This study examines the applicability of Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime in explaining delinquency among Hispanic youth. Specifically, it tests whether key dimensions of parental monitoring and recognition of deviant behavior predict levels of self-control, and whether low self-control mediates the relationship between parenting and deviant behaviors. The study uses a sample of 277 Hispanic youth to analyze these relationships. Previous research on the theory has produced mixed findings regarding the impact of parenting on self-control and the mediating role of self-control.
Jess Alder (Program Director, Start Strong, Boston Public Health Commission), Nicole Daley (Director of Evaluation and Engagement, One Love Foundation), and Emily F. Rothman, ScD (Professor, Boston University School of Public Health) delved into the topic of whether porn use is a public health problem and highlighted a curriculum they developed for teens to discuss porn, healthy relationships, and sexual violence.
Jess Alder (Program Director, Start Strong, Boston Public Health Commission), Nicole Daley (Director of Evaluation and Engagement, One Love Foundation), and Emily F. Rothman, ScD (Professor, Boston University School of Public Health) delved into the topic of whether porn use is a public health problem and highlighted a curriculum they developed for teens to discuss porn, healthy relationships, and sexual violence.
EFFECT OF PARENTS’ INFLUENCE ON SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG STUDENTS IN SECONDAR...paperpublications3
Abstract:Increased sexual liberty and early initiation of adolescents into sexual activities have led to irresponsible and risky sexual behaviors among the adolescents. However, regardless of the availability of various sources of information about sexuality and reproduction, the adolescents are yet to adopt safe sexual behaviors. This has raised questions about the effects of parents on sexual behaviors among adolescent students. This study sought to investigate the effects parents' influence on the sexual behaviors among students in secondary schools in Nyahururu Division, Laikipia County. This study adopted an ex post facto research design. A random sample, of 338 respondents, was chosen from the seven randomly selected schools. Data was collected through administration of a structured questionnaire to the selected respondents. The collected data was then processed and analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17 for Windows. The content validity of the research instrument was established by ascertaining that it contained information that answered the research objectives. The instrument was piloted to ensure reliability and it gave a reliability coefficient of 0.82. The study finding indicated that most parents encouraged their adolescent children to have good sexual behaviors. They, however, lacked effective communication skills to pass their good intentions to their adolescent children and thus making their discussions on sexual matters boring and uninteresting. The study recommends the need for parents to adopt effective communication skills that could enable them pass their good sexual intentions to their adolescent children.
Keywords:Parental Influence, Sexual behaviors, Sexual problems, Adolescent, Sex related information, Parent.
EFFECT OF PARENTS’ INFLUENCE ON SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG STUDENTS IN SECONDAR...paperpublications3
Abstract:Increased sexual liberty and early initiation of adolescents into sexual activities have led to irresponsible and risky sexual behaviors among the adolescents. However, regardless of the availability of various sources of information about sexuality and reproduction, the adolescents are yet to adopt safe sexual behaviors. This has raised questions about the effects of parents on sexual behaviors among adolescent students. This study sought to investigate the effects parents' influence on the sexual behaviors among students in secondary schools in Nyahururu Division, Laikipia County. This study adopted an ex post facto research design. A random sample, of 338 respondents, was chosen from the seven randomly selected schools. Data was collected through administration of a structured questionnaire to the selected respondents. The collected data was then processed and analyzed descriptively using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17 for Windows. The content validity of the research instrument was established by ascertaining that it contained information that answered the research objectives. The instrument was piloted to ensure reliability and it gave a reliability coefficient of 0.82. The study finding indicated that most parents encouraged their adolescent children to have good sexual behaviors. They, however, lacked effective communication skills to pass their good intentions to their adolescent children and thus making their discussions on sexual matters boring and uninteresting. The study recommends the need for parents to adopt effective communication skills that could enable them pass their good sexual intentions to their adolescent children.
Keywords:Parental Influence, Sexual behaviors, Sexual problems, Adolescent, Sex related information, Parent.
Visit this link for more details and live demo - https://www.smackcoders.com/vtiger-crm-hrm-payroll-modules.html
VTiger HRM and Payroll module is an premium all in one Human Resource Management and Payroll extension includes both vtiger hr module and vtiger payroll module. The vtiger hrm module inbuilt features like Candidate, KPI, time sheet, Interview etc. There are no. of core features to be included with several sub features and related functionality to meet the HR industry needs.
Key features available now
I. Recruitment Process
Create request for a vacancy for a specific Job title with qualification, experience and skill set.
On approval requested jobs can be posted over websites as auto generated html forms along with manual entries
Candidates can register and Upload their resume through a website for the particular job post.
Registered candidates are shortlisted and scheduled for variuos rounds of interview with venue details
Send bulk invites with interview details to registered candidates and assigned user.
Automated Invitation/Intimation can be sent to the shortlisted candidate and the Interviewer.
Invitations are triggered to candiates move through next level of Interview.
Selected Candidates can be easily converted to the Employee as well as User by single click.
II. Employee Information
All most useful informations are maintained for each employee for HR process are under this module.
Training Information, Termination , Resignation process can be tracked
Automated mail, calendar intimations to the reporting officer and the employee.
Employee Performance tracking through Reviews from KPI module.
