Assessment of knowledge management practices the case of ethiopian defense forces, ethiopian.

COLLEGE OF FINANCE MANAGEMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC AND
SOCIAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT
ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES: THE CASE OF ETHIOPIAN DEFENSE FORCES,
ETHIOPIAN.
BY;
ABAYNEH LISHAN
AUGUST, 2020 G.C
ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

Assessment of Knowledge management practices; The case of Ethiopian Defense Forces. Ethiopian.
ii
ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
THE CASE; OF ETHIOPIAN DEFENSE FORCES.
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE UNIVERSITY,
COLLEGE OF FINANCE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC AND SOCIAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT-IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
MASTER DEGREE OF IN PUBLIC MANAGEMENT.
By;
ABAYNEH LISHAN ASNAKE
ID.No ECSU 1703914
ADVISOR;
DR. ZERIHUN DURESSA
ECSU, COLLEGE OF FINANCE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC AND SOCIAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT
AUGUST, 2020 G.C
ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

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DECLARATION
I, ABAYNEH LISHAN Registration ID.No ECSU 1703914, do hereby declare that this thesis
entitled ‗‘Assessment of Knowledge Management Practices; The case of Ethiopian Defense
Forces ‗‘ is my original work and that all sources of materials used for this thesis have been duly
acknowledged. This work has not been submitted partially. Or in full. By any other person for an
award of a degree in any other university or institution and I carried out the study under the
guidance and supervision of Dr.Zerihun Duressa. The assistance and help received during the
course of this investigation have been duly acknowledged.
Abayneh Lishan Signature ----------------------------------------Date ------------------------
The thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as an advisor.
Dr .Zerihun Duressa Signature-------------Date -------------------------------------------------

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THESIS APPROVAL
The undersigned certify that we have read this thesis‗‗Assessment of Knowledge Management
Practices; The case of Ethiopian Defense Forces ‗‘ and hereby recommended to the Department
Council. DPSSM, CFMD to consider as it as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of a Masters of Art Degree in Public Management.
Dr. Zerihun Duressa -------------------------- -----------------------------
Advisor Signature Date
-------------------------- ----------------------------- -----------------------------
Chairman Signature Date
-------------------------------- -------------------------------- ----------------------------
Internal Examiner Signature Data
--------------------------------- -------------------------------- ----------------------------
External examiner Signature Date

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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this thesis entitled ‗‘Assessment of Knowledge Management Practices; The
case Ethiopian Defense Forces. ‗Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award
of a degree of Masters in Public Management to the Department of Public Management and
Social Security management. Ethiopian Civil Service University. Through the Department of
Public and Social Security Management, done by Abayneh Lishan ID No ECSU 1703914 is
conducted by him under my supervision.
Dr. Zerihun Duressa
Signature---------------------------------------------
Date--------------------------------------------------

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This thesis is the result of the efforts of many individuals. First, I want to thank Dr. Zerihun
Duressa for his amazing involvement in this process. He was very detail-oriented and always
provided me with excellent recommendations and professional guidance. Thank you for your
patience, encouragements, believing and dedicating much of his tight time with commitment all
the way to the end of this research.
Second, I want to thank Colonel Alemu Demise and Colonel Dagnachew Ayalew for their
assistance in making sure that my thesis reads smoothly, formats are correct, and providing me
with helpful resources and recommendations. Thank you for your encouragements, humor, and
making me laugh! I would like to extend my special thanks to my colleagues in Joint operation
head quarter military personnel‘s such as sub department of readiness and others, for all their
cooperation in distributing, filling, follow up and collecting the questionnaire and sacrificing
their valuable time and provide their genuine responses to my queries that facilitated me to get
all the required inputs within the scheduled time.
It has been a great pleasure for me personally and professionally to work and interact with
numerous other military personnel. I apologize to them for not mentioning their names here. I
would cherish my relationship with those military and I am thankful to them for their
understanding me whenever I may not have measured up to their hope. I shall always remember
the support and co-operation, it was my good luck, to receive from all of them and I am
conscious, this was due to their openhanded natures.
I once again express my sincere thanks to all those directly or indirectly associated with me in
this effort for their unflinching co-operation. I would like them to permit me to wish all great
happiness and all of the great success in their work. Their continued and fruitful interaction and
relationship made my task interesting, exciting and enjoyable. Finally, my sincere thanks go to
my families for their absolute support all through my school years. I thank my caring and lovely
wife and my Daughter for their love and unconditional support and tolerance during my study.
Above all I give thanks to the massive God for keeping me healthy and strong in the face of
difficult hurdles to finally complete this Master‘s Degree course in public management.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
Contents pages
DECLARATION .....................................................................................................................................i
THESIS APPROVAL ............................................................................................................................. ii
CERTIFICATION.................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENT........................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLE ................................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................. x
LIST OF ANNEXES.............................................................................................................................. xi
ACRONYMS........................................................................................................................................ xii
ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER ONE .....................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the study....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................................................5
1.3 Objective of the study .......................................................................................................................7
1.3.1 General Objective ..........................................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................................................7
1.4 Research Questions ...........................................................................................................................7
1.5 Significance of the study ...................................................................................................................7
1.6 Scope of the study.............................................................................................................................8
1.7 Limitation of the study ......................................................................................................................8
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms........................................................................................................8
1.9 Organization of the study ................................................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................................11
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE..............................................................................................11
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................11
2.2 Concept of knowledge management ................................................................................................11
2.3 Theoretical Literature......................................................................................................................12
2.3.1 Importance of knowledge management ........................................................................................12

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2.3.2 Knowledge Management Practices...............................................................................................12
2.4 Dimensions of knowledge management...........................................................................................13
2.4.1 Knowledge acquisition.................................................................................................................14
2.4.1.1 Sources of knowledge acquisition...................................................................................15
2.4.1.2 Knowledge elicitation methods.......................................................................................15
2.4.2 Knowledge storage.......................................................................................................................16
2.4.3 Knowledge dissemination/sharing................................................................................................17
2.4.3.1 Mechanisms to share knowledge.....................................................................................18
2.4.3.1.1 People-based mechanisms...........................................................................................18
2.4.3.1.2 Technology-based mechanisms...................................................................................18
2.4.4Knowledge application ..................................................................................................................19
2.5 Organizational development and knowledge management ...............................................................19
2.6 Types of knowledge ........................................................................................................................21
2.6.1Explicit knowledge........................................................................................................................21
2.6.2Tacit knowledge ............................................................................................................................21
2.7 Knowledge management systems and approaches............................................................................21
2.8 Knowledge management in military organization ............................................................................23
2.9 Experience of knowledge management in Defense Departments globally.........................................27
2.9.1 Knowledge Management Experience in U.S. Army......................................................................27
2.9.2 Knowledge Management Experience in Singapore Army .............................................................28
2.9.3 Knowledge Management Experience in Canadian Army ..............................................................28
2.10 Organizational Challenges of Knowledge Management..................................................................29
2.11 Practices and Challenges of Knowledge Management in Ethiopian Defense Forces........................30
2.11.1 Practices of Knowledge Management in Ethiopian Defense Forces .................................30
2.11.2 Challenges of Knowledge Management in Ethiopian Defense Forces..............................31
2.12 Empirical Literature on knowledge management practices .............................................................32
2.13 Conceptual framework of the study................................................................................................34
CHAPTER THREE...............................................................................................................................35
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY...................................................................................35
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................35

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3.2 Research Design..............................................................................................................................35
3.3 Research Approach .........................................................................................................................35
3.4 Population of the study....................................................................................................................35
3.4.1 Sampling Techniques (method)....................................................................................................35
3.4.2 Sample Size .................................................................................................................................36
3.5 Types and Source of Data................................................................................................................37
3.6 Method of data collection................................................................................................................37
3.6.1 Questionnaires .............................................................................................................................37
3.6.2 Interview .....................................................................................................................................38
3.6.3 Document Analysis:.....................................................................................................................38
3.7 Methods of Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................38
3.8 Reliability and Validity of the Instrument ........................................................................................38
3.8.1 Validity........................................................................................................................................39
3.8.2 Reliability Test of Questionnaire. .................................................................................................39
3.9 Research Ethics...............................................................................................................................40
CHAPTER FOUR.................................................................................................................................41
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION......................................................41
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................41
4.2 Response Rate of participants.........................................................................................................41
4.3 Respondents Characteristics ............................................................................................................42
4.3.1 Respondent‘s Characteristics by Demographic .............................................................................42
4.4 Analysis of basic research questions and questionnaire data regarding knowledge management
practices................................................................................................................................................44
4.4.2 Knowledge creation system..........................................................................................................45
4.4.3 Formal mechanisms to keep created knowledge ...........................................................................46
4.4.4 Knowledge management practice in Ethiopian defense forces ......................................................46
4.5 Basic research question about knowledge management practice structured and designed in Ethiopian
defense forces........................................................................................................................................50
4.5.1Organizational Structure................................................................................................................50
4.5.2Knowledge management infrastructure..........................................................................................51
4.5.3Leadership related item..................................................................................................................52
4.5.4Knowledge management techniques ..............................................................................................53

