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DSM-IV-TR Overview
Are Psychosocial or Environmental Problems (school or housing
issues) also present?
Axis IV
What is the Global Assessment of the person’s functioning?
Axis V
Is a General Medical Condition (diabetes, hypertension or
arthritis etc) also present?
Axis III
Is a Personality Disorder or Mental Retardation present?
Axis II
Is a Clinical Syndrome (cognitive, anxiety, mood disorders [16
syndromes]) present?
Axis I](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/apfinalreview-250501115538-bc43025d/85/AP_Final-Review-pptx-APPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP-92-320.jpg)
AP_Final Review.pptx APPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP
- 1. AP PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW Endof Year Review for AP Psychology Exam
- 2. Psychology’s Basic Perspectives •Biological – How hormones, drugs, neurotransmitters and brain structures influence the body and behavior • Evolutionary (Darwin, James) – How the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one's genes (survival of the fittest) • Psychodynamic (Freud, Jung) – How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts • Humanistic (Rogers, Maslow) – Self Actualization and humans reaching full potential • Behavioral (Watson, Pavlov, Skinner) – How we learn through observable responses and consequences; states that learning is automatic and thoughtless • Cognitive (Beck, Ellis) – Behavior is influenced by how a person thinks and remembers • Social-Cultural – How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
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- 4. Operational Definition Practice •Example: A researcher measuring happiness and depression in college students decides to use a ten-question happiness scale to measure positive outlook in her subjects. In other words, her operational definition of happiness in this case is a given subject's score on the test. • Operationally define the following the dependent variables… – Self-concept – Fluid Intelligence – Reaction time while driving – Test Anxiety
- 5. Chapter 1: ResearchMethods • Op. Definitions of Variables – Replicate research • Descriptive Research Methods – Case Study (Unique People) – Naturalistic Observation – Surveys • Wording Effects • Volunteer Bias • Random Sample • Correlations (Prediction) – Correlation does not prove causation Third variables – Scatterplot, Pearson’s r – Illusory Correlation • Experiments (Cause/effect) – Independent Variable – Dependent Variable – Random Assignment – Single v. Double Blind • Types of Studies – Longitudinal Studies – Cross Sectional Studies • Ethical Considerations – Protect from harm – Informed Consent – Confidentiality – Debriefing • Descriptive Statistics – Measures of Central tendency • Mean, Median, Mode – Measures of Variation • Range • Standard Deviation • Inferential Statistics – Pearson’s r (-1 to +1) – Statistical significance (T-Test) • P-value (p < .05)
- 6. Random Sample vs.Random Assignment Used to generalize to a population Used to equalize (make even) two groups (control & exp)
- 7. Longitudinal vs. CrossSectional Studies Longitudinal: Watch the same group grow up over time, periodically testing them Pros: Eliminate difference variables between people Cons: Expensive, time consuming and people die Cross Sectional: Different people with similar characteristics being tested at the same time Pros: Quick, less expensive Cons: Different people might have different backgrounds, which leads to confounding variables. Year 1 Year 5 Year 10 Age 1 Age 5 Age 10 Same Day, Different Ages Same People, Different Days
- 9. Positive Correlation: Muscle sizeand exercise Negative Correlation: Smoking and health No Correlation: Weight and GPA
- 11. Psychology Stats Descriptive Statistics: •Describes a set of data • Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode) • Measures of Variation (Range and Standard Deviation) Inferential Statistics: • Draws conclusions or makes prediction about a set of data • Correlations measured by Pearson’s r (-1 to +1) • Statistical Significance measured by T-Tests and ANOVAs (p < .05) • Use mean when data has a normal distribution • Use median when data is skewed or has outliers • Correlations seek to predict the relationship between two variables • T-Tests & ANOVAs test to see if there is statistical significance between two groups
- 12. Chapter 2: Psychobiology •Neurons – Dendrite, Cell Body, Axon, Synaptic Vesicles, Synapse – Action Potential (All or none) – Types of neurons (Efferent, Afferent, Inter) • Neurotransmitters – Dopamine – Endorphins – Acetylcholine (ACh) – Serotonin – GABA – Epinephrine – Agonist vs. Antagonist – Reuptake • Nervous Systems – Spinal Reflexes (reflex arc) – Central – Peripheral • Sympathetic • Parasympathetic • Endocrine System – Hormones – Glands • Observing the Brain – CT Scan – PET Scan – EEG Waves – fMRI • The Brain Structures – Medulla, Pons, Cerebellum, Reticular Formation – Limbic System – Association Areas – Cerebral Cortex & Hemispheres • Frontal, Parietal, Temporal and Occipital • Hypothalamus, Hippocampus, Amygdala, Thalamus – Plasticity, Phineas Gage • Language and the Brain (Aphasia) – Broca, Wernicke and Angular Gyrus • Split Brain Studies – Sperry& Gazzaniga – Corpus Callosum
- 14. Agonist (Heroin) vs.Antagonist (Botox) Mimic & Excite Block & Inhibit
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- 17. Types of BrainScans PET SCAN MRI fMRI EEG Brain Wave Activity
- 19. Sensory and MotorCortexes
- 22. Chapter 4: Development •In the Womb – Zygote, Embryo, Fetus – Teratogens • Newborns – Reflexes (Rooting, Moro) – Habituation • Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget • Sensorimotor • Preoperational • Concrete operations • Formal Operations – Lev Vygotsky • Zone of Proximal Development • Attachment – Lorenz Critical Period • Imprinting – Harlow’s Monkeys – Ainsworth • Strange Situation Test – Parenting Styles • Authoritative • Authoritarian • Permissive • Adolescence – Identity Development • Erik Erikson’s Stages – Identify v. Role Confusion – Moral Development • Kohlberg’s Heinz Dilemma – Pre, Post Conventional • Carol Gilligan’s debate of Kohlberg’s research • Adulthood – Alzheimer's Disease – Senile Dementia – Crystallized v. Fluid Intelligence • Death & Dying – Kuebler-Ross • D, A, B, D, A
- 23. Development Review Qs 1.What is the stage of prenatal dev. Where we are most vulnerable to teratogens? 2. What stage of Piaget’s cognitive development are we egocentric and fail the conservation test? 3. What stage of cognitive development enables abstract logic? 4. What parenting style is strict but not rigid, warm but not a pushover, and responsive to the child’s needs (allows for discussion and explains any consequences) 5. Who was the researcher who conducted the “strange situation” test and found that insecure attachment styles lead children to be less explorative, less happy, and unable to depend on a parent (and maybe others) to meet their needs? 6. Level of morality most people get to (treat others as you would like ot be treated, follow the rules)? 7. Level of morality demonstrated by robin hood (steal from the rich, give to the poor)? 8. Type of intelligence that is best when young? 9. Type of intelligence that improves with age?
