the point where it is out of human reach.
There are a number of issues that can arise as a result of placing waste
in the ground. The waste needs to be properly protected to stop any
material from leaking out. Seepage from the waste could contaminate
the water table if the burial location is above or below the water level.
Furthermore, the waste needs to be properly fastened to the burial site
and also structurally supported in the event of a major seismic event,
which could result in immediate contamination.
21.3 Reprocessing
Reprocessing has also emerged as a viable long term method for
dealing with waste. As the name implies, the process involves taking
waste and separating the useful components from those that aren’t as
useful. Specifically, it involves taking the fissionable material out
from the irradiated nuclear fuel. Concerns regarding re-processing
have largely focused around nuclear proliferation and how much
easier re-processing would allow fissionable material to spread.
21.4 Transmutation

Transmutation also poses a solution for long term disposal. It
specifically involves converting a chemical element into another less
harmful one. Common conversions include going from Chlorine to
Argon or from Potassium to Argon. The driving force behind
transmutation is chemical reactions that are caused from an outside
stimulus, such as a proton hitting the reaction materials. Natural
transmutation can also occur over a long period of time. Natural
transmutation also serves as the principle force behind geological
storage on the assumption that giving the waste enough isolated time
will allow it to become a non-fissionable material that poses little or
no risk.
21.5 Space Disposal
Space disposal has emerged as an option, but not as a very viable one.
Specifically, space disposal centers around putting nuclear waste on a
space shuttle and launching the shuttle into space. This becomes a
problem from both a practicality and economic standpoint as the
amount of nuclear waste that could be shipped on a single shuttle
would be extremely small compared to the total amount of waste that
would need to be dealt with. Furthermore, the possibility of the shuttle
exploding en route to space could only make the matter worse as such
an explosion would only cause the nuclear waste to spread out far
beyond any reasonable measure of control.
21.6 Ion exchange
It is common for medium active wastes in the nuclear industry to be
treated with ion exchange or other means to concentrate the
radioactivity into a small volume. The much less radioactive bulk
(after treatment) is often then discharged. For instance, it is possible
to use a ferric hydroxide floc to remove radioactive metals from
aqueous mixtures. After the radioisotopes are absorbed onto the ferric
hydroxide, the resulting sludge can be placed in a metal drum before
being mixed with cement to form a solid waste form. In order to get
better long-term performance (mechanical stability) from such forms,

they may be made from a mixture of fly ash, or blast furnace slag,
and Portland cement, instead of normal concrete (made with Portland
cement, gravel and sand).
21.7 Synroc
The Synroc (synthetic rock) is a more sophisticated way to
immobilize such waste, and this process may eventually come into
commercial use for civil wastes. Synroc was invented by the late Prof
Ted Ringwood (a geochemist) at the Australian National University.
The Synroc contains pyrochlore and cryptomelane type minerals. The
original form of Synroc (Synroc C) was designed for the liquid high
level waste (PUREX raffinate) from a light water reactor. The main
minerals in this Synroc are hollandite
(BaAl2Ti6O16), zirconolite (CaZrTi2O7) and perovskite (CaTiO3).
The zirconolite and perovskite are hosts for the actinides.
The strontium and barium will be fixed in the perovskite.
The cesium will be fixed in the hollandite.
22 LONG TERM MANAGEMENT OF WASTE
The time frame in question when dealing with radioactive waste
ranges from 10,000 to 1,000,000 years, according to studies based on
the effect of estimated radiation doses. Researchers suggest that
forecasts of health detriment for such periods should be examined
critically. Practical studies only consider up to 100 years as far as
effective planning and cost evaluations are concerned. Long term
behavior of radioactive wastes remains a subject for ongoing research
projects in geoforecasting.
23 RE-USE OF WASTE
Another option is to find applications for the isotopes in nuclear waste
so as to re-use them. Already, caesium-137, strontium-90 and a few
other isotopes are extracted for certain industrial applications such
as food irradiation and radioisotope thermoelectric generators. While
re-use does not eliminate the need to manage radioisotopes, it reduces
the quantity of waste produced.
The Nuclear Assisted Hydrocarbon Production Method, Canadian
patent application 2,659,302, is a method for the temporary or
permanent storage of nuclear waste materials comprising the placing