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4.5.5Knowledge Storage and sharing.....................................................................................................55
4.6 Challenges in Ethiopian Defense Forces Knowledge Management Sharing Related Items................56
4.7 Regarding Knowledge creation challenge of in n Ethiopian Defense Forces Related Items...............58
4.8 Finding from interviews ..................................................................................................................59
4.8.1 Characteristics of the respondents ................................................................................................59
4.8.2 Knowledge Management Concept in Ethiopian Defense Forces....................................................59
4.8.3 Knowledge Creation Capability....................................................................................................60
4.8.4 Knowledge sharing ......................................................................................................................61
4.8.5 Knowledge storage.......................................................................................................................62
4.8.6 Skill development and knowledge retention..................................................................................62
CHAPTER FIVE...................................................................................................................................64
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................64
5. Introduction. ...................................................................................................................................64
5.1 Summary of Findings......................................................................................................................64
5.2 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................66
5.3 Recommendations...........................................................................................................................67
Reference..............................................................................................................................................69
ANNENDICES .....................................................................................................................................76

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LIST OF TABLE
Table 2.1 Knowledge management Approaches. .......................................................................22
Table 3. 1; Proportionate Sampling for each Department...........................................................37
Table 3.2 Reliability Statistics...................................................................................................39
Table 4.1 Response Rate of participants ....................................................................................41
Table 4.2 Respondent‘s Characteristics by Age, Sex, Education level, Work experience and
military rank..............................................................................................................................42
Table 4.3 Knowledge Management Practice of Ethiopian Defense Forces. ................................44
Table 4.4 Knowledge management Practice. .............................................................................47
Table 4.5 Knowledge management Practice ..............................................................................48
Table 4.6: Knowledge management Practice .............................................................................49
Table 4.7: Organizational Structure...........................................................................................50
Table 4.8: KM Infrastructure.....................................................................................................51
Table 4.9: Leadership................................................................................................................52
Table 4.10: Knowledge management tools ................................................................................55
Table 4.11: Knowledge sharing and storage technologies..........................................................55

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 main Tenets of knowledge management...................................................................25
Figure 2.2 Conceptual Framework of the study .........................................................................34
Figure 4-1 knowledge creation system.......................................................................................45
Figure 4.2: Challenges knowledge sharing VS management......................................................57
Figure 4-3 Challenge faced by Ethiopian Defense forces...........................................................58

xi
LIST OF ANNEXES
Appendix A...............................................................................................................................76
Appendix B...............................................................................................................................82

xii
ACRONYMS
AKM Army Knowledge Management
AKO Army Knowledge Online
BPR Business Process Re-engineering
BSC Balance Scored Cared
DKO Defense Knowledge Online
EDFs Ethiopian Defense Forces
EPDR Ethiopian People Democratic Revolutionary
EPRDF Ethiopian People Revolutionary Democratic Front
GDP Gross Domestic product
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IT Information Technology
KM Knowledge Management
KMF Knowledge management framework
MOND Ministry of National Defense
PMAC Provisional Military Administration Council
SPSS Scientific Package Social Sciences
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
UNMEE United Nation Mission Eritrean-Ethiopia

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ABSTRACT
Knowledge management in the military is seen as a strategic approach to achieving defense
objectives by the value of collective knowledge through the process of creating, gathering,
organizing, sharing and transferring knowledge into action.
The purpose of this study was to assess knowledge management practices the Ethiopian Defense
force. The specific objectives were to determine the current status of knowledge management
practices in Ethiopian defense forces. To examine supporting structure that is designed to help
knowledge management practices at Ethiopian defense forces. In order to meet this objectives,
the research adopted descriptive research design and research approach using mixed (Both
Quantitative and Qualitative) for data collection and analysis. The target populations of this
study 324 military personnel, from these 258 male and 66 females. Primary data is collected
through questionnaire from 123 sample of military personal. Secondary data were obtained
through analysis of relevant documents.
The study found that knowledge management practices in Ethiopian defense forces have
limitations in the following three aspects of knowledge management. These are, having the
proper mechanisms for converting tacit knowledge from individuals in to explicit form, storing
knowledge in a form that is readily accessible to its military personnel‘s, as well as in the proper
utilization of modern technology to facilitate knowledge sharing. Ethiopian Defense forces
follow a traditional hierarchical structure, Ethiopian defense forces have challenges in creating
new knowledge and administrating. Ethiopian defense force has no written policy documents
knowledge management sharing and retention and did not have a knowledge management
Department. To minimize this problem first and the foremost the knowledge management
practices in Ethiopian defense forces declared the importance of knowledge management policy
in the organization. Merit based knowledge management practice utilizes different methods and
tools for knowledge sharing. The study recommends that Ethiopian Defense Forces need to
establish a clear policy and procedure, including strategy and a specific department to guide
knowledge management.
KEY TERMS: Knowledge management, knowledge sharing, Knowledge acquisition, knowledge
application, and challenge of knowledge management.

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Researchers and professionals from all over the world are working to understand the value of
knowledge management in various countries and organizations. Yet despite all the developments
had no specific researches was conducted to assess or investigate the knowledge management
practices in the Ethiopia Defense Forces.
In an era where knowledge is increasingly seen as an organization‘s most expensive resource,
many firms and organizations have implemented knowledge management systems in an effort to
capture, store, and disseminate knowledge across the firm (Alavi, 2001) For instance, in an Army
context, we can see the best empirical Knowledge management experiences like: United States,
Britain, Canada, Australia, Japan, Korea, and Singapore.
In the context of today‘s military modernization and organizational change efforts, the present is
set off from the past by the current heavy reliance on knowledge resources and organizational
learning (Proctor, Michael D. and Gubler, Justin C., 1998) since a broad range of knowledge
potentially affects operations the commander‘s information requirements may extend beyond
purely military matters. Defining these requirements is an important aspect of Knowledge
Management (Lord H. W., 2010) Knowledge Management use within a military environment
requires knowledge processes that are tough and reliable within operational contexts and the
knowledge creation and conversion processes must match the tempo of the military operations.
(Elder, 2008) In his article stated that Knowledge Management is about the processes and
techniques used to rapidly transfer experience and provide a common understanding from an
inexperienced soldier to an inexperienced soldier. Accordingly, Knowledge Management can
support and improve organizational learning and promote an innovative environment, resulting
in an increase in performance.
The main limitation of the knowledge management functions in this organization of Ethiopian
history is full of conflict and wars. Most of the following Ethiopian historical military documents
are confidential, thus not readily available to the public.
In Ethiopian history the emperor Army is the first well-structured defense organization during
that era. Toenhce the army knowledge and skills as below are presented evidence had been
carried out. (Harar military Acadame, 1999)

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Military sciences and Art developed; internally junior officer training centers had been opened,
like Holeta, Harer.And kebena. Instructor‘s came from Indian, Swedish and Great Britain. Even
though Air forces pilot officers and supportive staffs organized in Debre Zeyit by Swedish and
US respectively.
The naval Academy established at Massawa to train officers and troops by Norwegians. Other
Some senior and junior officers also sent to the US, Great Britain and Israel for further military
and technology training. Especially for ground forces local training centers were built in different
parts of the country. Peacekeeping missions in South Korea and Congo contributed a lot to
develop the modern military concept in the army.
Technology transformation, New Rifles, tanks, armored personnel carrier formed the ground
forces and Fighter‘s jet transport and reconnaissance aircrafts introduced to the air force.
Although the naval force armed with fighter crates. Ammunition factory was installed in the
country.
The imperial guards muted on December 1960 and collapsed the potential officers. In February,
1974 popular revolution avoided senior and general officers from the army. Harar academy
officers training center abounded. Due to the above-mentioned significant challenges, the
practices of knowledge management could not transfer to successor Government.
(wikipedia.org/wiki/Army-of-the -Ethiopian)
As in 1974 popular revolutionary brake out in the country the Ethiopian army junior officers and
Non-commotion tactic over the throb and the emperor soon stepped down, the professional
military government forced to restructure the army as follows.
Military science and Art promotion, all foreign countries military experts deported from
Ethiopian, as well as the junior officers who trained by the western countries and some moderate
General‘s task has been the responsibility of commanding the fragile army. Meanwhile, the
Somalia reactionary regime invaded the country from East and South. Simultaneously and
internal political conflicts raised in a majority of the country.
To restore the sovereignty of the country Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC)
turned his face to the former Soviet Union and the total agreement made. To purse the invaders
the imperial junior officer from the army, Air forces and naval force went to USSR for short-
term military training and came back to the country in order to knock out the insiders.