III. Leave Management
Set Leave Types, Leave Period with details.
Holidays can be be defined In this module.
TimeSheet module for Employee Working hours entries and tracking valid worked hours of Employee.
Maximum Working hours can be set.
The normal pay and pay for over time Working hours can be configured for Payroll Calculation.
Manager can assign No of Days for each employee can take leave under each type
Employees are limited within Assigned leaves nad need approval
Employee Can Request Leave and check the remaining leaves available for him.
IV. Payroll Management
Create, Edit and Manage Payroll Fields.
Fixed, Calculative terms can be set for each payroll field
Create various profiles to maintain the frequency of pay. (Weekly/Semi Monthly/Monthly.
Create Payroll Templates to create/calculate bulk Payroll Payments etc., for particular user or Groups
Assign Payroll as jobs triggered based on frequency set to automate the payroll process for eg. each month.
Perception of Child Abuse 2COLLEGE STUDENTS’ AND PROFESSIO.docxherbertwilson5999
Perception of Child Abuse 2
COLLEGE STUDENTS’ AND PROFESSIONALS’ PERCEPTION OF CHILD ABUSE IN CORRELATION TO STRESS
Introduction
Throughout the growth and development of society, child abuse and maltreatment has expanded into many different aspects; it occurs within socioeconomic levels, ethnic and cultural lines, all religions and all levels of education. Within the United States children are suffering from a hidden epidemic of child abuse and neglect. Every year 3.3 million reports of child abuse are made in the United States involving nearly 6 million children (a report can include multiple children). The United States has the worst record in the industrialized nation – losing five children every day due to abuse-related deaths (U.S. Department of HHS, 2011). The estimated cost of child abuse and neglect in the United States for 2008 is $124 billion (Fang, 2012). The Department of Children and Families (DCF) defines child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent, guardian, or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child (Leeb, Paulozzi, Melanson, Simon, & Arias, 2008). There are four major categories of childhood abuse and maltreatment: physical abuse, psychological and emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect (Goldman, Salus, Wolcott, & Kennedy, 2003).
According to Brian H. Bornstein, Debra L. Kaplan, and Andrea R. Perry (2007), people have stereotypes about the circumstances and consequences of child abuse, and these expectancies can influence their judgments about individuals involved in abuse cases. Heim (2000) reported that participants with a history of abuse experience greater levels of perceived stress than participants without a history of abuse. They often perceive daily stressors more severely and longer in duration than their counterparts. It is also suggested that their history of abuse compromises these participants’ abilities to cope with stress, but the researchers noted that the data from their study is inconclusive, making it difficult for them to either support or refute this claim.
The perception of child abuse is very influential to students and upcoming professionals. Society’s definition and perception will guide current social work students into practice, which is a very important factor within the professional realm of social work.
Research Question
The purpose of this study is to examine college students and professionals’ perception of child abuse and how it relates to stress. The independent variable is the college students and professionals’ perception of child abuse and the dependent variable is how it relates to stress. The operational definition of perception remains closely allied to the continually developing behavioral theory of discrimination (Schoenfeld, 1962). The operational definition of child abuse is as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent, guardian, or other caregiver that results.
Attitudes towards spanking vary widely. Prior research indicates there are consistent ethnic, gender, and religious differences in attitudes towards spanking. African Americans, Asians, men, and religious people tend to have more positive attitudes towards spanking than Caucasians, women, and nonreligious people. We wanted to see if undergraduate students in an area with favorable attitudes towards spanking differed in their attitudes towards spanking by three key demographics: ethnicity, gender, religion, or their interaction (and if they indeed had favorable attitudes towards spanking). To accomplish this task, we developed a brief, 6-item Spanking Scale for use in future research and surveyed an online incidental sample of 115 college students from a small west Texas university. Reliability, validity, and factor analyses conducted in SPSS support the internal consistency reliability, factor structure, and validity (face, concurrent criterion-related, content, and construct) of the Spanking Scale. A three-way (3 x 2 x 2) factorial ANOVA found no significant ethnic or gender differences in spanking attitudes and no significant interaction effects but marginally significant religious differences, with Christians having more favorable attitudes towards spanking, and people in the current sample had slightly positive attitudes towards spanking. Through answering only four questions about spanking (plus an optional demographic question about spanking frequently and an optional qualitative question about spanking attitudes), people’s attitudes towards spanking can be quickly assessed in less than five minutes using a brief measure of spanking that is reliable, valid, and useful. We discuss implications for policy on spanking and corporal punishment.
Keywords: spanking; corporal punishment; attitudes; religion; ethnicity; gender
Family Risk Factors and Conduct Disorder among Committed Male and .docxmydrynan
Family Risk Factors and Conduct Disorder among Committed Male and Female Juveniles in Barbados
Joana Matthews
University of the West Indies, Cave-Hill
Abstract
The differences between juveniles with and without a Conduct Disorder (CD) diagnosis on family risk factors was investigated in a sample of 71 male and female youth, aged 11-16, from a juvenile facility in Barbados. Psychological reports and case notes were coded for presence and absence of a diagnosis of CD and family risk factors. Gender differences were also investigated among those with a CD diagnosis. Results of the Mann-Whitney and Pearson Chi-square analyses revealed that significantly more juveniles with CD compared to those without CD were from low income homes and families characterized by parental conflict and psychopathology. Implications for treatment and rehabilitation are discussed.