of waste materials into one or more repositories or boreholes
constructed into an unconventional oil formation. The thermal flux of
the waste materials fracture the formation alters the chemical and/or
physical properties of hydrocarbon material within the subterranean
formation to allow removal of the altered material. A mixture of
hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other formation fluids are produced
from the formation. The radioactivity of high-level radioactive waste
affords proliferation resistance to plutonium placed in the periphery of
the repository or the deepest portion of a borehole.
Breeder reactors can run on U-238 and transuranic elements, which
comprise the majority of spent fuel radioactivity in the 1000-100000
year time span.
24 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT IN A
HOSPITAL
The management of radioactive waste involves two stages: collection
and disposal.
The radioactive waste should be identified and segregated within the
area of work. Foot operated waste collection bins with disposable
polythene lining should be used for collecting solid radioactive waste
and polythene carboys for liquid waste. Collecting radioactive waste
in glassware should be avoided. Each package is monitored and
labeled for the activity level before deciding upon the mode of
disposal. Some hospitals that have incinerators and permission to
dispose of combustible radioactive waste through incineration may
also segregate combustible radioactive waste from non-combustible
waste. When two different isotopes of different half-lives like Tc-99m
and I-131 are used, separate waste collection bags and bins should be
used for each. Each bag or bin must bear a label with name of the
isotope, level of activity and date of monitoring.
24.1 Radioactive waste disposal
The collected radioactive waste is disposed as per the following:

 Dilute and Disperse
 Delay and Decay
 Concentrate & Contain (Rarely used)
 Incineration (Rarely used)
25 RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT IN
INDIA
Just as per capita consumption of electricity is related to the standard
of living in a country, the electricity generation by nuclear means can
be regarded as a minimum measure of radioactive waste that is
generated by a country and hence the related magnitude of radioactive
waste management. On the scale of nuclear share of electricity
generation, India ranks fourth from the bottom in about 30 countries.
As of the year 2000, India’s share of nuclear electricity generation in
the total electricity generation in the country was 2.65% compared to
75%, 47%, 42.24%, 34.65%, 31.21%, 28.87%, 19.80%, 14.41% and
12.44% of France, Sweden, the Republic of Korea, Japan, Germany,
UK, USA, Russia and Canada, respectively. The reactors in operation
produce in net Gigawatts (one billion (109) watts) (E) in the latter
countries nearly 63, 9,13, 44, 21, 13, 97, 20 and 10, respectively;
India’s reactors in operation yield 1.9 on this scale (both data are as
per IAEA Report of 2000). Hence the magnitude of radioactive waste
management in India could be miniscule compared to that in other
countries, especially when one takes into account the nuclear arsenal
already in stockpile in the nuclear weapons countries. As more power
reactors come on stream and as weaponization takes deeper routes the
needs of radioactive waste management increase. Radioactive waste
management has been an integral part of the entire nuclear fuel cycle
in India. Low-level radioactive waste and intermediate-level waste
arise from operations of reactors and fuel reprocessing facilities. The
low-level radioactive waste liquid is retained as sludge after chemical
treatment, resulting in decontamination factors ranging from 10 to
1000. Solid radioactive waste is compacted, bailed or incinerated
depending upon the nature of the waste. Solar evapora-tion of liquid
waste, reverse osmosis and immobilization using cement matrix are
adopted depending on the form of waste. Underground engineered

trenches in near-surface disposal facilities are utilized for disposal of
solid waste; these disposal sites are under continuous surveillance and
monitoring. High efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are used to
minimize air-borne radioactivity. Over the past four decades
radioactive waste management facilities have been set up at Trombay,
Tarapore, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam, Narora, Kakr apara, Hyderabad
and Jaduguda, along with the growth of nuclearpower and fuel-
reprocessing plants. Multiple barrier approach is followed in handling
solid waste. After the commissioning of the fast breeder test reactor
at Kalpakkam, one is required to reprocess the burnt carbide fuel from
this reactor. As the burn-up of this fuel is likely to be of the order of
100 MWD/kg, nearly an order of magnitude more than that of thermal
reactors and due to short cooling-time before reprocessing, specific
activity to be handled will be greatly enhanced. The use of carbide
fuel would result in new forms of chemicals in the reprocessing cycle.
These provide new challenges for fast-reactor fuel reprocessing.
26 RADIOSENSITIVITY.
There is a wide range over which organisms are sensitive to the lethal
effects of radiation. A general classification has been devised based
on the interphase chromosome volume of sensitive cells. These and
other results of experimental irradiations show mammals to be most
sensitive, followed by birds, fish, reptiles, and insects. Plants show a
wide range of sensitivity that generally overlaps that of animals. Least
sensitive to acute radiation exposures are mosses, lichens, algae and
micro-organisms, such as bacteria and viruses.
Sensitivity of the organism to radiation depends on the life stage at
exposure. Embryos and juvenile forms are more sensitive than
adults. Fish embryos, for example, have been shown to be quite
sensitive. The various developmental stages of insects are quite
remarkable for the range of sensitivities they present. Overall, the
available data indicate that the production of viable offspring through
gametogenesis and reproduction is a more radiosensitive population
attribute than the induction of individual mortality. In the most
sensitive plant species, the effects of chronic irradiation were noted at
dose rates of 1000 to 3000 microgray per hour. It was suggested that
chronic dose rates less than 400 microgray per hour (10 milligray per