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Firstly, in conjunction with Cuban mechanized, south Yamane Artillery units and USSR military
advisors the Ethiopian army infantry defeated the aggressors. In line with, the training of junior
officers and other ranks thoroughly combined locally and abroad.(USSR, Cuban and East
Germany).Within a short period of time the largest army on sub Saharan Africa countries could
be built interims of socialist ideas. (Defence, 1980)
Technology application, all western military equipment has gradually substituted by soviet up to
date machineries. Military factory and industries created by the USSR, East Germany and North
Korea as a pilot project in the central parts of the country and red sea Kaleb Island.
Ethiopian People Democratic Revolutionary (EPDR) Government was not volunteering to
preserve the predecessor‘s military legacy in general. Although, On May 1989 military officers
uprising regulated in dismissal of the highly experienced officers. The end of the cold war
secrecy challenged Ethiopian People Democratic Revolutionary army knowledge heritage.
Eventually the fall dawn of the Ethiopian People Democratic Revolutionary regime discontinued
the professional army value culture and knowledge than ever. Almost all the material and
nonmaterial of the former army discarded totally. The victorious of Ethiopian People
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) Government who tack the position to administer the
country started from search in building a new democratic regular army.
To realize the set vision the government task the below illustrated initiatives. Military science
and Art promotion, Most of the old regime Army officers demobilized after short-term
rehabilitation and few junior qualified officers joined the new democratic army in order to give
training in various military fields, particularly in mechanized units. The naval force dissolved
from the services.
For more than ten years foreign and internal officers‘ training were completely given up,
misplaced on the job trainings continued at the base of short time. For mechanized units new
technical and tactical operation manuals published.
Defense level military doctrine prepared for the first time and trainings is conducting on it. In
order to protect the Eritrean government aggression operational and tactical level field manuals
written and distributed to the training centers and the war front.
Light infantry training centers reconstructed and fully engaged. Officer‘s long time training in
abroad and in the country are in progress. For joint operation purpose, main department staffs
operational manuals widely organized at different times.

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Peacekeeping missions being conducted successfully on the continent and still ongoing. To
transfer the defense sector BPR, BSC and Kaizen capacity building and work efficiency raising
program receptively.
Technological accommodation, Military light industry reviewed and endorsed, Engineering in
the field of construction highly expanded to support the EPRDF government economic centers.
Naval force is on restructuring again.
Opportunities and challenges, African horn disputes are playing a significant role in army
modernization. Not using of the information technology contributed lost to transfer knowledge
management practices in the army. Then in the process of reformation in the country also
positively supports the knowledge management practices like using of the cyber science,
reconstruction of the naval force and reorganizing the defense force. Resource expenditure on
military and nonmilitary education is too much; however, the production of Knowledge
Management Practices is not satisfactory.
Finally, 30 years emporia army knowledge management practices were forgotten immediately
after the regime change. No registered documents found in a written form. During the EPDR
administration numbers of military Science and Art manuals were being in utilization, howbeit a
single document not transferred to the current Army. Regarding qualified military personnel
retention, nothing expressed in the army rule and regulations manual three consecutive regimes.
Army personnel are nowadays on different trainings. However, as soon as they accomplished
they might go for retirement. No standing department organized, who will take the responsibility
for knowledge management practice transfer. Still, it is not late to regroup the countries
knowledge management practice in order to consolidate and disseminate to the new generation.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem
The history of a modern army in Ethiopia was recently begun after the end of the Second World
War. Since then, the Ethiopian army has gone through major change under different regimes.
However, it was only the latest version of the national army that has a properly organized
military doctrine and strategy. Prior to this, the army‘s concept of operations was shaped by the
doctrines and strategies of its foreign sponsors. The organization of the imperial army was
influenced by the doctrine and strategy of western armies (initially the British and later the
Americans), The army concept of operations during the military regime was shaped by soviet
senior military advisors, whereas, The EPRDF army was an insurgent army that developed into a
conventional army with its own set of military and military political institutions, including its
own military doctrine and its own concept of the science and art of war. (Gebrehiwot, 2017)
Strong defense forces in Ethiopia means strong preventive forces, as a result, strong forces
capable of resisting any attack from any side. Thus, by strong armed forces mean qualitative,
creative, effective, and efficient armed forces at different levels of the army. The role of strong
military power is not only targeted to conflict related issues. Rather, it is also crucial to facilitate
the democratic rights of people, good governance, economic growth and development as per the
constitution of the country. Hence, the demand for strong and dependable defense power has
remained crucial ever before. The country requires a high caliber, well experienced, educated,
trained and technology oriented military power. To satisfy these needs, the role of managing
knowledge towards a learning organization in military profession is necessary. (MOND, 2000)
Practically, the Ethiopian Defense Forces have performed a number of tasks successfully and
efficiently, in addition to the fact that our country has a long history of armed
struggle. Adwa‘s victory in the world is one of the major victories of the army. He is also a
leader in maintaining peace internationally. In recent years and at present, the army has been
forced to work professionally to stabilize the country.
In the Ethiopian Defense Forces, like any military organization, enormous and critical
knowledge often acquire through experiences, practices and trainings are imbedded within the
accomplishment of mission. This knowledge must be identified, captured, shared, and used. Like
other militaries country, knowledge of the Ethiopian Defense Forces is also tended to be
sensitive about security, not all knowledge will be shared with everyone. There are have been
different knowledge management efforts that are being undertaken within the various units of

6
Army. However, Ethiopian Defense Force records and the initial assessment carried out by the
researcher discovered that these efforts are very limited and none of these them are integrated and
directed towards the achievement of the overall objectives of the Ethiopian Defense Forces. Even
most of the activities are conducted as a daily routine activity and do not consider the basic ideas and
concepts of Knowledge Management.
Likewise, knowledge management practice research on Ethiopian Defense Forces is almost
none. There are only three research works that have been done so far on the practice of
Knowledge Management in the Ethiopian Defense Forces. One conducted by Kebede Mikael
(2016), which deals with Knowledge Management in the peacekeeping context, second a
master‘s thesis by Hager (2017), Defense Command and Staff College. Mesfin Legese (2018)
which deals with a Knowledge Management Framework in the Ministry of defense conducts the
third. All of them have detailed assessment of the current Knowledge Management practices,
Based on the researcher‘s observation, Ethiopian Defense Forces is still lacking knowledge
management practices and uses. However, it was found that knowledge management in the
Ethiopian Defense Forces is available and was fixed in the form of doctrines, policies,
procedures, operations and training manuals, information systems, and databases. Unfortunately,
those elements of Knowledge Management were an existence in storage and not managed
systematically. The lack of Knowledge Management practices and uses in the Ethiopian Defense
Forces was observed as a lack of awareness, and less commitment of leadership. For this reason
knowledge management practices in organization is often not structured, managed and
documented properly.
The importance of the research is that, after successful completion. Ethiopian Defense Forces
will have a list of best common Knowledge management practices that will contribute a lot in
achieving their objectives and in building their own knowledge management system .They will
have a chance of sharing the existing knowledge management practices. The finding of this
research is also important to military experts in the area. They will have an insight to conduct
further research and contribute to the existing knowledge in military .This research paper it
would be used as a reference material for the upcoming study in these fields.