- 24. Schemas • Assimilation – Takingnew information and fitting it into an existing schema • Accommodation – Taking new information and creating a new schema or changing the existing one Accommodate it by making its own category or adjusting your schema for horse Assimilate it by saying it is a type of horse
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- 28. Kohlberg’s Moral Development Ishis Research Biased against women? -Coral Gilligan
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- 30. Kuebler-Ross Stages ofDeath: can be applied to the majority of grief situations D, A, B, D, A
- 31. Sensation • Bottom-up v.top-down processing • Sensation – Absolute Thresholds – Difference Thresholds • Weber’s Law • Signal Detection Theory – Hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection • Sensory Adaptation – Pool, Music in Car • Feature Detectors – Hubel and Wiesel Study – Specific areas of brain dedicated to lines and edges • Transduction – Retina, Basilar Membrane • Vision – Parts of the Eye – Rods, Cones in retina – Bipolar Cells – Theories of Color • Trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz) • Opponent Processing • Hearing – Parts of the Ear – Hearing Loss • Sensorineural (Cochlea Implant) • Conductive – Theories of Hearing • Place Theory • Frequency Theory (Volley Principle) • Touch – Lips are sensitive – Gate Control Theory • Chemical Senses – Smell (Olfactory) – Taste (Gustatory) • Vestibular Sense – Balance
- 32. Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down •Slow • No Prior Knowledge • Individual Elements are observed before the whole • Fast • Processing based on prior knowledge • The whloe is osbevred beofre its parts
- 33. Signal Detection Theory Examples:Air Traffic Controllers, Forest Rangers, Soldiers on Guard
- 34. Feature Detectors (Hubeland Wiesel)
- 35.
- 36. Color Vision Theories TrichromaticTheory (Y-H Theory) Cones see in red, blue and green, helps explain color blindness Opponent Processing Theory Opponent cells get stimulated after exposure to opposite colors.
- 37. The Ear PLACE THEORY Theplace in the cochlea where hair cells are stimulated determines pitch FREQUENCY THEORY The number of times per second the hair cells are stimulated determines pitch
- 38. Other Senses Vestibular Sense •Inner Ear (Semi Curricular Canals) • Determines the position of our head and balance • Example, Spinning in a chair until you are dizzy Kinesthetic Sense • Throughout the body • Determines our position of various body parts • Example: Close your eyes and touch your nose
- 39. Perception • Selective Attention –Moon Walking Bear • Intentional Blindness – Cocktail Party Effect – Change Blindness – Choice Blindness – Stroop Effect • Gestalt Principles – Top-down processing – Closure, proximity, similarity, etc… • Binocular Cues (Two Eyes) – Retinal Disparity – Convergence • Monocular Cues (One Eye) – Relative Size – Interposition – Linear perspective – Texture Gradient – Motion Parallax • Perception Consistency – Phi Phenomenon – Ames Room – Context Effects – Moon Illusion (distance/size) – Stroboscopic Motion • Human Factors – Ergonomics – How humans relate to machines • Perceptual Adaptation – Vision Goggles, Living by a train • Perceptual Set – Visual Capture (sound location)
- 40. Change Blindness • SelectiveAttention • Cocktail Party Effect • Inattentional Blindness • Change Blindness
- 41. 41 Relative Size: Iftwo objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image to be farther away. Interposition: If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer Relative Clarity: Hazy objects appear farther away than near objects Texture Gradient: Fine textures indicate a close object; course textures indicate an object is far away Relative Height: Objects higher in our visual field appear to be farther away Relative Motion (motion parallax): When we are moving, objects that are stable appear to move- objects that are farther away move slower than closer objects Light & Shadow: Nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes Linear Perspective: Parallel lines converge in the distance Monocular Cues (one eye)
- 42. 42 Binocular Cues (twoeyes) Retinal Disparity Convergence
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- 45. Consciousness • Circadian Rhythms –25 hour Cycle – Melatonin (Pineal gland) – Superchiasmatic Nucleus • Sleep Stages – Measured by EEG Waves – Stage 1 – Stage 2 (Spindles) – Stage ¾ (Deep Sleep) – REM Sleep • Sleep Disorders • Apnea, Narcolepsy, Night Terrors, Somnambulism • Dreams – Manifest/Latent Content – Psychodynamic Perspective – Information Processing – Activation Synthesis • Hypnosis – Post Hypnotic Suggestion – Age Regression – Psychoanalysis (Freud) – Dissociation (pain control) • Hidden Observer (Hilgard) • Drugs and Consciousness – Withdrawal, Tolerance – Stimulants • Cocaine • Nicotine – Depressants • Alcohol – Hallucinations • LSD • Marijuana
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- 47. Learning • Classical Conditioning –Ivan Pavlov • Dog Salivate Study • US, UR, CS, CR – John B. Watson • Little Albert Study – James Garcia • Taste Aversion • Other Conditioning Terms – Extinction – Spontaneous Recovery – Generalization – Discrimination – Higher-Order Conditioning • Operant Conditioning – B.F. Skinner • Operant conditioning chamber – Reinforcement (+/-) – Punishment (+/-) – Schedules of Reinforcement • VI, VR, FI, FR – Shaping & Chaining – Overjustification Effect – Superstition • Latent Learning – E.C. Tolman – Cognitive Maps • Observational Learning – Bandura (Bobo Doll) – TV Violence – Modeling – Mirror Neurons
- 48. Learning Review Qs 1.Pavlov’s Dog UCS- UCR- CS- CR- 2. Give example of negative (take away) reinforcement (encourage behavior)? 3. What schedule of reinforcement is the most resistant to extinction? 4. What is learned helplessness? (Give example)
- 49. Secondary or HigherOrder Conditioning: Could pairing light with a bell cause the dog to salivate to the light alone? Pavlov's Classical Conditioning
- 50. Watson's Classical Conditioning LittleAlbert Generalized his fear to be afraid of all white furry things
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- 53. Memory • #1. Aktkinson-ShriffinModel – Encoding – Storage – Retrieval – Effortful vs. Automatic Processing • Braddeley Model – Working Memory/Central Executive • Sensory Memory – Iconic (< second) – Echoic (3-4 Seconds) • #2. Short-Term Memory – George Miller- 7 +/- 2, – 30 Seconds – Chunking • #3. Long-Term Memory – Context Dependent – State Dependent – Mood-Congruent – #4. Hermann Ebbinghaus • Forgetting Curve • Spacing Effect • Serial Position Effect – Primacy/Recency Effects • #5. Amnesia Types – Antrograde Amnesia – Retrograde Amnesia – Source Amnesia • #6. Ways we Forget – Encoding Failure (penny) – Storage Decay (forgetting curve) – Interference • Proactive • Retroactive – Repression (Freud) • Long-term Potentiation – Synaptic changes after we learn • #7 Brain & Memory – Implicit/Procedural (Cerebellum) – Explicit/Facts (Hippocampus) • Mnemonic Devices – Peg Word – Method of Loci • #8. Misinformation Effect – Elizabeth Loftus – Cars Smash/Hit Study – Sexual Abuse Cases
- 54. Atkinson and ShiffrinModel of Memory Braddeley’s Working Model of Memory
- 55. DECLARATIVE/ EXPLICIT MEMORY NON-DECLARATIVE, IMPLICIT ORPROCEDURAL MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY EPISODIC MEMORY MEMORY Hippocampus Cerebellum
- 56. Ebbinghaus’ Serial PositionEffect & Forgetting Curve Most Forgotten Nonsense Syllables Beginning Middle End
- 57. Mr. Burnes 57 Forgetting EncodingFailure with pennies Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall. PORN
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- 59. Amnesia Time Onset of Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia RetrogradeAmnesia Memory Loss Memory Loss Source amnesia: Forgetting where you saw or acquired the information
- 60. Thinking & Language •Concepts and Prototypes – Concepts- general – Prototypes- specific • Problem-Solving – Algorithm – Mental Set – Functional Fixedness • Errors in Thinking – Belief Bias – Confirmation Bias – Framing Effect • Heuristics – Representativeness – Availability • Convergent and Divergent thinking – Creativity is divergent thinking • Kohler’s Insight & Incubation Study – Sultan the Ape and Bananas – Insight happens in right temporal lobe • Language Structure – Phonemes- sounds – Morpheme- prefix, suffix – Semantics-meaning – Syntax- order – Overregualization – Telegraphic speech • Noam Chomsky – Language acquisition device – Deep vs. Surface structures • Linguistic Determinism – Whorf’s Hypothesis – Language determines the way we think (snow)
- 61. Concepts and Prototypes Concept “GeneralCategory” Prototype “Specific Representation” Why is a penguin not a typical prototype?
