In computer science, artificial intelligence (AI), sometimes called machine intelligence, is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. Computer science defines AI research as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals.[1] Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is used to describe machines that mimic "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving"

1. C.K PITHAWALACOLLEGE
OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
SUBJECT:- Artificial Intelligence
SUBJCT CODE:- 2180703

2. TITLE: Conceptual Dependency, Scripts, CYC

3. Conceptual Dependency
• Conceptual Dependency originally developed to represent knowledge
acquired from natural language input.
• The goals of this theory are:
o To help in the drawing of inference from sentences.
o To be independent of the words used in the original input.
o That is to say: For any 2 (or more) sentences that are identica in
meaning there
• should be only one representation of that meaning.
• It has been used by many programs that portend to understand English
(MARGIE, SAM, PAM).
• Conceptual Dependency (CD) provides:
o A structure into which nodes representing information can be placed.
o A specific set of primitives.
o A given level of granularity.

4. • Sentences are represented as a series of diagrams depicting actions
using both abstract and real physical situations.
o The agent and the objects are represented.
o The actions are built up from a set of primitive acts which can be
modified by tense.
• CD is based upon events and actions. Every event (if applicable) has:
o an ACTOR
o an ACTION performed by the Actor
o an OBJECT that the action performs on
o a DIRECTION in which that action is oriented

5. • A Simple Conceptual Dependency Representation
• For the sentences, “I gave a book to the man” CD representation is as
follows:
• Where the symbols have the following meaning.
o Arrows indicate directions of dependency.
o Double arrow indicates two way link between actor and action.
o O -- for the object case relation
o R – for the recipient case relation
o P – for past tense
o D - destination

6. • Example 1: Mike went to India :-
• Example 2: Mary read a novel :-

7. • Advantages of CD:
o Using these primitives involves fewer inference rules.
o Many inference rules are already represented in CD structure.
o The holes in the initial structure help to focus on the points still to
be established.
• Disadvantages of CD:
o Knowledge must be decomposed into fairly low level primitives.
o Impossible or difficult to find correct set of primitives.
o A lot of inference may still be required.
o Representations can be complex even for relatively simple actions.

8. Scripts
• A script is a structure that prescribes a set of circumstances
which could be expected to follow on from one another.
• It is similar to a thought sequence or a chain of situations
which could be anticipated.
• It could be considered to consist of a number of slots or frames
but with more specialized roles.
• Scripts are beneficial because:
o Events tend to occur in known runs or patterns.
o Causal relationships between events exist.
o Entry conditions exist which allow an event to take place
• o Prerequisites exist upon events taking place. E.g. when a
student progresses through a degree scheme or when a
purchaser buys a house.

9. • Script Components
• Each script contains the following main components.
• Entry Conditions: Must be satisfied before events in the script can
occur.
• Results: Conditions that will be true after events in script occur.
• Props: Slots representing objects involved in the events.
• Roles: Persons involved in the events.
• Track: Specific variation on more general pattern in the script.
Different tracks may share many components of the same script but
not all.
• Scenes: The sequence of events that occur. Events are represented in
conceptual dependency form.

10. • Advantages of Script
• o Capable of predicting implicit events
• o Single coherent interpretation may be build up from a collection of
observations.
• Disadvantage of Script
• o More specific (inflexible) and less general than frames.
• o Not suitable to represent all kinds of knowledge.
• To deal with inflexibility, smaller modules called memory
organization packets (MOP) can be combined in a way that is
appropriate for the situation.

11. CYC
• What is CYC?
• An ambitious attempt to form a very large knowledge base aimed at
capturing commonsense reasoning.
• Initial goals to capture knowledge from a hundred randomly selected
articles in the EnCYClopedia Britannica.
• Both Implicit and Explicit knowledge encoded.
• Emphasis on study of underlying information (assumed by the
authors but not needed to tell to the readers.
• Example: Suppose we read that Wellington learned of Napoleon's
death
• Then we (humans) can conclude Napoleon never new that Wellington
had died

12. • How do we do this?
• We require special implicit knowledge or commonsense such as:
o We only die once.
o You stay dead.
o You cannot learn of anything when dead.
o Time cannot go backwards.
• Why build large knowledge bases:-
1. Brittleness
• o Specialised knowledge bases are brittle. Hard to encode new
situations and non-graceful degradation in performance.
Commonsense based knowledge bases should have a firmer
foundation.

13. 2. Form and Content
• Knowledge representation may not be suitable for AI. Commonsense
strategies could point out where difficulties in content may affect the
form.
3. Shared Knowledge
• Should allow greater communication among systems with common
bases and assumptions.
• How is CYC coded?
• o By hand.
• o Special CYCL language:
• o LISP like.
• o Frame based
• o Multiple inheritance
• o Slots are fully fledged objects.
• o Generalized inheritance -- any link not just isa and instance.