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1.3 Objective of the study
1.3.1 General Objective
To investigate knowledge management practices in Ethiopian Defense Forces with respect to the
organization‘s knowledge management policy and strategy, to determine the level and forwards
recommendation.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
In order to achieve the general objective of this study, the under listed specific objectives are set:
1) To assess the status of Knowledge management practice in Ethiopian Defense Forces.
2) To investigate supporting structures that are designed to help knowledge management
practices at Ethiopian Defense Forces.
3) To assess the challenge of knowledge management practices in Ethiopian Defense Forces.
1.4 Research Questions
In order to provide an appropriate recommendation on how the Ethiopian Defenses Forces
manage and use knowledge, the study focuses on the following major questions and some of
these questions have other sub strengthening and clarifying questions.
1) What is the Current status of Knowledge management practice in Ethiopian Defense
Forces.?
2) To what extent do knowledge management practices, structured and designed in Ethiopian
Defense Forces?
3) What are the major challenges hindering knowledge management practices in Ethiopian
Defense Forces?
1.5 Significance of the study
The researcher believes that the result of this research project will have the following
significances.
At large, Ethiopian Defense Forces would benefit in addressing the problems related to
knowledge management practices.
The study may contribute to create awareness among the Ethiopian Defense Forces leadership to
review its systems and fix problems on the knowledge management practice. This paper could be
also used as an initiation for those who are interested to conduct a detailed and comprehensive
study on such similar subject matters..

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1.6 Scope of the study
Ethiopian Defense Forces (EDF) will be selected as a study area because the researcher has
reasonable experience more than 22 years of service and such research has not been done so far
at this level. The lack of research, especially under the Ethiopian Defense Forces context has
been a major motivation to carry out this study. This paper can be regarded as the first attempt to
explore the existing knowledge management practices and contribute for organizational success.
To simplify the study situation will be used specifically in Ethiopia Defense Forces on four
selected departments those are Joint operations Head Quarters, Defense Intelligence
Headquarter, Training Main Department, Communications electronics and Cyber Main
Departments.
Conceptually, this paper investigates basic concepts of knowledge management practices and its
encountering components and the research focuses only on the Ethiopian Defense Forces
selected Departments located in Addis Ababa.
1.7 Limitation of the study
This study has a number of limitations. The first limitation was lack of relevant local literature
on knowledge management practices, particularly in Ethiopian Defense forces. The second
limitation during the interview, the commander did not permit to sound recording due to the
nature of the organization, which potentially exposes security and confidentiality linkages.
Another limitation of this study is collections of primary data from external customer was very
difficult because the EDFs is within a normal situation more or less not directed and frequently
provide service for any individuals or groups. The outbreak of COVID-19 was also another
challenge during activities in an effort of conducting the research.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
This area will provide definitions of concepts that will be used in the study
Ethiopian Defense Forces;-is established in 1995 by Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Constitution under Article 87/3, this article clearly defined the mission of armed forces in such a
manner that ―The armed forces shall protect the sovereignty of the country and carry out any
responsibilities as may be assigned to them under any state of emergency declared in accordance
with the Constitution”.

9
Tacit knowledge; - This is knowledge that is in the heads of the people, also known as informal
or uncodified knowledge. The greatest knowledge base in the organization is the tacit knowledge
that is continually changing and evolving.
Explicit knowledge;- This is knowledge that is written down or in a knowledge base, that is, it is
recorded and available, held in databases, books, repositories in corporate intranets and
intellectual property portfolios.
Knowledge management is the process of identifying, growing and effectively applying an
organization‘s existing knowledge in order to achieve the organization‘s goals, while creating an
Organizational culture that permits further knowledge creation.
Knowledge management practices;-Knowledge management includes processes that naturally
exists in organization (e.g. knowledge sharing or knowledge acquisition), and management
practices which support the efficient and effective management of knowledge for organizational
benefit (Lee H. a., 2003)
Knowledge Sharing (Cummings, 1993) Describes knowledge sharing as ―the provision of receipt
of task information, know-how, and feedback regarding a product or procedure‖.
Knowledge creation refers to the development of new organizational expertise and capability
(Nonaka et al., 200). Knowledge originates within individuals or social systems.
Knowledge Acquisition, Organizational memory consists of the accumulated information
regarding past decisions. This information is not centrally stored, but rather it is split across
different retention facilities.
Knowledge transfer process involves the transmission of knowledge from the initial location to
where it is needed and is applied. It is considered as an important facet of knowledge
management.
Knowledge storage or knowledge codification refers to development of organizational memory
(i.e., stocks of organizational knowledge) and the means for accessing its content. It is ―the
capture and representation of knowledge so that it can be re-used either by an individual or by an
Organization‖

10
1.9 Organization of the study
The paper will be organized in five main chapters, the first chapter will cover the introduction
part which contains, the background of the study, a statement of the problem, the objective of the
study, research question, the significance of the study, limitation of the study, the scope of the
study and organization of the paper, The second chapter deals with concepts of knowledge
management, importance of knowledge management, knowledge management practices,
Dimensions of knowledge management, Organizational development and knowledge
management, types of knowledge and conceptual framework related to knowledge management.
The third chapter will be research approach, research design, data type, and source, the
population of the study, sample size and sampling techniques, method of data collection, method
of data analysis, data validity and reliability and research ethics,
The fourth chapter will cover analysis and presentation; the primary and secondary data will be
analyzed, interpreted and presented, in this chapter. The final chapter will be a summary of
findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

11
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the most important concepts in the field of knowledge and
Knowledge Managements in the research literature. This will lay down basic theoretical and
conceptual understanding of what knowledge and Knowledge Managements as well as their
associated concepts.
2.2 Concept of knowledge management
Different authors in the literature proposed different definitions of knowledge management; a
detailed analysis of the identified concepts was conducted in this section to identify the common
elements and returning topic among them. The analysis in this current study revealed that, Firms
viewed knowledge acquisition and management as part of their strategic orientation (Michael,
2005). The mission to innovate through new knowledge achievement is a way to gain and
maintain competitive advantage (Michael, 2005). Michael (2005) further added that, firms fully
realize the benefits from highly valued knowledge. Knowledge that is isolated in one department
or in a specific segment of the value chain is not being used to its full extent. New knowledge
should be attached and managed through internal knowledge management systems that create
learning opportunities for other departments or product areas within the firm. Internal knowledge
management systems may provide platforms for further development of knowledge transfer to
external partners. By implementing internal and external knowledge management systems, firms
can experience a greater competitive advantage and sustained success over a longer period of
time. The ability of an organization to harness knowledge management and continuous learning
from the external environment is now believed to be a major source for achieving a sustainable
competitive advantage (Waddell, D., Stewart D. 2008. Werr A.,2009.Zack M.,2009) Competitive
advantage is increasingly considered to be one of the key drivers of long-term success of an
organization in today‘s competitive markets. It is what sets a firm apart from its rivals, making it
the supplier of choice for customers within a particular market. Only by achieving competitive
advantage, can a firm hope to gain the required market share that will allow it to succeed and
meet its strategic purpose. To gain competitive advantage it is essential for an organization to
understand the competitive environment within which it exists.

12
2.3 Theoretical Literature
2.3.1 Importance of knowledge management
Several researchers have stated that the purpose of knowledge management is to increase an
organizational performance to gain a competitive advantage. Several benefits including better
decision making, better customer handling, faster response to key business issues, improved
employee skills, and increased profits ( KMPG Consulting., 2000) It also helps to create shared
understanding through the alignment of people, processes, and tools within the organizational
structure and culture in order to increase collaboration and interaction between leaders and
subordinates (Department of the Army., 2012).
According to Geisler, E., & Wickramasinghe, N. , (2009), knowledge management will help
organizations to gain insight and understanding from their own experience. The purpose of
knowledge management according to (Wiig, 1997, pp. 6-14) is, in general ―to maximize the
enterprise‘s knowledge-related effectiveness and returns from its knowledge assets and to renew
them constantly‖. Similarly Department of the Army (2012) articulated that the objective of
knowledge management is to connect those who know with those who need to know by
leveraging knowledge transfers from one-to-many across the defense organization. This transfer
or flows of knowledge also improve shared understanding, learning, and decision-making
(Department of the Army (2012) Therefore, knowledge management is the management of the
organization‘s knowledge towards the continuous renewal of the organizational knowledge base.
(Geisler, E., & Wickramasinghe, N. , 2009)
2.3.2 Knowledge Management Practices
Practices refer to the way ideas are translated into action in the process of realize job functions.
Knowledge management practices include the understanding of knowledge management:
knowledge generation, knowledge acquisition, knowledge organization, knowledge storage,
transfer, knowledge sharing, and knowledge retention (Nonaka, & Takeuchi,, 1995) Knowledge
management practices are based primarily in conceptual frameworks that are responsible for the
design and development of methodologies and technologies that can provide some common
ground in the way people use and manage knowledge in an organization Nifco, (2005)
Advantages of using knowledge management practices include the fact that they help
organizations to refocus on using their already existing knowledge, they create the environment
for innovation rather than limiting themselves to best practices solutions only. They enable