- 62. Representativeness and AvailabilityHeuristics Availability Heuristic What ever comes to mind quickest Is it safer to fly or drive? More words that begin with K or have K as the third letter? Representativeness Heuristic What ever best fits our schema best Is this man more likely a banker Or a pro basketball player? Gambler’s Fallacy
- 63. Whorf-Sapir Hypothesis ofLinguistic Determinism
- 67. Motivation • Theories ofMotivation* – Instinct Theory • Fixed Action Patterns – Drive Reduction • Homeostasis – Incentive Theory – Arousal Theory • Yerkes-Dodson Law • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs * – Physiological, Safety, Love/belongingness, Esteem, Self-Actualization • Hunger* – Lateral Hypothalamus – Ventromedial Hypothalamus • Hunger Hormones* – Insulin (pancreas) – Orexin (Hypothalamus) – Ghrelin (Stomach) – Leptin (Fat Cells) – PYY (Intestine) • Eating Disorders – Anorexia Nervosa • Extreme dieting – Bulimia Nervosa • Binge & Purge • Sex & Sexual Response Cycle – Alfred Kinsey Study – Masters and Johnson • Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution (refractory period in men) • Sexual Hormones – Testosterone helps with sex drive – Testosterone seems to increase visual-spatial abilities • Achievement Motivation – High intrinsic motivation – Flow- Focused state of consciousness that engages the mind
- 68. Theories of Motivation Theoriesof Motivation Description Instinct Theory Reflexes cause us to perform certain behaviors (genetic fixed action patterns) Drive Reduction Body tries to maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis) by create a drive Incentive Theory Pull us toward a goal with rewards Optimum Arousal Completing behaviors because we find these stimulating (i.e. base jumping, cave exploring, skydiving) Types of Motivation Description Intrinsic Motivation Finds tasks enjoyable and pleasurable just for the joy of doing the behavior (overjustification effect diminishes this) Extrinsic Motivation Motivation caused by outside factors (rewards and punishments) such as money or candy
- 70. Hunger & Hypothalamus StimulateLesion (destroy) Lateral Hypothalamus Eat More Less hungry Ventromedial Hypothalamus Don’t Eat Very Much Hungry Hormone Tissue Response Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger Ghrelin increase Stomach Increases hunger Insulin increase Pancreas Increases hunger Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases hunger PPY increase Digestive tract Decreases hunger
- 71. Stress and Health •General Adaptation Syndrome* – Found by Hans Selye – Three Stages • Immune System* – Can be conditioned through classical conditioning (sweetened water and radiation) • Type A and B Personalities – Type A- heart attacks with anger and time conscious – Type B- easy-going • Aerobic Exercise – Works better at relieving depression than meds (sometimes) • Perceived Control – Will do better if you can control/predict stress in environment • Types of Conflicts (?) – Approach-Approach – Avoidance-Avoidance – Approach-Avoidance • Biofeedback – Machine to help learn to control relaxation (muscle tension) • Stress Hormones – Cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine
- 72. Selye’s General AdaptationSyndrome (GAS) Body’s Response to Stress
- 73. Immune System ClassicalConditioning Similar to Garcia Effect on Taste Aversion
- 74. Emotion • Theories ofEmotion* – James-Lange Theory • First physiological, second emotion – Cannon-Bard Theory • Same Time – Schatcher-Singer Theory • Two-Factor Theory involves cognition • Spill-over Effect • Arousal and Performance – Complex tasks- you want low arousal – Simple tasks- you want high arousal • Cognition and Emotion – Lazarus Study- Cognitive appraisal of a situation is needed to perceive emotion (high road) – Zajonc Study- no conscious thinking involved (low road) • Nonverbal Communication – Paul Ekman • Display rules and micro expressions • Gestures differ by culture, but facial expressions are the same – Read faces in the right temporal lobe and amygdala • Major Emotions – Anger/fear • Amygdala – Catharsis Theory • Releasing anger (can be harmful in the long-run) – Happiness • Relative Deprivation • Adaption level phenomenon • Feel-good, Do-good
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- 76. Personality • Psychodynamic Perspective* –Freud – Free Association – Id, Ego Superego – Psychosexual Stages • O-A-P-L-G – Neo-Freudians • Carl Jung (Collective Unconscious) • Alfred Adler (inferiority) • Karen Horney • Humanistic Perspective – Rogers, Maslow – Free Will and Self-Determinism – Ideal vs. Actual Self leads to incongruence – Unconditional Positive Regard • Behavioral Perspective – Rewards Punishments and observations influence personality development • Biological-Trait Perspective – Gordon Allport – Cattell’s 16PF – Eysenck’s Two dimensions – Costa and McCrae’s Big Five Model • OCEAN • Social Cognitive Perspective (Bandura) – Reciprocal determinism – Michel’s Person-situation controversy (debate trait theory) • Personality Tests – Projective • Rorschach, TAT – Objective • MMPI, Myers-Briggs (jung) • Other Information – Self-efficacy – Self-Serving Bias – Learned Helplessness – Positive Psychology
- 77. Personality Group Assignments! •Psychodynamic Perspective 1. Freud’s Divisions of Personality and Consciousness 2. Defense Mechanisms (brief examples of each) 3. Neo-Freudians • Carl Jung • Alfred Adler • Karen Horney • 4. Humanistic Perspective -- Rogers, Maslow – Free Will and Self-Determinism – Ideal vs. Actual Self – Unconditional Positive Regard • 5. Biological-Trait Perspective – Gordon Allport – Cattell’s 16PF – Eysenck’s Two dimensions – Costa and McCrae’s Big Five Model • OCEAN • 6. Personality Tests (compare/contrast) – Projective • Rorschach, TAT – Objective • MMPI, Myers-Briggs (Jung) • 7. Social-Cognitive – Reciprocal determinism – Michel’s Person-situation controversy (debate trait theory)
- 78. Freud’s Theory ofPersonality
- 79.