day) would have effects, although slight, in sensitive plants. They
would be unlikely, however, to have significant deleterious effects in
the wider range of plants present in natural plant communities.
27 EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE ON
HUMAN HEALTH
Although a dose of just 25 rems causes some detectable changes in
blood, doses to near 100 rems usually have no immediate harmful
effects. Doses above 100 rems cause the first signs of radiation
sickness including:
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Headache
 Some loss of white blood cells
Doses of 300 rems or more cause temporary hair loss, but also more
significant internal harm, including damage to nerve cells and the
cells that line the digestive tract. Severe loss of white blood cells,
which are the body's main defense against infection, makes radiation
victims highly vulnerable to disease. Radiation also reduces
production of blood platelets, which aid blood clotting, so victims of
radiation sickness are also vulnerable to hemorrhaging. Half of all
people exposed to 450 rems die, and doses of 800 rems or more are
always fatal. Besides the symptoms mentioned above, these people
also suffer from fever and diarrhea. As of yet, there is no effective
treatment--so death occurs within two to fourteen days.
In time, for survivors, diseases such as leukemia (cancer of the
blood), lung cancer, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, and cancers of
other organs can appear due to the radiation received.
28 PROTECTION FROM RADIATION
Because exposure to high levels of ionising radiation carries a risk,
should we attempt to avoid it entirely? Even if we wanted to, this
would be impossible. Radiation has always been present in the

environment and in our bodies. However, we can and should
minimise unnecessary exposure to significant levels of man-made
radiation.
Radiation is very easily detected. There is a range of simple, sensitive
instruments capable of detecting minute amounts of radiation from
natural and anthropogenic sources.
There are four ways in which people are protected from identified
radiation sources:
28.1 Limiting Time: For people who are exposed to radiation in
addition to natural background radiation through their work, the dose
is reduced and the risk of illness essentially eliminated by limiting
exposure time.
28.2 Distance: In the same way that heat from a fire is less the
further away you are, the intensity of radiation decreases with
distance from its source.
28.3 Shielding: Barriers of lead, concrete or water give good
protection from penetrating radiation such as gamma rays.
Radioactive materials are therefore often stored or handled under
water, or by remote control in rooms constructed of thick concrete or
even lined with lead.
28.4 Containment: Radioactive materials are confined and kept
out of the environment. Radioactive isotopes for medical use, for
example, are dispensed in closed handling facilities, while nuclear
reactors operate within closed systems with multiple barriers which
keep the radioactive materials contained. Rooms have a reduced air
pressure so that any leaks occur into the room and not out from the
room.
29 IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS AND
LIVELIHOODS

The land of 2,375 families in the Jaitapur area has been forcibly
acquired for the nuclear power plant, following fierce and prolonged
resistance. The financial compensation offered by the government is
far less than the land’s proper value, but at its heart is that people
simply don’t want to sell. Their livelihoods depend on the land and on
having access to natural resources, and a singular payment in
exchange for their property - even with the offer of a job thrown in -
cuts this lifeline. Around 95% of landowners have refused to accept
the offered compensation.
According to some estimates, the Jaitapur project will negatively
affect some 40,000 people, yet many of these are not being offered
compensation as the EIA denies they will be affected. The impact of
the 5km ‘sterilized zone’ around the plant, in which new
developments are forbidden, has not even been mentioned in the
impact report.
Sensibly, the Ministry of Environment and Forests specifies
that finding land for a project “without causing any hardship to local
community and their socio-cultural and economic aspects is very
important.” Yet a socioeconomic study required as part of the site
scoping process was never carried out.
30 EEFECT ON AGRICULTURE AND FOOD
Application of radiation to agriculture has resulted in the release of 22
improved varieties of seeds, which are contributing directly to the
increase of GDP in the country. Of these mutant varieties, blackgram
(urad) accounts for 95 per cent of the cultivation of this pulse in the
State of Maharashtra. At an all-India level, four BARC blackgram
varieties account for over 49 per cent of the total national breeder
seed indent of all the blackgram varieties taken together. Groundnut
variety TAG-24 is very popular and accounts for 11 per cent of the
national breeder seed indent. At a conservative estimate, these
varieties constitute a GDP of over Rs.10,000 millions per year.
Research done in BARC and other centres in the world, has clearly
demonstrated the advantages of food preservation by irradiation, and
the Government of India has cleared several items for radiation
processing. Setting up of such plants is expected to reduce the