13
convergence towards knowledge portals rather than separate silos of knowledge in an
organization, and they promote interconnectedness among departments, employees, and systems
in an organization (Branin, J.J.2003, Mavodza. J.,2010,Rowley, J.2003) The use of knowledge
management principles can provide organizations with capabilities to survive in the current
knowledge society and give them an opportunity to remain relevant in a changing information
environment (Mavodza, J and Ngulube, P., 2011).
A study by Chong and Choi (2005) identified eleven key knowledge management components
for successful knowledge management implementation. These are training, involvement,
teamwork, empowerment, top management leadership and commitment, information systems
infrastructure, performance measurement, culture, benchmarking, knowledge structure and
removal of organizational limitation.
Managing knowledge in organizations need managing several processes of knowledge such as
creation, storage, sharing, and evaluation; generation, codification, transfer and application Singh
and Soltani, (2010, pp. 145-157).
According to Magnusson (2003) knowledge management practices are activities exercised to
manage knowledge. These knowledge management activities can be identified in two categories:
facilitating and intervening activities. The facilitating activities are activities acting to provide a
ground for the management of knowledge, such as the achievement and realization of
information and communication technology (ICT) and other structural investments for instance,
the information structure as well as the creation of environments and cultures. The intervening
activities were identified as activities acting to govern the management of knowledge in the
ground. Intervening activities were identified as activities acting to govern the management of
knowledge in the arena. Knowledge management practices include practical activities of
governing knowledge (Skyrme, 2007).Those include creating, discovering, sharing, learning and
organizing knowledge.
These knowledge management practices include knowledge, transfer, storage, use/retrieval,
dissemination/sharing, and retention.
2.4 Dimensions of knowledge management
(Blackler, 1995) Defines knowledge as taking five distinct forms: embodied, embedded,
embroiled, encultured, and encoded.

14
Embodied knowledge is action oriented and likely to be only partly explicit and it depends on
people‘s physical presence (Wilkinson, A., Townsend, K., & Suder, G. , 2015). It is gained
through training of the body to perform a specific task, (Hislop, 2013); and is impossible to
totally disembody this knowledge from people (Omotayo.F.O, 2015).
Embedded knowledge is a ―knowledge that resides in systematic routines and procedures‖
(Blackler, 1995, p. 1026). Organizational common tasks, routines or the common ways people go
about their jobs, can hold embedded knowledge, as the routines facilitate learning amongst the
employees that go beyond their job tasks. (Hislop, 2013) Corroborates this fact by stating that
knowledge is embedded, and inseparable from, practice. That is, knowledge that is embedded in
work practices is simultaneously embodied by the workers who carry out these practices
(Omotayo.F.O, 2015).
Embroiled knowledge is abstract knowledge dependent on conceptual and cognitive skills and
often equated with scientific knowledge (Blackler, 1995). People can possess embroiled
knowledge over time and they may reflect one‘s perceptions, opinions, values and morals but has
difficulty expressing in words or sharing with other. It is also a type of knowledge that one
cannot easily write down, talk about with others, or represent with pictures or other tools. It is
gained through experience.
Encultured knowledge is related to the creation of shared understanding and embedded in
cultural systems (Wilkinson, A., Townsend, K., & Suder, G. , 2015). Therefore, it is a set of
knowledge that is shared among groups of people who share a similar environment or culture,
such as what is accepted, what actions and opinions are considered normal, and what behaviors
are expected of people.
Encoded knowledge is „recorded in signs and symbols and requires interpretation‟ (Blackler,
1995, p. 1026). Procedure manuals, guidelines, process diagram, flowcharts, recipes and
instructions are all examples of encoded knowledge, because they are encoded in a physical form
that is understandable by a lot of people (Omotayo.F.O, 2015).
2.4.1 Knowledge acquisition
From a firm‘s knowledge-based view, the uniqueness of knowledge plays an important role in
maintaining a company‘s competitive advantage (Grant, 1996). Nevertheless, the essential
dilemma within the firm is how to manage knowledge in a way that creates a competitive
advantage (Barney, 1991). A company wishing to establish and maintain the knowledge needed

15
for a competitive advantage must create and acquire new knowledge, transmit knowledge to
appropriate parts of the company, interpret that knowledge and integrate it with existing
knowledge, and use knowledge to achieve better performance (Cohen, 1990).
2.4.1.1 Sources of knowledge acquisition
Employees may obtain knowledge through a variety of learning activities within an organization,
such as training, formal education, experimentation, imitation, and self-directed learning (Reio,
2000). Individuals may rely on different learning channels to obtain explicit and tacit knowledge.
Though organizations usually use a variety of mechanisms i.e., formal documents, training
programs, group meetings to promote workplace learning, employees may not accumulate their
knowledge merely through inside sources.
2.4.1.2 Knowledge elicitation methods
Many knowledge elicitation methods have been used to obtain the information/knowledge
required to solve problems (Burge, 1998) these methods can be classified in many ways. One
common way is by how directly they obtain information from the domain expert. Direct methods
involve directly questioning a domain expert on how they do their job. In order for these
methods to be successful, the domain expert has to be reasonably articulate and willing to share
information. The information has to be easily expressed by the expert, which is often difficult
when tasks frequently performed often become ‗automatic‘. Indirect methods are used in order to
obtain information that cannot be easily expressed directly. These forms may be through the
following:
a) Interviewing
Interviewing consists of asking the domain expert questions about the domain of interest and
how they perform their tasks. Interviews can be unstructured, semi-structured, or structured. The
success of an interview session is dependent on the questions asked (it is difficult to know which
questions should be asked, particularly if the interviewer is not familiar with the domain) and the
ability of the expert to articulate their knowledge. Interviews are direct method of acquiring
knowledge (Burge, 1998)
b) Case study
In Case study methods, different examples of problems/tasks within a domain are discussed. The
problems consist of specific cases that can be typical, difficult, or memorable. These cases are used
as a context within which directed questions are asked. They may include procedures involved and
reasons behind them and procedures used to solve past problems (Geiwitz, 1990).

16
c) Simulation
In simulation methods, the task is simulated using a computer system or other means. This is
used when it is not possible to actually perform the task. It is another direct method of
knowledge acquisition (Burge, 1998). According to the Business Dictionary (2010) simulation
involves acting out or mimicking an actual or probable real life condition, event, or situation to
find a cause of a past occurrence (such as accident), or to forecast future effects of assumed
circumstances or factors. Whereas simulations are very useful tools that allow experimentation
without exposure to risk, they are gross simplifications of reality because they include a few of
the real-world factors. Examples are flying a plane, or driving military tank inside a lab building.
d) Observation
In observation methods, the knowledge engineer observes the expert performing a task. This prevents
the knowledge engineer from inadvertently interfering in the process, but does not provide any
insight into why decisions are made.
e) Document analysis
Document analysis involves gathering information from existing documentation. This may or may
not involve interaction with a human expert to confirm or add to this information.
2.4.2 Knowledge storage
A lot of the energy in knowledge management has been spent on treating knowledge as an ―it‖-
an entity separate from the people who create and use it (Davenport, 1999). The typical goal is to
take documents with knowledge embedded in them – which may include memos, reports,
presentations, articles – and store them in a repository where they can be retrieved easily. Three
basic types of repositories were found; namely of: (1) external knowledge, for example,
competitive intelligence; (2) structured internal knowledge, such as research reports, product-
oriented marketing materials. Techniques and methods; and (3) informal internal knowledge, like
discussion databases full of know-how, sometimes referred to as ―lessons learned‖.
According to (Coakes, 2006) transnational organizations have specific issues relating to space
and time, and increasingly virtuality, in their working practices. Technology can assist to
alleviate these issues and can provide the organizations with ways to share and distribute
knowledge throughout their processes, sites and workplaces. Successful KM however, continues
to need a socio-technological approach where the social aspects of knowledge storage need to be
considered alongside the technical.