- 80. 80 • Carl Rogers& The Self – Believes that personality is determined by free will and self- determinism – Believes that people are naturally good – Congruence: The consistency between one’s self-concept and one’s experience (ideal vs. actual self) – Unconditional Positive Regard: not judging people; if parents don’t judge their children, but love them for who they are, they will develop a positive self-concept – Person-centered Approach: Personal growth is determined by being genuine, accepting and empathic others
- 81. Big-Five Trait Theoryof Personality Criticized by Walter Michel for person-situation controversy O C E A N
- 82. Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism (SocialCognitive Theory of Personality) PERSONALITY I like photography I hang out with people who like photography and I decorate my house with my photographs I take pictures with my friends
- 83. • Meet theNeo-Freudians – Carl Jung • Jung believed in the collective unconscious, which contained a common reservoir of images derived from our species’ past. This is why many cultures share certain myths and images such as the mother being a symbol of nurturance. He called these archetypes which later leads to the Myers-Briggs Personality Test. – Alfred Adler • Like Freud, Adler believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual. A child struggles with an inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power. People who cannot overcome their inferiority will have trouble later in life. – Karen Horney • Like Adler, Horney believed in the social aspects of blended psychology and development. She countered Freud’s assumption that women have weak superegos and suffer from “penis envy.” Truly she was a feminine force in psychology. 83
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- 85. Intelligence • Theories ofIntelligence – Spearman’s Factor g – Thurestone Primary Abilities – Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (Savants) – Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory – Mayer’s Emotional EQ • Binet & Terman – Binet- mental reasoning abilities – Terman- Stanford-Binet test, studies longitudinal study of geniuses and finds they are well adaptive • IQ Formula – Mental age/chronological age x 100 • Modern IQ Tests – David Weschler verbal and performance scales • Achievement vs. Aptitude • Reliability and Validity – Test-retest, Split half, alternative forms – Content, criterion (predictive) • Bell Curve – Normal curve & %’s – +/- skews – Flynn Effect – Standardization • Nature vs. Nurture of Intelligence – Identical twins raised apart have similar IQ scores – Biological offspring have similar IQ scores to Biological (not adoptive) parents • Cultural Bias in IQ tests – Can’t find any because they have good predictive validity • Stereotype Threat/Vulnerability – Works only for women and minorities
- 86. Theories of Intelligence TheoryName Person Description g- general intelligence Charles Spearman Factor g is an underlying intelligence; developed factor analysis Seven Primary Abilities LL Thurstone Seven different abilities that all relate to one another, basis for SAT Multiple Intelligence Theory Howard Gardner Based on Savant Syndrome, 8 different intelligences that are each unique Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Robert Sternberg Three intelligences: Analytic (Book/School); Creative (New Ideas); Practical (Everyday skills) Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Jack Mayer, Dan Goleman Social Intelligence that helps us manage and understand others emotions
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- 88. Reliability and Validity Typesof Reliability (Consistency) Types of Validity (Accuracy) Split-Half: Give odd numbered questions, then even numbered questions to see if scores are the same Criterion (Predictive/Concurrent): Do the SATs predict academic abilities accurately? Test-Retest: Test now, then give test two months later to see if scores are the same Content: Is the test measuring the right topic (i.e. psychology test actually have psychology questions on the test) Inter-rater: Make sure that two or more people measuring a variable are scoring the same Construct: Does the test actually measure what it is suppose to measure?
- 89. Social-Cultural Perspective Individualistic =Independent, promotes diversity Collectivistic = Interdependent, promotes conformity
- 90. AP PSYCH EXAMIS TOMORROW!!!!!!!
- 91. Abnormal Psychology • MedicalModel – Found by Syphilis • Rosenhan Study – Sane in the Insane world w/pseudopatients • DSM-IV & 5 Axis Model • Anxiety Disorders – Panic Attacks, Phobias, OCD, PTSD, GAD • Dissociative Disorders – Dissociative Fugue – Dissociative Identity Disorder • Somatoform Disorders – Conversion Disorder – Hypochondriasis • Mood Disorders – Major Depressive Episode – Dysthymic Disorder – Bipolar Disorder • Schizophrenia – Positive and negative symptoms – Five subtypes – Causes • Personality Disorders – 3 Cluster subtypes – Antisocial Personality Disorder
- 92. 92 DSM-IV-TR Overview Are Psychosocialor Environmental Problems (school or housing issues) also present? Axis IV What is the Global Assessment of the person’s functioning? Axis V Is a General Medical Condition (diabetes, hypertension or arthritis etc) also present? Axis III Is a Personality Disorder or Mental Retardation present? Axis II Is a Clinical Syndrome (cognitive, anxiety, mood disorders [16 syndromes]) present? Axis I
- 93. Therapy Methods • Group/FamilyTherapy – No person is an island • Psychodynamic – Freud – Free association, transference, dreams • Humanistic Tx – Rogers, active listening, unconditional positive regard • Behavioral Tx – Joseph Wolpe, Mary Cover Jones, exposure tx, aversion tx, systematic desensitization, token economies • Cognitive Tx – Beck and Ellis – Change Irrational thoughts • Alternative Therapies – Light Therapy (SAD) – Shapiro’s EMDR (PTSD) • Drug Therapies – Neuroleptics (Psychotropic) – Antianxiety – Mood Stabilizers – Antidepressants • Biomedical Therapy – ECT (depression) – rTMS (depression) • Psychosurgery – Prefrontal Lobotomy • Deinstitutionalization of the 1950’s – Psychotropic drugs allow mental patients to be released from mental institutions
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- 95. Social Psychology • FundamentalAttribution Error – Fritz Heider – Actor-Observer Bias • Foot-in-Door – Yard Sign Study • Door-in-Face • Central and Peripheral Routes of Persuasion • Zimbardo Prison Study – Cognitive Dissonance • Asch’s Line Study – 37% conform – Normative Influence – Informational Influence • Milgram’s Study on Obedience – 63% will obey authority • Social Facilitation/Social Inhibition • Social Loafing – Tug of War Study • Deindividuation – Riots • Group Polarization • Group Think – Bay of Pigs, Challenger Shuttle • In-group Bias – Ethnocentrism • Just World Phenomenon • Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis • Mere Exposure Effect • Social Trap – Game Theory • Altruism – Bystander Effect • Kitty Genovese Murder – Social Exchange Theory – Reciporcity Norm • Robber’s Cave Study – Superordinate Goals
- 96. Social Psychology Terms FundamentalAttribution Error Judging a person’s behavior based more on their personality even when it is probably the situation they are in Self-Serving Bias refers to individuals attributing their successes to internal or personal factors but attributing their failures to external or situational factors Self-Efficacy The belief that you will perform well Correlates well with intrinsic motivation and internal locus of control Social Facilitation/Social Inhibition When others watch us, we perform better if we find the task easy/ when others watch us we perform worse if we find the task difficult
Editor's Notes
- #5 The Experiment: 1. Two variables are studied for cause and effect Independent variable – manipulated Dependent variable – the response; measured Confounding variable – other variables that may influence results Experiment group – exposed to manipulation of independent variable Control group – an unaffected comparison group Subject bias – a subject’s behavior changes due to believed expectations of experiment (Demand characteristics) Researcher bias – expectations influence what is recorded Double-blind technique – control for bias by keeping placement of subject secret Placebo – inactive substance unknowingly given in place of drug Null hypothesis – negatively expressed hypothesis; X will not change Y
- #9 A correlation measures the relationship between two variables. As explained earlier, correlations can be either positive or negative. If two things are positively correlated, the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. In contrast, a negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other. When no relationship exists between two things, no correlation exists. As an example, one would suspect that a positive correlation exists between studying and earning good grades. Conversely, one would suspect that a negative correlation might occur between cutting classes and earning good grades. Finally, it is likely that there is no correlation between the number of stuffed animals one owns and earning good grades.