percentage of food that is lost due to various causes and provide the
means for improving food hygiene and facilitate export.
One spice irradiator is already operating at BRIT in Navi Mumbai, to
treat items requiring high doses. A Proton irradiator at Lasalgaon,
near Nasik, is being set up by BARC and will be completed in the
year 2001 to treat items requiring low doses. Efforts are being made
to encourage other agencies to set up such plants in the private sector.
31 RESPONSIBILITY FOR WASTES
At present there is clear and unequivocal understanding that each
country is ethically and legally responsible for its own wastes,
therefore the default position is that all nuclear wastes will be
disposed of in each of the 40 or so countries concerned.
The main ingredients of high-level nuclear wastes are created in the
nuclear reactors which make the electricity in 31 countries. There is
thus no moral obligation on uranium suppliers in respect to the
wastes, other than that involved in safeguards procedures.
The arrangements to Canadian uranium. Thus any international waste
repository has implications under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT). The trustworthiness and standing of the host country is
fundamental to the project's acceptability to NPT states, which
comprise virtually every country but India, Pakistan, Israel and North
Korea. Also, the international treaty produced by IAEA and signed by
most nations of the world in 1997 covering the management and
disposal of used fuel and high-level wastes requires that the host
facility or system meets the highest national and international
standards.
Even countries such as Australia with no nuclear power have need for
secure disposal of long-lived radioactive wastes from their research
reactors.
32 LEGACY WASTES
In addition to the routine wastes from current nuclear power
generation there are other radioactive wastes referred to as 'legacy
wastes'. These wastes exist in several countries which pioneered
nuclear power and especially where power programmes were
developed out of military programmes. These are sometimes
voluminous and difficult, and arose in the course of those countries

getting to a position where nuclear technology is a commercial
proposition for power generation. They represent a liability which is
not covered by current funding arrangements.
33 THE FUTURE
Demonstrating the long term safety of radioactive waste
repositories remains as a challenge but the experience
gained in safety studies over the past years in many
countries has generated an ever increasing confidence among
implementers, regulatory authorities and other stakeholders
that the current designs of repositories can safely isolate
radioactive waste for the times necessary to provide
protection of humans and their environment.

34 CONCLUSION
From the extraction of uranium from rock formations, through the
milling, refining, and enriching of uranium, to the operation of
reactors, and the unsolved dilemma of what to do with spent fuel,
there are potential health risks at every stage of the nuclear fuel chain.
Although it is widely accepted that there is no safe threshold for
radiation exposure, low-level radiation emissions from nuclear
facilities have not been considered a threat to human health. A
number of studies undertaken in the past two decades have shown
concerning links between low-level exposure to radiation and some
serious illnesses, including childhood leukemia. Certainly any one
study that has indicated a possible causal relationship could be
dismissed as a chance finding, but several studies suggesting the same
relationship must be considered seriously. The evidence in these
studies, along with our previous knowledge of the relationship
between cancer and radiation, should be a concern for public health
specialists and policy-makers, with resultant precautionary action.