Key words: Conduct Disorder; Barbados; Family risk factors; committed youth
Family Risk Factors and Conduct Disorder among Committed Male and Female Juveniles in Barbados
Caribbean reports suggest that high crime rates, including juvenile crime rates, are undermining social growth and threatening human welfare in the region (Rodriguez, 2007; Charles, 2007). Incarceration or custodial punishment of youth inadvertently leads to disruption in family, community ties and education (Singh, 1997) which further leads to increased probability of re-offending. The economic cost of juvenile crime is also high. In 1996 in Barbados, it cost BD$77.42 per day to maintain a juvenile at the Government Industrial School (GIS) (Singh, 1997).
Traditionally in the Caribbean, law enforcement agencies and courts were expected to manage juvenile crime and the problems of at-risk youth. According to a past Regional Director of the Caribbean Youth Programme, Mr. Henry Charles (2007), the regional justice and penal systems were not having the desired impact. Today, young offenders’ cases are still managed through mainly punitive responses in the region (Charles, 2007). Due to the increase in juvenile crime, more countries also lean towards harsher punishment as a deterrent (Charles, 2007). Yet, research clearly indicates that large-scale imprisonment hinders development and uses resources inappropriately (Song & Lieb, 1993; Mash & Wolfe, 2007; Office of the Surgeon General, 2001).
There is a growing sentiment in the Caribbean that alternative methods/services to incarceration are not luxuries, but investments in the security and stability of our region. The current study examines family risk factors related to conduct problems in a sample of committed youth in Barbados. Such a study may increase the focus on alternative methods, prevention and intervention, through scientific analysis of the nature and extent of problem behaviours within this group. More Caribbean helping professionals are becoming aware of the impact of these factors on the prevalence of conduct problems. It should also be useful in determining ...
Term Paper Assignment CRIJ 3300 Applied Research and Methods.docxjacqueliner9
Term Paper Assignment
CRIJ 3300 Applied Research and Methods
9 Pages
Introduction
In the American Criminal Justice System, many young adults commit delinquency acts. In this paper, the goal of this research is to find out if the use of any controlled substance or any illegal drug incite male juveniles in high school delinquency. I hypothesize that if male juveniles that attend high school consume any controlled substances or illegal drug, then their crime commission or delinquency rates will increase. If male juveniles that attend high school commit crime or delinquency acts, and they do not consume controlled substances or illegal drugs, their crime rates will go down or remain the same.
Population of Interest
For this research, the population of interest will be male juveniles of American nationality who attend a public high school in Chicago, Illinois.
Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis proposed to analyze for this research will be individuals. Individual students who get studied in a research can be less likely to be influenced by peers or any outside source.
Variables of Interest
Attributes of the variables are important in this research. The male juveniles chosen will be between the ages of 12 to 17. The ethnicity or race of the juveniles are not important to this research, because it is not quantitative. It might be important for a research that is looking to know how many juveniles from certain race commit delinquent acts, but in this research, the goal is to find out if the consumption of any controlled substance or illegal drug alter juvenile delinquency rates. A controlled substance is any substance or medication that people use to get high. An illegal drug, is any substance that cannot be used under a certain age, or that cannot be used at all in the United States. These definitions bring us to the meaning of juvenile delinquency, which is any deviant behavior or delinquent act that juveniles commit during the course of adolescence or at a certain age that is between twelve and seventeen. This definition relates to the questions in the survey that ask about the juvenile committing any delinquent acts or deviant behaviors. The independent variable in this research is the drug or illegal substance that the juvenile consumes before the commission of a delinquent act. The dependent variable is the delinquent act itself depending on the consumption of illegal drugs or controlled substances. It is the dependent variable because as we hypothesized, if the juvenile does not take drugs or if he does not use controlled substances then the delinquency rate will probably go down. The control variable is the situations that happen to the juvenile when he is outside of school. Problems at home, child abuse, child neglect, being a victim of bullying, parents that abuse illegal substances, parents or family members that abuse alcohol in front of the juvenile amongst other, are examples of what could be considered the control variab.
Running head CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR1CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR8.docxjoellemurphey
Running head: CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR 1
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR 8
How to Respond to Criminal Behavior among the Youth
Student’s Name
Institution
Introduction
Criminal behavior has been a major area of focus to most psychologists. This is especially due to the age old debate between nature and being well nurtured. It is the main responsibility of most parents to know the genetic makeup of their children, for the sake of responsible parenting and also, in order to determine the outcome of their behaviors and norms they chose to embrace. Research has been conducted regarding this debate for quite a while, and has proven that both genes and the general environment have a big role to play when it comes to the criminality of an individual(Levine, 2003). The behaviors adopted by children and the youth should be put into consideration, considering that this is what has an impact on the safety of the society and the nation at large. Poor upbringing for the youth hasa great role to play especially in determining the kind of negative behaviors they chose to embrace later in their lives. This paper shows the findings in research on aspects of criminal justice and at the same time, a presentation of the varying opinions on how to respond to criminal behavior among the youth.