- #12 Myelin Sheath – a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds the neural impulse Axon – wire-like structure ending in the terminal that extends from the cell body Neurons – a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system Sensory Neurons (afferent) – neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors (nose, ears, hands) to the central nervous system Interneuron – central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs Motor Neurons (efferent) – neurons that carry incoming information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands Dopa- movement, earning, attention, emotion. Excess-Schizo, too little-Parkinson Edorphine-pain blocking Ach-muscle movement, learning, and memory. Alzhemiers-breakdown of ACH producing neurons Sertonin-mood, hunger, arousal, sleep. Under supply= depression Epinephrine-adrenaline, arousal GABA-inhbits neurotransmission
- #13 Myelin Sheath – a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds the neural impulse Axon – wire-like structure ending in the terminal that extends from the cell body Neurons – a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system Depolarization – this occurs when positive ions enter the neuron, making it susceptible to fire an action potential Refractory Period – after a neuron has fired an action potential, it pauses for a short period to recharge, until it will fire again Threshold – the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Action Potential – a neural impulse that travels down the axondomino effect All-or-none – when the depolarized current exceeds the threshold of a neuron, it will fire unless it’s below, causing is not to fire Reuptake – neurotransmitters that can’t find an area across the synapse to attach will be reabsorbed by the sending neuron
- #14 Botox injections smooth facial wrinkles because botulin is a(n): ACh antagonist
- #15 Acetylcholine – activates motor neurons and skeletal muscles, too little = Alzheimer’s Dopamine – contributes to voluntary movements and pleasurable emotions, lack of it causes Parkinson’s as too much causes schizophrenia Endorphins – natural pain killers created by brain, promotes pain relief, like morphine Serotonin – involved in mood, regulation of sleep, appetite, and body temperature, to little leads to depression as too much contributes to OCD and mania Norepinephrine – affects memory, learning, and contributes to changes in mood, undersupply leads to depression
- #17 EEG – an amplified recording of waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface, these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the skull PET – a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a certain task MRI – a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce a computer generated image that distinguishes between the types of soft tissue in the brain
- #18 Hindbrain (brainstem) – lower brain, located at rear base of skull, responsible for reflexive or automatic behaviors Forebrain (frontal lobe) – largest part of brain that controls what we think of as thoughts and reasons Midbrain (limbic system) – located above Pons, integrates and relay sensory info to main part of brain Limbic System – associated with emotions like aggression and fear and drives such as hunger and thirst and sex (Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, and Amygdala) Reticular Formation – screens incoming info, and filters out irrelevant info, controls arousal and attention Thalamus – the brains sensory switchboard Pons – above the medulla, makes chemicals involved w/ sleep & facial expressions Cerebellum – the little brain attached to the rear of the brain stem, controls coordination, fire muscles movements and balance Limbic System – associated with emotions like aggression and fear and drives such as hunger and thirst and sex (Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, and Amygdala) Amygdala – part of the limbic system that is involved in emotions, aggression, and fear Hypothalamus – controls the metabolic functions of body temp, sex arousal, hunger, thirst, motivation/emotions, and the endocrine systemthe 4 f’s Hippocampus – part of the limbic system involved in learning and memory Temporal Lobe – at side of brain above ears involved in memory, perception, hearing Occipital Lobe – lower back part of brain involved with processing visual infovision Peripheral Lobe – top of brain, discriminates between textures and shapes Frontal Lobe – located under forehead, involved with complex cognitive functions Broca’s Area – directs muscle movements involved with speech Wernicke’s Area – involved in language comprehension
- #19 Sensory Cortex – receives info from skin surface and sense organs Motor Cortex – controls voluntary movements, on opposite side of body
- #20 Broca’s Area – directs muscle movements involved with speech Wernicke’s Area – involved in language comprehension The angular gyrus plays a major role in the retrieving information held in the memory system of the brain. It also helps in the processing of numbers and languages. It is hence a crucial part of the human brain.
- #21 Split Brain – corpus callosum cut, not allowing info to travel to other side of brain Corpus Callosum –responsible for higher thinking function, connects two sides of brain Left Hemi – logical, sequential tasks, solving math problems, verballogical Right Hemi – facial recognition, puzzle solver, emotional, artisticcreative
- #22 Rooting Reflex – when touched on the cheek, a baby will turn its head and seek a nipple Moro Reflex – when startled, baby flings limbs out and slowly retract them Babinski Reflex – when a baby’s foot is stroked, he/she will spread their toes Sucking Reflex – when an object is placed into baby’s mouth, the infant will suck on it Grasping Reflex – if an object is placed into baby’s balm, the baby will try to grasp it
- #25 Stupid Piaget Creates Fuss Jean Piaget Sensorimotor – birth to 2 years of age, experience world through senses and actions, learn object permanence and stranger anxiety Stage 1 – “1 is a bun” and SensoriMotor: use the “motor” part of sensorimotor and picture 4 cinnamon buns in place of the wheels on the motorcycle. To remember that object permanence occurs in this stage, use “two ants” for “permanence” and picture two ants riding two motorcycles Preoperational – 2 to 6 years of age, representing things with words rather than images, use intuitive rather than logical thinking, very egocentric (only see from own view) Stage 2 – “2 is a shoe” and Preoperational: use “preacher” and imagine him wearing outrageously ugly or funny shoes. For magical thinking, which is typical of this stage, picture a rabbit coming out of the preacher’s hat. To remember that the conservation tasks are a challenge during this stage, picture Smokey the Bear also wearing ridiculous shoes. To remember that assimilation also occurs in this stage, picture an ass (donkey) with those same shoes. Concrete operational – from ages 7 to 11, think logically about concrete events, grasp concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations, learn conservation Stage 3 – “3 is a tree” and Concrete Operations: picture a tree with concrete leaves and the tree is growing out of a concrete pot. Next to the tree is a pile of logs (for logical thinking) and also next to the tree is a wooden commode (for accommodation). Formal operational – from age 12 through adulthood, they begin to think abstractly, they understand abstract logic and potential for mature moral reasoning “4 is a door” and Formal Operations: picture a very wide door and behind that door are “four males” with excellent abs (for abstract thinking, which is possible at this stage).