17
Intranets have been embraced by many organizations to support their knowledge management.
The use of knowledge resources available through intranets, however, seems to be fairly low
chiefly due to employees‘ difficulties in finding relevant information (Chaudhry, Ali, Abadi,and
Wee, K.W., 2008). Today, intranet also prevails as an organizational knowledge base. The crux
of the issue for almost every aspect of the intranet, however, is the core consideration that
knowledge is made readily accessible. Everything in it should serve with a goal of enabling users
to find what they need. There have been very few specific studies on how knowledge should be
organized and content should be managed on the intranet.
An organization‘s capability to learn will be dependent on its ability to record organizational
experience and, when needed, to retrieve this information. Some organizations have an archival
system for this knowledge management practice (Oliver, 2008). Knowledge held by employees
can be captured in formal reports, which suggests that for many organizations the organization‘s
memory is held by its employees and will be lost to the organization if the employee departs.
Knowledge may be gathered, created or converted, but if it is not assimilated, the organization
will not be able to take action on that knowledge or actualize all of its potential value (O‘Leary,
2013). O‘Leary (1999) argues that knowledge management requires among other practices the
following:
• Conversion of data and text into knowledge
• Conversion of individual‘s and group‘s knowledge into accessible knowledge
2.4.3 Knowledge dissemination/sharing
There is an old adage that knowledge is power. However, a more recent strong conviction is that
the value of knowledge increases when it is shared (Ngulube, 2012). Knowledge sharing is seen
as a dual process, a social interaction activity which involves someone providing guidance,
sharing ideas and giving advice to someone who is learning-by-observation, listening and asking
(Riege.2005, Ngulube, P. 2012.Janus-Hiekkarranta 2009 cited Gurteen 1999. )
According to (Reid, 2003)knowledge sharing creates opportunities to maximize organization
ability to meet those needs and generates solutions and efficiencies that provide a business with a
competitive advantage. (Hogel,, 2003) Suggests that knowledge sharing can define as a social
interaction culture, involving the exchange of employee knowledge, experiences, and skills
through the whole department or organization. Knowledge sharing comprises a set of shared

18
understandings related to providing employees access to relevant information and building and
using knowledge networks within organizations.
The organization of today increasingly recognizes the need to support, in one way or the other
knowledge sharing among its members. Employees and specifically managers are searching,
testing and using various proactive interventions to facilitate knowledge sharing (Hysman, M
and de Wit, D., 2002, p. 1).Knowledge sharing is supported with different goals in mind: to
acquire knowledge, to reuse knowledge, and to develop new knowledge. The state-of-the-art of
today‘s information and communication technology (ICT) makes it possible. (Tsui, 2006)
Argues that knowledge sharing is becoming increasingly important to ensure that practice and
policy are based on sound evidence.
Disability Services Queensland (2007) acknowledges two types of knowledge sharing:
Internal: where knowledge is shared within individual organizations through, for example, team
meetings, intranets, coaching, information bulletins and mentoring.
External: where knowledge is shared across organizations through, for example, regionally based
networks like conferences, seminars and special chat rooms.
2.4.3.1 Mechanisms to share knowledge
Petrescu, (2010) underscores that knowledge sharing has been identified as a major focus area
for knowledge management. Efforts are made with a view to identify the most effective ways to
share knowledge, as a step towards improving organizational performance. In this striving,
various factors have been identified as mechanisms to sharing of knowledge.
2.4.3.1.1 People-based mechanisms
By sharing people of one or more organization or community share and exchange
understandings, norms, values, attitudes, beliefs, ideas and expertise. To create a knowledge
sharing culture one need to encourage people to work together more effectively, to collaborate
and to share ultimately to make organizational knowledge more productive (Gurteen, 1999)
2.4.3.1.2 Technology-based mechanisms
Knowledge management requires technologies to support the new strategies, processes, methods and
techniques to better create, disseminate, share and apply the best knowledge, anytime and anyplace,
across the team and organization, including its customers, partners and other key stakeholders. The
key technologies are communication and collaboration technologies that are web based for internet
and intranet usage as well as mobile technologies (Marwick, 2001)

19
2.4.4 Knowledge application
Knowledge application is the process through which knowledge is utilized within the
organization to make decisions and perform tasks, thereby contributing to organizational
performance (Sabherwal, Fernandez and R., 2015). It is the peak process where the knowledge
that has been captured and synthesized is used as the decision-making sources. In other words,
knowledge application depends on the availability of knowledge obtained through other KM
processes. High-quality knowledge combined with good knowledge application leads to high
quality decisions for an organization. Knowledge utilization can be in the form of direction or
routines. Direction involves the transfer of instructions or decisions and not the transfer of the
knowledge required to make those decisions, while routines involve the utilization of knowledge
embedded in procedures, rules, and norms that guide future behavior (Heeks, 2006)
2.5 Organizational development and knowledge management
The words organization development refers to something about organizations and developing
them. ―An organization is the planned coordination of the activities of a number of people for the
achievement of some common explicit purpose or goal, through division of labor and functions,
and through a hierarchy of authority and responsibility. ―Organizations are social systems
possessing characteristics and OD efforts are directed toward organizations or major subparts of
them (Middlemist R.D, 1988, p. 6)
Development is the act, process, result, or state of being developed – which in turn means to
advance, to promote the growth of, to evolve the possibilities of, to further, to improve, or to
enhance something. Two elements of this definition seem important: first, development may be
an act, process, or end state; second, development refers to ―bettering‘ something.
Combining these words suggests that organization development is the act, process, or result of
furthering, advancing, or promoting the growth of organization. According to (Cumming, T. G.,
& Huse, E. F., 1989) definition, organization development is anything done to ―better‖ an
organization. But this definition is too broad and all-inclusive. It can refer to almost anything
done in an organizational context that enhances the organization-hiring a person with needed
skills, firing an incompetent, merging with another organization, installing a computer, removing
a computer, buying a new plant, and so on. This definition serves neither to neither identify nor
specify nor to delimit (perhaps something done to ―worsen‖ an organization would be ruled out).

20
The term organization development must be given added meaning, must refer to something more
specific, if productive discourse on the subject is desired (Cumming, T. G., & Huse, E. F., 1989).
American Productivity & Quality Centre (APQC) defines knowledge management as a
systematic effort to enable information and knowledge to grow, flow, and create value
(O‘Dell,C., & Hubert, C, , 2011). Sunassee and Sewry (2003) Knowledge management is the
process of identifying, growing and effectively applying an organization‘s existing knowledge in
order to achieve the organization‘s goals, while creating an organizational culture that permits
further knowledge creation. KM is a comprehensive process of knowledge creation, knowledge
validation, knowledge presentation, knowledge distribution, and knowledge application (Bhatt,
2001). Advanced organizations build, transform, organize, deploy and use knowledge assets
effectively (Wiig, 1997) Knowledge management involves the proactive harvesting and building
of a firm‘s intellectual capital, thereby reinforcing the competences required by the organization
to achieve its objectives (Bontis, N., & Fitz-enz, J., 2002). It addresses how to access knowledge
embedded in systems and in the heads of employees.
Knowledge management is composed of various processes to include: ‗‗generating new
knowledge; accessing knowledge from external sources; representing knowledge in documents
and databases; embedding knowledge in processes, products, or services; transferring existing
knowledge around an organization; using accessible knowledge in decision making; facilitating
knowledge growth through culture and incentives; and measuring the value of knowledge assets
and the impact of knowledge management‖ (Rowley, 1999). This processes help in
institutionalization of Knowledge Management. Swan, Scarbrough and Preston (1999) has
defined KM as ―any process or practice of creating, acquiring, capturing, sharing and using
knowledge, wherever it resides, to enhance learning and performance in organization.
Knowledge management is the deliberate and systematic coordination of the organization‘s
people, technology, processes, and organizational structure in order to add value through reuse
and innovation (Dalkir, 2005). He further states that this coordination is achieved through
creating, sharing, and applying knowledge as well as through feeding the valuable lessons
learned and best practices into corporate memory in order to foster continued organizational
learning.