Crime during the transition to adulthood
Transition from childhood to adulthood is a complexperiod especially for the youth. In most cases, it becomes difficult for the youth to engage in various systems and they tend to be more conscious of their aging. Whereas most of the youth gradually transform from childhood to adult hood, this is the major stage in life which should be taken more seriously and in most cases, be prioritized in the society (Florez, 2008). Families should give the youth a chance to express their views on different aspects. Through survey data, it was identified that more than 732 youth are transitioning from out of home care to adulthood across for major states.
Based on research aspects, offences committed are attributed to the youth in various countries. Foster youth, just like their peers, tend to engage in less crime over a period of time. Those who lack mentorship are more exposed to criminal elements and tend to participate more in criminal behavior (Ashford, 2009). However, foster youth also remain more prone to arrest just like their peers. The transition from childhood to adulthood should be well handled to ensure that children are raised in lawful environments and at the same time, are provided with basic resources and counseling to help them in the future.
Causes of criminal behavior among the youth
The youth are affected by violence. This includes all children especially between the ages of 12 and 16, who are more exposed to violence and are twice as likely as adults to be victims of such situations. Homicide is known to be the third leading cause of loss of life for people between the ages of 15 and 25. The increase in rates of rape, vic ...
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol.docxAASTHA76
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol lading to illegal behavior that is common in the college going students. Attachment theory stands on the concept that human beings have a natural desire and innate requirement of being appreciated and accepted by others. Survey then led to the confirmatory analysis which enforced two-factor of attachment theory, comprising parental affection or attachment and peer attachment, both these types of accessories represent trust, non-estrangement, and communication, Which means that all the adults or youngsters are emotionally attached to their parents or the people of their group (Foster, Vaughan, Foster, & Califano Jr, 2013).
The results manifested the hypotheses that sheltered peer attachment positively concluded behavioral control and values towards alcohol, but protected maternal affection inversely completed behavioral control and values towards alcohol. Alcohol norms, behavioral control and attitudes individually elaborate alcohol objective, which showed an elevation in this behavior within a month. All these findings reinforce recommendations for agenda created to shorten the risk levels of underage drinking using the idea of Attachment theory and Theory of planned behavior TPB.
I. Social Learning Theory:
This research is associated with the methods of getting alcohol in underage, use of substance, underage drinking and this kind of other deviations, this study consider the application of social learning theory. Youngsters under adulthood age are getting alcohol illegally. Past researches show that young alcohol abusers use other persons for this purpose, and these other individuals include any stranger who is adult enough to drink legally (Miller, Levy, Spicer, & Taylor, 2010).
This procedure of getting alcohol is called black marketing. It has been observed that black market organization was made while taking alcohol illegally in association with the other black market organization, other black market anomaly or global anomaly. For study purpose, use of black market sources defined as the utilization of an unknown person trying to obtain illegal substance like alcohol, drugs, etc. thus sources was labeled black market, if the individual participating was an unknown. The materials under consideration in this study include alcohol and marijuana. The study sample was comprised of undergraduate’s students from the organizational pool from a southeastern university.
The questionnaire was filled through the online survey and analyzed statistically by multivariate statistical techniques (Foster, et al., 2013).Youth alcohol consumption includes a lot of research work. This study covers almost all the aspects from divergence related to underage drinking to the hazardous results it causes on health. A huge part of the sample population is the college students. Binge drinking, underage drinking, and general drinking are considered by average or dominant America ...
An empirical test of low self-control theory among hispanic youth (Published)
1. Youth Violence and Juvenile
http://yvj.sagepub.com/ Justice
An Empirical Test of Low Self-Control Theory: Among Hispanic Youth
Eliseo P. Vera and Byongook Moon
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 2013 11: 79 originally published online 17 July 2012
DOI: 10.1177/1541204012441628
The online version of this article can be found at:
http://yvj.sagepub.com/content/11/1/79
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences
Additional services and information for Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice can be found at:
Email Alerts: http://yvj.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts
Subscriptions: http://yvj.sagepub.com/subscriptions
Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav
Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Citations: http://yvj.sagepub.com/content/11/1/79.refs.html
>> Version of Record - Dec 6, 2012
OnlineFirst Version of Record - Jul 17, 2012
What is This?
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
2. An Empirical Test of
Low Self-Control Theory
Among Hispanic Youth
Eliseo P. Vera1 and Byongook Moon2
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
11(1) 79-93
ª The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1541204012441628
http://yvj.sagepub.com
Abstract
This study, using a sample of 277 Hispanic youth, examines the generality of Gottfredson and
Hirschi’s general theory of crime in explaining the etiology of delinquency among Hispanic juveniles,
especially focusing on the relationships among parental practices, low self-control, and deviant beha-viors.
The results indicate that low self-control is significantly related to general deviant behaviors,
consistent with the theory’s prediction. However, the findings show that the theoretically informed
measures of parental practices are not significantly related to child levels of self-control. Instead,
individual’s perception toward levels of community disorder has a significant effect on child levels
of self-control. Theoretical implications as well as limitations of the findings are discussed.