- #26 Harry Harlow – created the Harlow monkey experiment, raise baby monkey’s w/ a wire mother and bottle vs. a terry cloth mother, most monkey’s liked the comfort rather than the food and necessary needs provided by the other mother Mary Ainsworth – studied how different attachment styles affected kids Secure attachment – confidently explore the novel environment while parents are present, are distressed when they leave, and come to parents when they return Avoidant attachment – may resist being held by parent and will explore the novel environment. They do not go to parent for comfort when they return after absence Anxious attachment – have ambivalent reactions to parents. They may show extreme stress when parents leave, but upon return resist being comforted by parent
- #27 Erik Erikson Trust v Mistrust – birth to one year, infancy – if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust Bun (Trust vs. Mistrust) a "rust" colored bun Autonomy v shame/doubt – age 1 to age 2, toddlerhood – learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities Shoe (Autonomy vs. Shame) an "auto" shoved inside of a shoe. The auto is driven by "shane" Initiative v guilt – age 3 to 5, preschooler – learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent Tree (Initiative vs. Guilt) Shia Leboef, or an Inn Industry v inferiority – age 6 to puberty, elementary school – learn the pleasures of applying themselves to tasks, or they fell inferior Dinosaur (Industry vs. Inferiority) picture a dinosaur with dust (in"dust"try) sprinkled all over it. The dinosaur feels inferior because of the dust all over it. Identity v role confusion – teen years to early 20s, adolescence – work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are Sky dive (Identity vs. Role Confusion) a skydiver's chute doesn't open and he falls on top of a car denting it. He is also very confused after hitting the car. Intimacy v isolation – 20s to early 40s, young adulthood – struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel isolated Sticks (Intimacy vs. Isolation) picture two sticks in love and one stick all by himself. Generativity v stagnation – 40s to 60s, middle adulthood – people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they feel a lack of purpose for their life Heaven (Generativity vs. Stagnation) picture a generator up in heaven that died because it ran out of gas and a male deer (stag) pulling the cord to try to get it started again. Integrity v despair – late 60s to death, late adulthood – when reflecting on their life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure Plate (Integrity vs. Despair) picture grits and a pear on a plate.
- #28 Kohlberg Preconventional – obey in order to avoid punishment or get reward in the case of stealing medicine in order to save the life of your wife, someone with this morality would say ... no, I don’t want to get in trouble Obedience Conventional – care for others and uphold laws and social rules simply b/c they are laws - ... no, it is illegal to steal and I don’t want to break a law Societal Norms Postconventional – affirm people’s agreed-upon rights or follow what one personally perceives as correct or ethically ok ... yes, my wife needs it and a whole life is must more worth the $50 the medicine costs, in truth, I would be doing what anyone would do Social contract
- #29 Authoritarian – set strict standard & apply punishment for violations of rules (hard bed) Permissive – do not set clear guidelines for kids & randomly enforce rules (soft bed) Authoritative – have set standards, but able to explain them with kids when broken, encourage independence, but not too strict on punishments (just right bed)
- #30 Denial — As the reality of loss is hard to face, one of the first reactions to follow the loss is Denial. What this means is that the person is trying to shut out the reality or magnitude of their situation, and begin to develop a false, preferable reality. Anger — "Why me? It's not fair!"; "How can this happen to me?"; '"Who is to blame?" Once in the second stage, the individual recognizes that denial cannot continue. Because of anger, the person is very difficult to care for due to misplaced feelings of rage and envy. Anger can manifest itself in different ways. People can be angry with themselves, or with others, and especially those who are close to them. It is important to remain detached and nonjudgmental when dealing with a person experiencing anger from grief. Bargaining — "I'll do anything for a few more years."; "I will give my life savings if…" The third stage involves the hope that the individual can somehow undo or avoid a cause of grief. Usually, the negotiation for an extended life is made with a higher power in exchange for a reformed lifestyle. Other times, they will use anything valuable as a bargaining chip against another human agency to extend or prolong the life they live. Psychologically, the individual is saying, "I understand I will die, but if I could just do something to buy more time…" People facing less serious trauma can bargain or seek to negotiate a compromise. For example "Can we still be friends?" when facing a break-up. Bargaining rarely provides a sustainable solution, especially if it is a matter of life or death. Depression — "I'm so sad, why bother with anything?"; "I'm going to die soon so what's the point?"; "I miss my loved one, why go on?" During the fourth stage, the grieving person begins to understand the certainty of death. Much like the existential concept of The Void, the idea of living becomes pointless. Things begin to lose meaning to the griever. Because of this, the individual may become silent, refuse visitors and spend much of the time crying and sullen. This process allows the grieving person to disconnect from things of love and affection, possibly in an attempt to avoid further trauma. Depression could be referred to as the dress rehearsal for the 'aftermath'. It is a kind of acceptance with emotional attachment. It is natural to feel sadness, regret, fear, and uncertainty when going through this stage. Feeling those emotions shows that the person has begun to accept the situation. Often times, this is the ideal path to take, to find closure and make their ways to the fifth step, Acceptance. Acceptance — "It's going to be okay."; "I can't fight it, I may as well prepare for it." In this last stage, individuals begin to come to terms with their mortality or inevitable future, or that of a loved one, or other tragic event. This stage varies according to the person's situation. People dying can enter this stage a long time before the people they leave behind, who must pass through their own individual stages of dealing with the grief. This typically comes with a calm, retrospective view for the individual,
- #32 Top-down Processing – info processed guided by higher level mental processes, recognizing face & T/-\E C/-\T (I read ‘the cat’, no thinking) Bottom-up Processing – analysis of the stimulus begins w/ the sense receptor and work up to brain, /-\ (I see something, oh it’s an A)
- #33 SDT Your ability or likelihood to detect some stimulus is affected by the intensity of the stimulus JND – minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 % of the time
- #34 nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
- #35 Transduction – the conversation of one form of energy into another, translates the incoming stimuli into a neural signal Retina – process visual info into neural impulses Cornea – protects and bends incoming light rays/focus Lens – focus light rays on the retina (accommodation) Iris – controls the pupil’s size Fovea – central point (only cones) and see color Pupil – adjusts opening to let in light Blind spot – point at which there are no rods/cones Optic nerve – carries neural impulse to the brain Rods – detect black, white, and gray (peripheral and night vision) Cones – detect color (fine detail) (mainly located in fovea)
- #36 Young-Helmholtz Theory – we have three types of cones in the retina: red, blue, green; we get other colors by mixing and lightening/darkening colors Opponent Process Theory – the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs: red/green, yellow/blue, and black/white Afterimage – the firing of the cones used after viewing something steadily Red- longest visible wave
- #37 Hearing Intensity – loudness, measured in decibels Frequency - the pitch, a tone’s highness/lowness Outer ear – sound waves collected SourceEar canalEardrum (thin membrane that vibrates when hit) Middle ear – transmits and amplifies the vibration HammerAnvilStirrupOval window Inner ear – change to neural impulse - Cochlea (snail shaped membrane filled w/ fluid that changes vibration to an electric symbol)Auditory NerveBrain place–volley theory uses both mechanisms in combination, primarily coding low pitches by temporal pattern and high pitches by rate–place patterns.
- #38 Vestibular sense – sense of body position and movement, balance
- #40 The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, like the cocktail effect (notice your name Cocktail Party Phem – focus of attention on selected aspects of the environment and block out the rest Inattentional Blindness-failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere Change-failing to notice changes in the environment.
- #41 OBJECTIVE 7| Explain how monocular cues differ from binocular cues, and describe several monocular cues for perceiving depth.