21
2.6 Types of knowledge
Knowledge is distinguished in different types .in this context. It is very important to realize that
there are various types of knowledge. This needs different methods for creation and sharing in
organizations. The division of knowledge depends on the purpose of an investigation and /or a
description. Knowledge can exist in different ways. This can be divided into tacit and explicit
knowledge (Konno, 1998)
2.6.1 Explicit knowledge
Explicit knowledge is that component of knowledge that can be codified and transmitted in a
systematic and formal language, documents, databases, webs, e-mails, charts, etc (Fernandez, 2004).
Similarly, the Army defines explicit knowledge as the knowledge that has been or can be articulated,
codified, and stored in certain media. It can be readily transmitted to others. The most common forms
of explicit knowledge are manuals, and documents, or other digital media (AKM, 2008)
In a practical sense, (Wiig, 1997) elaborated KM as a set of distinct and well defined approaches
and processes to find and manage positive and negative critical knowledge functions in different
kinds of operations, identify new products or strategies, augment human resource management,
and other highly targeted objectives. While Young (2008.) Defined KM as the discipline of
enabling individuals, teams and entire organizations to collectively and systematically capture,
store, create, share and apply knowledge, to better achieve their objectives. However, (Kidwell,
2000) holding a different view stated that KM is to make the right knowledge available to the
right people at the right time. In simple perception, (Barth, 2002), perceived KM as the
combination of cultural and technological processes of an organization.
2.6.2 Tacit knowledge
Tacit knowledge is personal, context-specific knowledge that is difficult to formalize, record, or
articulate and is stored in the head of people. It consists of various components, such as intuition,
experience, ground truth, judgment, values, assumptions, beliefs, and intelligence (Fernandez,
2004) tacit knowledge is knowledge that people carry in their minds and is difficult to access and
not easily shared. People are often not aware of this knowledge they possess and how valuable it
can be to others. It is considered more valuable because it provides context for people, places,
ideas, and experiences (AKM., 2008.)
2.7 Knowledge management systems and approaches
Historically, a significant new business computer software application has evolved every ten
years. For example, transaction processing systems were introduced in the 1950s, management

22
information systems in the 1960s, decision support systems in the 1970s, knowledge
management and executive information systems in the 1980s and electronic business and
commerce systems in the 1990s (O'brien, 2004 ). Over the past three decades, many
organizations have developed information technology-based systems designed specifically to
facilitate the sharing, integration and utilization of knowledge, referred to as KMSs ( (Nielsen
and Michailova,, 2007)). Alavi M. a., (2001) define KMSs as ―Information Technology based
systems developed to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation,
storage/retrieval, transfer, and application‖. They also point out that IT can be used as an enabler
in KM initiatives, but stress that knowledge management initiatives do not necessarily involve
the implementation of IT solutions.
Organizations across all sectors recognize the critical role of effective KMSs in their future
success (Shin, 2004). Turban et al. (2010) point out that knowledge management systems are
intended to help an organization to cope with rapid change, turnover, downsizing and leveraging
knowledge use by making the expertise of the organization‘s human capital widely accessible.
Moreover, KMSs can facilitate knowledge management by ensuring knowledge flows from the
person(s) who know to the person(s) who need to know throughout the organization ( (Bose,
2004) Binney (2001) posited that ―The knowledge management spectrum has been developed to
assist organizations in understanding the range of KM options, applications and technologies
available to them‖. Chiu (2006, pp. 1872-1888) believes that the knowledge management
approach is one of the reasons why some organizations reap the benefits of KMSs while others
do not. Some examples are summarized in table 2.1
Table 2.1 Knowledge management Approaches.
KM approaches Main focus
Technological Enhancing KM quality by supplying tools for effective storage and sharing
of knowledge
Intellectual asset Enhancing KM quality by valuing knowledge assets in financial terms and
reflecting them in accounting practices
Organizational
learning
Facilitating knowledge creation and sharing by developing positive work
environment or effective reward systems
process Enhancing KM quality by identifying key processes on which important
knowledge flows, and managing them formally
philosophical Gaining a higher understanding of knowledge lead by asking questions such
as ‗do we know what we do not know‘ towards development of new ways of
thinking
(Source: adapted from: Shin, 2004)

23
KMSs are expected to play a major KM role in enterprises that are increasingly confronted with
paradoxical challenges of exploiting explicit knowledge resources and exploring new tacit
knowledge. Such a knowledge creation and sharing infrastructure within the context of
organizational know-how can provide organizations with the requisite agility to respond to the
dynamic nature of organizations‘ business imperatives (Wang, 2010, pp. 115-131.). Moreover,
KMSs are systems that automate the input, storage, transfer and retrieval of knowledge, and
include tools for capturing various types of knowledge from useful lessons learned, classifying
knowledge documents, locating the relevant experts, facilitating expertise and so on (Kulkarni,
U. R., Ravindran, S. & Freeze, R., 2006). Edwards, (2009, pp. S114-S125.) Explained that there
is a need to coordinate people, processes, and technology successfully in KMSs, as a KMS is
more than just technology, and represents a deliberate, conscious attempt to manage knowledge,
usually in an organization. The interaction of the three elements, people, processes, and
technology,
2.8 Knowledge management in military organization
According to (Lambe, 2003) the development of knowledge management in military has been
accepted and used extensively for thousands of years, the military have been leaders in adopting
and advancing knowledge management practices as applied in the military ―intelligence‖.
Knowledge management, intelligence applications, and decision-making skills have been at the
forefront of military doctrine over the past decades. In today‘s modern military management, for
example, the U.S. military has launched the Army Knowledge Online (AKO), which enables the
army personnel to gain quick online access to important army information, news, education and
training opportunities, as well as knowledge centers and e-mail. The AKO is the army‘s
integrated venture gateway for accessing information, conducting business, and managing
operations. Integral to Army transformation, AKO crosses the war-fighting, business, and
intelligence mission areas to support the current and future force (Lord H. W., 2010). For
effective knowledge management implementation, the army had produced the Army Knowledge
Management as the strategy to transform itself into a network centric, knowledge-based force
with knowledge management methods and successfully applied them in its workplace
(Santamaria, 2002).
Knowledge management application within military environment requires knowledge processes
that are robust and reliable within operational contexts. The knowledge creation and conversion

24
processes must match the pace of the military operations. (McIntyre.Gauvin.M.,&
Waruszynski.B, 2003) Defined military knowledge management as ―a strategic approach to
achieving defense objectives by leveraging the value of collective knowledge through the
process of creating, gathering, organizing, sharing and transferring knowledge into action‖.
(Neilson, 2008). Defined knowledge management as a discipline that promotes an integrated
approach to identifying, retrieving, evaluation, and sharing an enterprise‘s tacit and explicit
knowledge assets to meet mission objectives. Military KM will play a valuable role in leveraging
existing knowledge and converting new knowledge into action (McIntyre, Gauvin, and
Waruszynski, B., 2003). The applications of KM strategy in military context is seen extensively
applied in military of major countries, like United states of America, Canada,and several
countries within this region such as Japan, Korea, and Singapore to name a few.
Knowledge management is demonstrated also in military intelligence. Similarly, battlefield
intelligence requires KM that is accurate and timely to ―determine enemy or potential enemy
force composition, position, capabilities and intentions; while reducing the potential for strategic,
operational, tactical, or technological surprise‖ the intelligence cycle is a four-step process for
obtaining, assembling and evaluating information, converting it into intelligence and
disseminating it.
Conceptually, the KM in military is about connecting those who know with those who need to
know, and leveraging that knowledge across the military organization and to contractors, non-
governmental organizations, the other military services and coalition partners. KM goals are to
support the shares of intellectual capital with no structural or technical barriers, which values
good ideas regardless of their source and collaborates and values collaboration as a means to
mission success.
The objective of the principles is to connect those who know with those who need to know
(know-why, know-what, know-who, and know-how) by leveraging knowledge transfers from
one-to-many across the Global Army Enterprise (AKM. Army Knowledge Management
Principles.). The principles are organized around the main tenets of KM: people/culture, process,
and technology working together to facilitate knowledge sharing as shown in Figure 1.
 People—those inside and outside the organization who create, organize, apply, and
transfer knowledge, and the leaders who act on that knowledge.
 Processes—the methods of creating, organizing, applying, and transferring knowledge.