Keywords
low self-control, parental practice, delinquency, Hispanic youth
Introduction
A general theory of crime (GTC) developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) has garnered con-siderable
academic attention and has been tested in a significant number of studies (i.e., Burt,
Simons, & Simons, 2006; Cretacci, 2008; Hay & Forrest, 2006; Miller, Jennings, Alvarez-Rivera,
& Lanza-Kaduce, 2009; Perrone, Sullivan, Pratt, & Margaryan, 2004; Pratt, Turner, & Piquero,
2004; Turner, Piquero, & Pratt, 2005). Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) argue that low self-control
is the primary cause of crime and analogous behaviors, and parental socialization is a main source
of the development of self-control. Parents/guardians play an important role as a socialization agent
with the development of self-control of their children by effectively monitoring their children’s
behaviors and punishing delinquent behaviors.
Numerous empirical studies have been conducted to test the theory’s key propositions and overall
findings are supportive of the theory’s main prediction that low self-control is a significant predictor
1 Bexar County Juvenile Probation Department, San Antonio, TX, USA
2 Department of Criminal Justice, University of Texas, San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
Corresponding Author:
Byongook Moon, Department of Criminal Justice, University of Texas, San Antonio, 501 W. Durango Blvd., San Antonio, TX
78207, USA
Email: byongook.moon@utsa.edu
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
3. 80 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 11(1)
of various types of deviant and analogous behaviors (i.e., Arneklev, Harold, Tittle, & Bursik, 1993;
Baron, 2003; Burt et al., 2006; Burton, Cullen, Evan, Alarid, & Dunaway, 1998; Cretacci, 2008;
DeLisi & Vaughn, 2008; Evans, Cullen, Burton, Dunaway, & Benson, 1997; Forde & Kennedy,
1997; Grasmick, Tittle, Bursik, & Arneklev, 1993; Hay, 2001; Hope & Chapple, 2005; Nakhaie, Sil-verman,
& LaGrange, 2000; Paternoster & Brame, 1998; Polakowski, 1994; Pratt & Cullen, 2000;
Unnever, Cullen, & Pratt, 2003; Vazsonyi, Belliston, Van Loh, & Clifford Wittekind, 2004; Vazso-nyi,
Pickering, Junger, & Hessing, 2001). These empirical findings show that youth with low self-control
are more likely to engage in deviant behaviors. Regarding the relationships among parental
practices, low self-control, and delinquency, some research (i.e., Finkenauer, Engels, & Baumeister,
2005; Gibbs, Giever, & Martin, 1998; Hay, 2001; Hay & Forrest, 2006) indicates that youth whose
parents monitor and supervise their activities are more likely to report higher levels of self-control.
However, other studies found that low self-control fails to fully mediate the relationship between
parental child-rearing practices and deviant behaviors (i.e., Burt et al., 2006; Finkenauer et al.,
2005; Hay, 2001; Latimore, Tittle, & Grasmick, 2006; Miller et al., 2009; Perrone et al., 2004).
Although research has supported GTC’s key propositions, further research on the etiology of self-control
and the theory’s generality in explaining crime across different cultural settings is necessary.
Relatively limited research has examined whether parental practice is the primary source of child
development of self-control and findings are mixed. Second, Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990,
p. 177) argue that the GTC is a ‘‘culture-free theory of crime,’’ suggesting that criminality transcends
national and cultural boundaries. Initial findings from limited studies with diverse samples (i.e.,
Canadian and Japanese adolescents) provide supportive evidence of the GTC’s generality in
explaining delinquency outside the context of the United States (see Baron, 2003; Forde & Kennedy,
1997; Henry, Caspi, Moffitt, & Silva, 1996; Vazsonyi et al., 2004; Vazsonyi et al., 2001). However,
few empirical studies (see Shekarkhar & Gibson, 2011) have been conducted to examine the theo-ry’s
applicability in explaining the etiology of crime among Hispanic adolescents in the United
States. The failure to extensively test the GST’s applicability to Hispanic youth, especially consid-ering
the substantial and growing proportion of Hispanic population in the United States, represents
a substantial gap in the literature.
The current study, using a sample of 277 Hispanic youth in the United States, attempts to address
these limitations. First, we examine whether key dimensions of parental practice are significant
predictors of low self-control among Hispanic adolescents. Two key dimensions of effective par-ental
practices—parental monitoring and parental recognition of deviant behavior—articulated by
Gottfredson and Hirschi are measured in the current study. Second, we test whether low self-control
mediates the relationship between parental practice and delinquency and whether it has
a significant effect on deviant behaviors.
Literature Review
Low Self-control and Delinquency
Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990, pp. 89–90) argue that individuals with low self-control are more
likely to seek immediate gratification, develop a concrete here and now orientation, and prefer easy
and simple tasks producing immediate gratification of desires. Also, these individuals have the pro-pensity
to be involved in risky and physically active behaviors. Finally, people with low self-control
are more likely to be self-centered, become indifferent or insensitive to others’ needs and/or suffer-ings,
and have minimal tolerance for frustration and resolve conflicts by using violent verbal and
physical aggression.