There are a myriad of new carcinogens in the environment. Many of
these were not present when the initial studies on radiation and cancer
were done. The interactions between these carcinogens and the effects
of radiation exposure are poorly understood. The exposure of the
Ontario population to the added radiation emitted by the nuclear
industry represents a potential risk of unknown magnitude.
The link between radiation exposure and cancer is becoming
increasingly clear, and the cellular mechanisms involved in this
process are becoming better understood. However, we are only
beginning to understand the genetic and trans-generational effects of
radiation damage. Much of the long-lived radioactive contamination
we are spreading into our environment now is essentially permanent
and irreversible. The millions of tons of radioactive tailings from
uranium mining, and the many thousands of tons of radioactive waste
produced in reactors that will remain toxic for thousands of years, as
well as the danger of an accident or meltdown causing a catastrophic
release of radioactive particles into the air, water and soil, are all
serious potential risks for humans today and for generations to come.
The use of depleted uranium, which is still significantly radioactive,
for munitions in areas of conflict leaves local civilians in these
countries exposed to radioactive waste products for many years. This
radioactive material will distribute itself around the globe, over time.
As physicians, our job is to maintain, promote and ensure good health
to Ontarians. We recommend more definitive studies to clarify
possible links between some serious illnesses and residential
proximity to nuclear facilities. In addition we strongly advise a
precautionary approach to policy decisions regarding the nuclear
energy industry, not just because of the significant health risks of all
stages of the nuclear chain, but also because of the implications with
respect to weapons of mass destruction, the risks of catastrophic
accidents such as Chernobyl and Three Mile Island, and the
significant environmental damage this industry causes.

35 SUGGESTIONS
 Indian government should not focus on nuclear energy,
govt. must focus on wind energy and solar energy
 Kudankulam nuclear power plant is good step for
solving water dispute between karnataka and tamil
nadu, but govt. should establishes like this plant solar
or wind based.
 First govt. asks to nearer people where govt. want to
establish NPP if people want then establish.
 Govt. must look history and then establish.
 Uranium is not too much in the earth and after 50-60
years it will be difficult to search uranium so we will
Have to close NPP.

36 REFERENCES
1. S.kumar, S.s. Ali, M. Chander, N.k. Bansal, K. Balu ,
waste management division, Bhabha atomic research
centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
2. IAEA http://www-ns.iaea.org/conventions/waste-
jointconvention.htm
3. Article Radioactive waste: the problem and its
management by K.R. RAO
4. Nuclear world association
5. Anantharaman K (2007) Role of nuclear power in the Indian
Energy Scenario. Gond Geol Mag
6. Banerjee K, Raj K, Wattal PK (2011) Process technology for
vitrification of high-level radioactive liquid waste.
7. The Principles of Radioactive Waste Management, Safety
Series No. 111-F, a publication within the RADWASTE
programme, IAEA
8. Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS)

9. Environmental Impact Assessment for Proposed Jaitapur
Nuclear Power Park, Village Madban, District Ratnagiri,
Maharashtra, prepared by National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute (hereafter referred to as EIA).
10. Environmental Impact Assessment Notification - 2006,
Ministry of Environment and Forests (hereafter referred to as
MoEF 2006). 2010 Environmental Impact Assessment
Guidance Manual for Nuclear Power Plants, Nuclear Fuel
Reprocessing Plants and Nuclear Waste Management Plants,
Ministry of Environment and Forests (hereafter referred to as
MoEF 2010).
APPENDIX
Environmental and Ethical Aspects
Radioactive Waste Management -
The first two statements were formulated and published in 1995 to
confront the question of identifying the best and most appropriate
means of managing and disposing of radioactive wastes from the civil
nuclear fuel cycle. The third statement updates these to 1999.
The Principles of Radioactive Waste Management
A 1995 publication within the International Atomic Energy Agency's
(IAEA's) Radioactive Waste Safety Standards (RADWASS)
programme1 defines the objective of radioactive waste management
and the associated set of internationally agreed principles. The
principles set out in the document are:
1. Protection of human health
Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to secure an
acceptable level of protection for human health.
2. Protection of the environment
Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to provide an
acceptable level of protection of the environment.

3. Protection beyond national borders
Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to assure that
possible effects on human health and the environment beyond
national borders will be taken into account.
4. Protection of future generations
Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way that predicted
impacts on the health of future generations will not be greater than
relevant levels of impact that are acceptable today.
5. Burdens on future generations
Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way that will not
impose undue burdens on future generations.
6. National legal framework
Radioactive waste shall be managed within an appropriate national
legal framework including clear allocation of responsibilities and
provision for independent regulatory functions.
7. Control of radioactive waste generation
Generation of radioactive waste shall be kept to the minimum
practicable.
8. Radioactive waste generation and management
interdependencies
Interdependencies among all steps in radioactive waste generation and
management shall be appropriately taken into account.
9. Safety of facilities
The safety of facilities for radioactive waste management shall be
appropriately assured during their lifetime.

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