- #42 visual messages/cues that require two eyes (retinal disparity, convergence) Convergence; visual depth cue; muscles controlling eye movement as the eyes turned inward to view a nearby stimulus Retinal Disparity – comparing the information from each eyeball, the greater difference between the two images means they are closer
- #43 Gestalt – an organized whole, put all individual pieces together to get big picture - Proximity – objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group - Similarity – objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived “ - Continuity – Objects that form a continuous form are more likely to be perceived “ - Closure – Objects that make up recognizable image r more likely to be perceived “ Constancy – objects with similar size, shape and brightness are considered a se *Metacognition – gain ability to think about the way you thinkself-evaluation
- #45 Consciousness – our awareness of ourselves and our environment Conscious level – the info about yourself and your enviro. you are currently aware of Nonconscious level – body processes controlled by your mind that we are not aware of (heartbeat, respiration, and digestion) Preconscious level – info about yourself and environment that you are currently not thinking about Subconscious level – info that we are not completely aware of but we know exists due to our behaviors Unconscious level – reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories in which we are ashamed of, that why we repressed them their Nightmare – a scary dream that wakes up the child Night terror – a high-arousal dream that terrifies a child due to the fact that it occurs in Stage four sleep, your most relaxed state Insomnia – reoccurring difficulties either falling asleep or staying asleep Narcolepsy – uncontrollable sleep attacks, person randomly collapses into REM sleep Sleep apnea – temporary cessations of breathing during sleep Somnambulism – sleep walking Dreams – “the highway to the unconscious”, sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing though a sleeping person’s mind Manifest Content – the story line of the dream Latent Content – the underlying meaning of the dream Hypnosis – a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) SUGGESTS to another person (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
- #46 Beta waves-awake Alpha waves-light sleep/onset Stage 1 (theta waves) – light sleep, hypnic jerk, hypnagogic images Stage 2 – temperature, breathing and heart rate decrease; sleep spindles Stages 3 and 4 (delta waves) – growth hormones released, hard to wake up REM-paradoxical
- #47 Social Learning Bandura – learn through watching BOBO dolls – after see a parent aggressive, child more likely aggressive – TV violence
- #49 Pavlov – founder of classical conditioning while trying to study digestive system Classical Conditioning – learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli Acquisition – initial stage of CC, in which the association between the NS and UCS takes place, only lasts about 1⁄2 a second Generalization – tendency to respond to similar stimuli in the same way Discrimination – the learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli Spontaneous Recovery – the reappearing of the CR to the CS Extinction – the fading of the CR to the CS NS – neutral stimuli – stimuli that does not trigger a response UCS – unconditioned stimuli – stimuli that automatically triggers a response UCR – unconditioned response – an unlearned, natural response to the UCS CS – conditioned stimuli – after association with the UCS, elicits a certain response CR – conditioned response – the learned response to a previously neutral response
- #51 Operant Conditioning – consequences that follow a beh will increase/decrease likelihood of them happening again Skinner – founder of operant conditioning & skinner box Shaping – procedure in which reinforces guide beh through successful approximations Positive Reinforcement – add good – reinforcing beh by rewarding, give allowence Negative Reinforcement – take away bad – reinforcing beh by eliminating averse thing Positive Punishment – add bad – reinforcing beh by adding pain/penalty/etc Negative Punishment – take away good – reinforcing beh by take away phone/keys/etc Primary Reinforces – stimuli that is satisfying and requires no learning food/water/sex Secondary Reinforces – stimuli that has acquired its reinforcing power thru experiences money, praise, grades
- #52 VR – random number of responsesslot machine FR – after a set number of responsesbuy one get one free VI – after a random amount of timefishing FI – after a set rate of timepay check every 2 weeks
- #54 Flashbulb Memory – a clear memory of an emotionally significant event: 911, JFK Encoding – changing the info into storable content Sensory Memory – the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info Iconic – visual info/memory Echoic – auditory info/memory Recall – retrieval of info already learned – fill in the blank test Recognition – identify info already learned – multiple choice Storage – placing info into a storage spot for use later Retrieval – getting the info out of storage STM – short term memory – temporary memory storage LTM – long term memory – an almost endless amount of storage ability LTP-Memories are formed in the brain when a synapse changes to allow for more efficient transfer of information.
- #55 Implicit – memory of the procedure – how to ride a bike Explicit – memory of facts – George Washington is first president
- #56 Ebbinghaus – the more time we spend of learning info, the linger we remember it Serial Position effect – tendency to recall the first and last items of a list Primary effect – tendency to recall the first terms of list Recency effect – tendency to recall the last terms of list
- #57 Proactive interference – old info interfere w/ new info Retroactive interference – new info interfere w/ old info ProOldRetroNew Mnemonic Devices – ways of remembering info by using creative memory techniques Chunking – putting many number into parts, change 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 to 123, 465, 789 (made 9 things into 3 = easier to remember)
- #59 Anterograde Amnesia – inability to make new memories, can remember old ones b4 Retrograde Amnesia – inability to remember memories prior to accident Source Amnesia – inability to remember who told you memory Infantile Amnesia – inability to remember anything before age of 3
- #60 Functional Fixedness – the inability to see the different uses of an object, ie.a paper clip’s only use is to clip papers (don’t think about making it into a hook, etc.) Noam Chomsky – the best time to learn a language is during childhood, kids are sponges and able to absorb the language better than in high school (and yet, when do we learn language? high school, make any sense to you???) Babbling Stage – the stage of speech development in which an infant utters various sounds at first unrelated to the house hold language One-word Stage – the stage of speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words, from age 1 to 2 Two-word Stage – beginning at age 2, child speaks mostly in two word statements Telegraphic Stage – early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram (go car) using mostly nouns and verbs, omitting auxiliary words
- #62 Representative Heuristics – judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent/match particular prototype, ie.a short, slim, poetry reading man is a ivy league professor, not a truck drive (don’t think of the many truck drivers compared to the small number of ivy league professors) Available Heuristics – estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, ie.after a horrible house fire, a person will think that a house fire is more common than a tornado hitting house, even if they live in tornado valley, b/c they can still remember they house fire
- #63 Benjamin Whorf – linguistic determination – language determines the way we think
- #64 Benjamin Whorf – linguistic determination – language determines the way we think
- #65 Benjamin Whorf – linguistic determination – language determines the way we think
- #66 Benjamin Whorf – linguistic determination – language determines the way we think
- #67 Bulimia – eating a large amount of food and then purging (barf) it up Anorexia – not eating food at all (staving) Obesity – overeating and gaining excessive amount of weight Sexual response cycle – by Masters and Johnson – ExcitementPlateauOrgasm Resolution
- #68 Drive reduction Theory – physiological need creates an aroused tension states (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need Homeostasis – a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspects of body chemistry Intrinsic motivation – desire to perform behavior for own sake Extrinsic motivation – desire to perform behavior for reward at end
- #69 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – physiological needs (food, water)safety needs (security, shelter)belongingness needs (friends, family, community)esteem needs (achievement, flattery for mastery)self actualization!!!! Self-actualization – the motivation to achieve one’s full potential
- #70 Homeostasis – a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspects of body chemistry
- #71 GAS – General Adaption Syndrome – made by Hans Selye responses to stress – alarm resistanceexhaustion (very vulnerable to disease) approach-approach conflict a choice must be made between two desirable goals; least stressful type of conflict; study abroad or internship? avoidance-avoidance conflict a choice must be made between two unattractive goals; rather be shot or hung? approach-avoidance conflict a choice must be made about whether to achieve a goal that has both positive and negative attributes; great internship, but in Columbus Ohio