Numerous studies have been conducted to examine whether low self-control is significantly
related to delinquency (i.e., Arneklev et al., 1993; Baron, 2003; Grasmick et al., 1993; Vazsonyi
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
4. Vera and Moon 81
et al., 2001, 2004). For example, Arneklev, Harold, Tittle, and Bursik (1993), using a sample of 394
adults, found that low self-control is significantly related to imprudent behaviors such as gambling
and drinking. Grasmick, Tittle, Bursik, and Arneklev (1993) examined the applicability of low self-control
theory in explaining criminal behaviors and found that low self-control is a significant pre-dictor
of violent behavior and fraud. Baron (2003), using a sample of Canadian street youth, found
that low self-control is a predictor of various types of criminal behaviors such as violent crime, prop-erty
crime, and illegal drug use. A study by Vazsonyi, Belliston, Van Loh, and Clifford Wittekind
(2004) indicates that low self-control has a significant effect on vandalism, drug use, theft, assault,
and school misconduct. Conner, Stein, & Longshore (2009), using a sample of 317 adolescent male
offenders, found that a dimension of risk taking is related to property and violent crimes, while vola-tile
temper is a significant predictor of violent crime and illegal drug use. Overall, these findings are
supportive of the main proposition of the theory that low self-control is the key predictor of criminal
and delinquent behaviors.
Parenting and Self-control
Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) suggest that parental socialization is the major source for the devel-opment
of self-control since parents are able to monitor/supervise their child’s behavior, recognize
delinquent or maladaptive behavior, and punish such behavior when it occurs. A child who is mon-itored
effectively by parents is more likely to develop high self-control because she or he is less
likely to be exposed to negative environments and less likely to engage in delinquent and criminal
behaviors. Recognition of deviant behavior by parents also has a significant effect on the develop-ment
of self-control. Parents who recognize and are aware of signs of their child’s low self-control
(i.e., smoking, extensive television viewing, use of physical force, and truancy) are more likely to
prohibit smoking, the use of physical force, and truancy (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990, p. 99).
Another key element of effective parenting practice is the proper punishment of deviant behaviors
by parents. A child whose parents use proper punishment when she or he commits deviant behavior
is more likely to develop high self-control. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990, p. 100) argue that the
most effective punishment is the explicit disapproval of unwanted behavior, which is not too harsh
or too lenient. Overall, these three elements of a parenting practice have a significant effect on a
child’s self-control, which in turn affects deviant and criminal behaviors.
A growing body of empirical research (see Boutwell & Beaver, 2010; Finkenauer et al., 2005;
Hay, 2001; Nofziger, 2008; Perrone et al., 2004; Pratt et al., 2004; Turner et al., 2005) has examined
the relationship between parenting and self-control and overall results indicate that parental practice
is related to child levels of self-control. For example, Hay (2001) found parental monitoring and the
combined measurement of parental monitoring and discipline are significantly and negatively
related to low self-control. In addition to the three key aspects of effective parenting articulated
by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), he further examined the effects of four dimensions of authori-tative
parenting on the level of self-control (for more information about the concept of authoritative
parenting, see Hay, 2001). The findings also show that fair discipline and nonphysical discipline
have significant effects on low self-control. Pratt, Turner, and Piquero (2004) found that three key
dimensions of effective parental socialization (parental supervision, monitoring, and discipline) are
significant predictors of youth’s levels of self-control. Nofziger (2008), using data from the National
Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY), examined whether maternal self-control is significantly
related to child levels of self-control and found that mothers with low self-control are less likely
to supervise and punish their children effectively. A recent study by Boutwell and Beaver (2010)
also examined the relationship between parental and child self-control. The results indicate that
maternal/parental self-control has a significant positive effect on youth’s self-control, consistent
with the theory’s prediction.
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
5. 82 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 11(1)
Other studies (see Beaver et al., 2009; Beaver & Wright, 2005; Gibson, Sullivan, Jones, &
Piquero, 2010; Pratt et al., 2004; Teasdale & Silver, 2009; Turner et al., 2005) investigated the the-ory’s
other main hypothesis that parental practice is the only primary source of the development of
child self-control. The results indicate that biological/genetic components or school/neighborhoods
are significant predictors of the development of self-control, contrary to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s
prediction. Turner, Piquero, and Pratt (2005) examined whether parental practices and school/neigh-borhood
socialization are significant predictors of the development of self-control among youth in
the United States and found the latter to be significantly related to youth’s self-control net of parental
effects. Using a sample of twin children derived from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Bea-ver
and Wright (2005) found that parental involvement is weakly related to child low self-control.
Instead, anoxia (oxygen starvation), a birth complication, is found to have the strongest effect on low
self-control over time. Beaver et al. (2009) examined relative effects of environmental factors (i.e.,
maternal disengagement, maternal attachment/involvement, parental permissiveness) and genetic
factors on the development of self-control. Interestingly, the results show that the development of
self-control is heavily influenced by genetic factors. Consistent with Wright and Beaver (2005),
environmental factors had no significant effect on low self-control.