25
 Technology—information systems used to put knowledge products and services into
organized frameworks.
Figure 2-1 knowledge management components
Source: Army Knowledge Management Principles, 2008
The Army Knowledge Management Principles could be applied to any military organization that
will help to preserve tacit and explicit knowledge and accelerate learning as units and personnel
rotated in and out of organizations. The principles provide authoritative guidance to military
Commands in developing or engaging in knowledge management efforts. By adhering to and
applying the following principles, the military, as an enterprise, will accelerate individual, team,
and organization learning to meet mission objectives (Enterpris, Global Army).The three main
tenets of AKM principle dimensions are explained as follows:
People, /Culture dimension
People are the most vital for successful knowledge management. Knowledge only has meaning
in a human context. It moves between and benefits people, not machines. People include the
commander and staff; higher, lower, and adjacent commanders and staffs; and other agencies
that might contribute to answering information requirements.
Military staffs developed as institutions devoted to creating and managing knowledge. Staffs
develop and provide knowledge on which commanders and other decision makers achieve
situational understanding, make decisions, and execute those decisions. Staffs are involved both
in directing actions and in assessing progress. The structure of personnel, units, and activities
creates explicit communication channels for knowledge transfer within and between
organizations.
An estimated 80 to 90 percent of all knowledge exists as individuals‘ experience, expertise, or
insights. This tacit knowledge is transferred primarily through conversations and immediate
feedback based on direct observations of an activity. Therefore, knowledge transfer techniques
focus on connecting people and building social networks. The after action review process is one

26
technique for transferring tacit knowledge. Another is the simulation-based decision games used
with senior commanders. These games help subordinates understand both how the commander
thinks and why.
Process dimension
The knowledge management process includes four knowledge management functions. Soldiers,
groups, teams, and units employ it. The operational environment and the organization‘s
knowledge needs and knowledge strategy determine how knowledge management sections
employ the knowledge management process.
The knowledge management process and activities are not ends in themselves. The knowledge
management section uses them to improve knowledge management within the organization
before operations, throughout the operations process, and after operations. It also synchronizes
them with the unit‘s battle rhythm.
Technology dimension
Knowledge management technologies include hardware and various software tools. These
include the following:
 Information systems. Information systems and their software, storage, inputs, processing,
outputs, formats, content, software, and capabilities provide tools knowledge managers
employ to manage knowledge. Knowledge management helps guide the use of information
systems to fuse information to support a more effective common operational picture.
 Collaboration tools. These tools are information systems that include online capabilities
that make team development and collaboration possible. Examples include chat, white-
boarding, professional forums, communities of interest, communities of practice, and
virtual teaming.
 Expertise-location tools. These tools support finding subject matter experts.
 Data-mining tools. These tools support data analysis that identifies patterns and
establishes relationships among data elements.
 Search-and-discover tools. These tools include search engines that look for topics,
recommend similar topics or authors, and show relationships to other topics.
 Expertise-development tools. These tools use simulations and experiential learning to
support developing experience, expertise, and judgment.

27
Next generation warfare will continue to rely heavily on information from many sources that
must be assessed and compiled for immediate use. The ―information superiority‖ becomes the
determinant of the future war management and requires drastic improvement in information
management, assurance, exchanging and sharing of superior knowledge. Information superiority
is a state that is achieved when a competitive advantage is derived from the ability to exploit a
superior information position (Albert, D.S., Garstka, J.J. & Stein, F.P., 2000). In order to achieve
information superiority, knowledge is seen to be the most important strategic resource for
capitalizing the conduct of battle space management. The awareness of managing knowledge
effectively could be achieved through the application of knowledge management.
2.9 Experience of knowledge management in Defense Departments globally
Most of the following countries military documents are confidential thus not readily available to general
public; however what is presented is papers referenced with this show of accessible strategies on
knowledge management in their militaries.
2.9.1 Knowledge Management Experience in U.S. Army
The U.S. military has launched the Army Knowledge Online, which enables the Army personnel
to gain quick online access to important Army information, news, education and training
opportunities, as well as knowledge centers and e-mail. The AKO is the Army‘s integrated
enterprise portal for accessing information, conducting business, and managing operations.
Integral to Army transformation, Army Knowledge Online crosses the war-fighting, business,
and intelligence mission areas to support the current and future force (Lord H. , 2010). For
effective knowledge management implementation, the Army had produced the Army Knowledge
Management (AKM) as the strategy to transform itself into a network centric, knowledge-based
force with KM methods and successfully applied them in its workplace (Santamaria, 2002). The
US Secretary of the Army and Army Chief of Staff signed the Army Knowledge Management
Principles that recognizes KM as a tool that connects those who know with those who need to
know, and leveraging that knowledge across the institutional army personnel, contractors, non-
governmental organizations, other military services and coalition partners. KM goals support an
army that automatically shares intellectual capital with no structural or technical barriers; an
army that values good ideas regardless of their source; and an army that really collaborates and
values collaboration as a means to mission success (Neilson, 2008)
According to US Colonel, Lepak (2009), the Army needs to repeat knowledge management as
the means to supporting its Army‘s Strategy for the 21st Century of transforming itself into a

28
network – centric knowledge-based force. The best way to do this is for the army to write an
Army Knowledge Management Strategy that lays out a vision to shape the entire army into
knowledge-based force for the next twenty or thirty years. The strategy would provide a unity of
effort for the army enterprise, which is currently operating piece meal.
2.9.2 Knowledge Management Experience in Singapore Army
A paper by (Ramanathan, 2012) conceptualizes the issues and possible enhancements to shift
existing systems, processes and practices in order to address operations learning within the
Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). It discusses the fact that new relevancy for knowledge
management in the SAF as an operational. This paper further state that one of the identified
challenges for the SAF is for commanders to consciously establish rapid operations learning
cycles and to inculcate operational imagination in their decisions and planning processes. The
author continues to attest that ―If we still cannot identify who-knows-what within our
organization, the problem might not only be with knowledge sharing, but with the design and
implementation of KM transfer systems, processes and practices in the SAF‖. Through its
partnership efforts with the services, the SAF Center for Leadership Development (CLD) is
beginning to grow these skills into sustainable action on the ground. When developed into ops,
these skills strengthen insight formulation and generate lessons learnt. These skills form the true
bedrock of operational learning.
2.9.3 Knowledge Management Experience in Canadian Army
People in the Department of Defense in Canada including senior officers believed that
knowledge management was just another passing trend with little understanding of what
knowledge management is and why it should be a priority in the Defense Department (Girard,
2008). The author further articulates why knowledge management is important and also to
stimulate debate on the subject and challenge the naysayers to explain their views. Defense is a
complex, high consequence of error, capital-intensive, knowledge-dependent and also national
security instrument. Today a document exists on the Canadian Knowledge Management System
(KMS) within the Land Force Command and Control Information Systems, coded (LFC2IS) by
Dr Champoux. The paper presents an overview of the Knowledge Management System (KMS)
project history and the system functionalities. It shows how KMS permits the Canadian Forces to
synchronies lessons learned, doctrine and system help and to manage its knowledge and exploit
it, either as a knowledge management process or as assets that can be used independently.

29
2.10Organizational Challenges of Knowledge Management
Companies wishing to make their knowledge management strategy and integrated knowledge
sharing strategy a success need to pay attention to a large number of potential knowledge-sharing
obstacles (Riege, 2005, p. 21). In institutionalization of knowledge management in organizations,
there are various challenges ranging from individual, organizational and technological. At
individual level, some challenges or barriers according to Riege (2005) are lack of time to share
knowledge, apprehension of fear for job security, low awareness on the benefits of knowledge
sharing, dominance in sharing explicit knowledge over tacit knowledge, use of strong formal
power, lack of trust in people, age differences, lack of social network, difference in education
levels, fear of not receiving recognition, lack of trust in knowledge source accuracy and cultural
differences. The major problems that occur in knowledge management usually result because
companies ignore the people and cultural issues (Dalkir, 2005)
Riege (2005) gives the following as challenges at organizational level: unclear or missing
integration between knowledge management initiatives into company‘s goals, lack of leadership
and managerial direction, lack of transparent rewards and recognition system, unsupportive
corporate culture, low priority on knowledge retention on experienced staffs, shortage of
appropriate infrastructure, restricted communication and knowledge flows, restrictive work
environment, hierarchical organizational structure and size of business unit. According to Dalkir
(2005), incentives remain one of the more important challenges facing knowledge management
today. To show its commitment for sharing knowledge, an organization should foster the
employee‘s willingness to share and contribute to the knowledge base. According to Lee and
Yang (2000, pp. 783-793) this may be the most difficult obstacle to overcome. Riege (2005) also
highlights potential technological barriers which includes the following: lack of integration of IT
systems and processes, unrealistic expectations of employees as to what technology can do and
cannot do, mismatch between individual needs requirements and integrated IT systems and
processes, reluctance to use IT systems due to lack of familiarity and experience with them and
lack of training regarding familiarity of new IT systems and processes.

Assessment of knowledge management practices the case of ethiopian defense forces, ethiopian.

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