- #72 GAS – General Adaption Syndrome – made by Hans Selye responses to stress – alarm resistanceexhaustion (very vulnerable to disease)
- #75 James-Lange Thy – experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotionally arousing stimuli (First physiological, second emotion) Cannon-Bard Thy – emotionally arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger both a physiological response and emotion (Same Time) Schacter & Singer / 2 Factor Thy – emotion must be physically aroused and cognitively labeled (before emotion Two-Factor Theory involves cognition) Spill-over Effect
- #76 Personality – an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting Type A – hard-driving, aggressive, anger-prone people (get more heart problems) Type B – easygoing, relaxed people Free association – unscripted, uncensored talking, which is supposed to provide clues to the unconscious parts of the mind Learned Helplessness – when unable to avoid repeated adverse events, the person/animal feels helpless and will not try any more to avoid/escape Self-efficacy – how capable we think we are in controlling event, determined by previous events, comparisons w/ others abilities, listening what others say about our capabilities, and feedback from body Spotlight Effect – the tendency to overestimate others’ noticing and evaluating our appearances, performances, and blunders Self-serving Bias – a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
- #77 Personality – an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting Type A – hard-driving, aggressive, anger-prone people (get more heart problems) Type B – easygoing, relaxed people Free association – unscripted, uncensored talking, which is supposed to provide clues to the unconscious parts of the mind Learned Helplessness – when unable to avoid repeated adverse events, the person/animal feels helpless and will not try any more to avoid/escape Self-efficacy – how capable we think we are in controlling event, determined by previous events, comparisons w/ others abilities, listening what others say about our capabilities, and feedback from body Spotlight Effect – the tendency to overestimate others’ noticing and evaluating our appearances, performances, and blunders Self-serving Bias – a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
- #78 Id – contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives for basic sexual and aggressive drives, immediate gratification (devil) Pleasure principle – id operated on this – strive for pleasure, at all costs Ego – the largely conscious, executive part of personality that mediates between the demands of the id, superego, and reality Reality principle – ego operates on this – u can’t always get what u want, realistically Superego – the part of the personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgments and for future aspirations (angel)
- #79 Defense Mechanisms – ego’s productive method of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality Denial – refusing to accept reality, so say it didn’t rally happen (I did get accepted) Repression – pushing bad thoughts to back of mind, forgetting (Oh, I forgot) Displacement – taking you anger out on someone else (man/wife/boss) Projection – pushing your own feelings on to someone else (you look tired) Reaction Formation – showing the opposite feeling you have (I hate you) Regression – going back to an earlier stage of development (temper tantrum) Rationalization – giving false reasons why you did what you did (well, I was very tired) Sublimination – putting bad urges into acceptable social ways (boxing/football) Penis Envy – a women’s want for the man’s power (not necessary the actual body part) Womb Envy – a man’s want to be able to reproduce
- #80 Internal Locus of Control – the perception that one can control their own faith External Locus of Control – the perception that one’s fate is controlled by an outside force and that they have no control over it Humanism – all humans are basically good and have free will Rogers – people are genuine, accepting, and empathic Self-concept – all our thoughts are feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?” We strive to form a positive one. They difference between a real self and ideal self will form your self-concept Real self – who you really are, in terms of personality Ideal self – who you want to be, your perfect version Unconditional Positive Regard – an attitude of total acceptance towards another person
- #81 Trait Theory – study, define, and track one’s traits over their life time, they don’t care about the why, just what they are Trait – a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel or act, as assessed by self-reporting inventories and peer reports -Conscientiousness – Organized, carful, and disciplined – Agreeableness – Soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful -Neuroticism (emot. stability) – Calm, secure, and self-satisfied – Openness – Imaginative, preference for variety, and independent – Extraversion – Sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate
- #83 Neo-Freudian – followers of Freud who broke of due to his emphasis on childhood memories and sexually and aggressive urges Carl Jung – unconscious is really powerful, but contains more that bad thoughts, etc. Collective Unconscious – Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history Inferiority Complex – the avoiding of feelings of inadequacy and insignificance
- #84 Projective Tests – are personality tests that provide ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projections of one’s inner dynamics Rorschach Inkblot – most widely used projective test, series of ten inkblots, participant looks at inkblot and says what he sees TAT – participant is given a picture and they must make up a story about the picture MMPI – the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identity emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes
- #86 Spearman – proposed that general intelligence is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis (he made up factor analysis) Factor analysis – a statistical procedure that identifies clusters on related items on a test Gardner – wanted to broaden definition of intelligence, created 8 types of intelligence (Logical-Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (others), and naturalist) Sternberg – created his three types of intelligences (analytical, creative, and practical) Binet – published first useful test of general mental ability; broke kids up into ‘bright’ and ‘dull’ by how they compared with both their chronological age and mental age
- #94 Group/Family Therapy No person is an island Psychodynamic Freud Free association, transference, dreams Humanistic Tx Rogers, active listening, unconditional positive regard Behavioral Tx Joseph Wolpe, Mary Cover Jones, exposure tx, aversion tx, systematic desensitization, token economies Cognitive Tx Beck and Ellis Change Irrational thoughts Alternative Therapies Light Therapy (SAD) Shapiro’s EMDR (PTSD) Drug Therapies Neuroleptics (Psychotropic) Antianxiety Mood Stabilizers Antidepressants Biomedical Therapy ECT (depression) rTMS (depression) Psychosurgery Prefrontal Lobotomy Deinstitutionalization of the 1950’s Psychotropic drugs allow mental patients to be released from mental institutions
- #95 Attribution Theory – tendency to give explanations for someone’s beh, often by crediting situation or person’s disposition Fundamental Attribution Thy – tendency to overestimate the impact of person’s disposition and underestimate impact of situation Foot-in-the-Door Phem – tendency to apply w/ larger requests after responding to a smaller request Zimbardo – Stanford Prison Experiment/Lucifer Effect – Role Playing: People take on the role of what they feel are proper for the situation Cognitive Dissonance – people change their behavior to avoid looking bad, ieperson is against gay rights then becomes gay, he will change attitude to gay rights activist Asch – conformity – tendency to go along with the views and actions of others, even if you know they are wrong – line test Milgram – obedience – people tend to obey authority figures; 60% of participants thought they delivered the max possible level of shock Social Facilitation – improved performance in presence of others; easy tasks get easier as hard tasks get harder Social Loafing – in the presence of others, people tend to do less, partly because they believe others will do it Deindividualization – loss of self-awareness and self-restraint, typically in a sense of anomie (mob situation) Group Polarization – if a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens prevailing options and attitudes Groupthink – a mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision- making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives Just-World Phenomenon – tendency of people to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve and deserve what they get Social Traps – situation in which the confliction parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interests, become caught in mutually destructive beh. In-group – people with whom one shares a common identity with Out-group – those perceived as different from themselves Hindsight Bias – tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have predicted it beforehand and may contribute to blaming the victim and forming prejudices against him/her Prejudice – unjustifiable attitude towards a group and its members Mere exposure effect – the mere exposure to a stimulus will increase the liking of it Altruism – unselfish regard for the welfare to others Bystander effect – tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present Reciprocity Norms – the expectation that we should return help, not harm to those who have helped us