A few studies (see Gibbs et al., 1998; Hay, 2001; Perrone et al., 2004; Polakowski, 1994) have exam-ined
the mediating effect of low self-control on the relationship between parental practices and deviant
behaviors and the findings were mixed. For example, several studies (see Gibbs et al., 1998; Hope &
Chapple, 2005; Polakowski, 1994) found that self-control has a significant mediating effect on the
relationship between parental socialization and deviant behaviors. However, other studies (see
Burt et al., 2006; Finkenauer et al., 2005; Hay, 2001; Miller et al., 2009; Perrone et al., 2004) indi-cate
that low self-control has no or a partial mediating effect on the relationship between parental
practices and delinquency. For example, Perrone, Sullivan, Pratt, and Margaryan (2004), using a
nationally representative sample of youth, found that parental efficacy continues to exert a signif-icant
effect on delinquency, even after controlling the effect of low self-control in the final model.
GTC and Culture
Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) claim that the GTC is culture-free theory in that ineffective parental
practice is a primary cause of low self-control, which in turn leads to delinquent behaviors across
different cultures and countries. Several empirical studies with diverse samples from outside the
United States were conducted to test the theory’s generality. For example, Baron (2003), using a
sample of 400 Canadian street youth, examined whether low self-control is significantly related
to crime/illegal drug use. The findings indicate that low self-control is a significant predictor of
criminal behaviors. Vazsonyi et al. (2004) examined whether the relationship between low self-control
and delinquency is similar in culturally different contexts by using a sample of 335 Japanese
adolescents and 1,285 U.S. adolescents. The findings show that low self-control is a significant pre-dictor
of various delinquent behaviors across two groups, supportive of the theory’s generality in
explaining causes of crime across different cultures. Limited studies (see Miller et al., 2009; Shekar-khar
& Gibson, 2011) examined the generality of the GTC among Hispanic youth. Miller, Jennings,
Alvarez-Rivera, and Lanza-Kaduce (2009), using a sample of 183 Hispanic adolescents in Puerto
Rico, examined a relationship among maternal attachment, low self-control, and deviant behaviors.
The findings show that maternal attachment is negatively related to low self-control and low self-control
is a significant predictor of deviant behaviors. With a sample of 739 Latino youth from the
Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, Shekarkhar and Gibson (2011) found
that parental variables (i.e., parental warmth, parental hostility, parental supervision) have no statis-tically
significant influence on violent or property deviant behaviors. Consisent with prior research,
the findings indicate that Latino youth with low self-control are more likely to engage in various types
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
6. Vera and Moon 83
of deviant behaviors. In sum, this small number of empirical studies provide initial support for the the-ory’s
generality in explaining deviant behaviors among adolescents across different cultures.
Unfortunately, no empirical research measured key dimensions of parental practices set forth by
Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) and examined their effects on the development of self-control among
Hispanic youth in the United States. Consistent with Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) prediction, cul-tural
studies (Allen, Svetaz, Hardeman,& Resnick, 2008; Desmond & Lopez Turley, 2009; Escovar &
Lazarus, 1982) indicate that Hispanic parents play a key role in their child’s socialization process.
Strong family ties, interdependence among extended family members, and respect for parental author-ity
are highly emphasized in Hispanic culture (Allen et al., 2008). Several prior studies (see Desmond
& Lopez Turley, 2009; Escovar & Lazarus, 1982) indicate that Hispanic youth have intimate relation-ship
with their mother and maintain strong attachment to their family members. This cultural emphasis
on strong family ties and respect for parental authority may suggest that parental practices are the pri-mary
source of the development of self-control among Hispanic youth. Based on the theory and extant
empirical findings, we predict that parental practice is a significant predictor of child levels of self-control
and low self-control is significantly related to delinquency among Hispanic adolescents.
Methodology
Sample
The data used for the current study were collected from a sample of 296 juveniles in two junior high
schools in the southwestern United States. The schools were located in a relatively impoverished
neighborhood with a majority of Hispanic population. After receiving the school district’s approval
to conduct the research in 2008, parents/legal guardians of 620 sixth and seventh graders were
informed about the purpose and procedures of the research. Approximately 1 week later, 360 signed
parental consent forms were returned to the schools and students whose parents allowed them to par-ticipate
in the study were asked to voluntarily participate in completing questionnaires. As an incen-tive
to compensate and encourage voluntary participation, students were given two pens once the
questionnaire was completed. Questionnaires were distributed to students in classrooms and a school
cafeteria and students were given 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. Of those students who
were allowed to participate in the research by their parents/guardians, 320 youth voluntarily
participated in the study. However, 24 collected questionnaires were incomplete and were removed
from the current analyses. Among the students in the sample, 57% (N ¼ 168) were female and 43%
(N ¼ 128) were male. Consistent with the school district’s racial/ethnic composition, almost all of
the students (94%) in the sample were Hispanic. As such, the current study only includes the
Hispanic students (N ¼ 277) for analysis in order to assess and understand the generalizability of
low self-control theory in explaining the etiology of deviant behavior among Hispanic juveniles.
Independent Variables
Low self-control. Twenty-four items developed by Grasmick et al. (1993) are used to measure the
level of respondents’ self-control (see Appendix B for all the items used to create independent and
dependent variables). These items are frequently used in prior studies and have been found to be both
reliable and valid (see Arneklev, Grasmick, & Bursik, 1999; Longshore, Turner, & Stein, 1996;
Piquero & Rosay, 1998; Piquero & Tibbetts, 1996). They measure the extent of respondents’ impul-siveness,
preference for simple tasks, risk seeking, preference for physical activities, self-centeredness,
and volatile temper delineated by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). The response
options of each item ranged from 1 for strongly disagree to 4 for strongly agree. In the present
research, these 24 items are combined to create a low self-control index (Cronbach’s a ¼ .90) and
is coded so that a higher score indicates lower levels of self-control (see Table 1).
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
7. 84 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 11(1)
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Key Variables (N ¼ 277)
Variables Mean SD Minimum Maximum
Control variables
Gender (Male ¼ 1) 0.43 0.50 0.00 1.00
Parental income 2.64 1.87 1.00 8.00
Family structure (Intact family ¼ 1) 0.48 0.50 0.00 1.00
Neighborhood disorder 2.71 3.29 0.00 12.00
Independent variables
Low self-control 46.99 13.47 24.00 86.00
Parental recognition of deviant behavior 5.78 2.11 2.00 8.00
Parental monitoring 8.77 3.03 3.00 12.00
Dependent variable
General deviance 2.69 6.83 0.00 49.00
Effective parental practices (Parental monitoring and recognition of deviant behavior). Parental monitor-ing
and recognition of deviant behavior, which are two of three key aspects of effective parental
practices articulated by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), are measured and included in the analyses.
Parental monitoring is created by summing three items, partially adopted from Hay (2001). These
items were ‘‘My parents are familiar with all or most of my close friends,’’ ‘‘My parents know
where I am when I am away from home,’’ and ‘‘My parents know who I am with when I am away
from home.’’ The response options for each item range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly
agree) and the index (Cronbach’s a ¼ .85) is coded so that a higher value indicates higher levels of
parental supervision.
Parental recognition of deviant behavior is created by summing two items, measuring whether
parents/legal guardians recognized when their kids engaged in deviant behaviors. These items are
‘‘My parents usually know if I commit deviant behaviors’’ and ‘‘My parents usually recognize when
I am in trouble.’’ The scale (Cronbach’s a ¼ .84) is coded so that a higher score indicates parents’
higher recognition of deviant behaviors.
Dependent Variable: General Deviance
A composite general delinquent behavior index (Cronbach’s a ¼ .94) is created by combining 14
types of delinquent behaviors typically used in criminological studies. Respondents in the sample
were asked to report how often they engaged in delinquent behaviors during the past year. Examples
of these delinquent behaviors are ‘‘drinking alcohol,’’ ‘‘smoking,’’ ‘‘running away from home,’’
‘‘joining a gang,’’ ‘‘fighting in a group with others,’’ ‘‘hitting or threatened to hit fellow students
at school,’’ ‘‘stealing or tried to steal something not belonging to them,’’ and ‘‘breaking or tried
to break into a building or vehicle to steal something or just to look around.’’ The response options
for each item range from 0 (never) to 4 (10 or more times). It is coded so that a higher score of the
scale indicates higher levels of general deviant behavior during the previous year.
Control Variables
Several demographic and sociological factors (i.e., gender, parental income, and family structure) are
used as control variables in the current study, since these factors are known to have significant effects
on deviant behavior (see Baron, 2003; Burt et al., 2006; Feldman & Weinberger, 1994; Hope, Gras-mick,
& Pointon, 2003; Meldrum, 2008; Miller et al., 2009; Tittle & Paternoster, 2000). Gender is a
dichotomous variable (male ¼ 1 and female ¼ 0) and parental income is a continuous variable. Family
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
8. Vera and Moon 85
Table 2. OLS Regression of Low Self-Control on Parental Practices and Control Variables (N ¼ 277)
Model 1 Model 2
Gender (male ¼ 1) 1.26 (1.50) 1.22 (1.53)
Parental income 0.47 (0.40) 0.48 (0.40)
Family structure (Intact family ¼ 1) 4.80** (1.50) 4.80** (1.51)
Neighborhood disorder 1.44*** (0.23) 1.43*** (0.23)
Parental recognition of deviant behavior 0.47 (0.55)
Parental monitoring 0.17 (0.39)
Constant 44.72*** (1.69) 45.86*** (2.89)
R2, 0.18 0.18
Note. Standard errors in parentheses.
*p .05. **p .01. ***p .001.
structure is also used as a control variable as previous studies (Feldman Weinberger, 1994; Hope
et al., 2003; Meldrum, 2008; Miller et al., 2009) indicate the importance of family structure on parental
practices and youth’s delinquent behaviors. It is dichotomized as a dummy variable, coding intact fam-ily
(living with both biological parents) as 1 and broken family (divorced, separated, remarried) as 0.
Finally, the present study includes youth’s perception toward neighborhood disorder as a control
variable since prior research (see Paternoster Mazerolle, 1994; Pratt et al., 2004; Teasdale
Silver, 2009) has shown that neighborhood factors are significantly related to youth’s level of
self-control and deviant behavior. Neighborhood disorder is created by combining six items, measur-ing
respondents’ perceptions toward the degree of vandalism, abandoned houses, burglaries, run-down
and poorly kept buildings, and assaults and muggings within respondents’ neighborhoods. Response
options range from 0 (not a problem), 1 (somewhat of a problem), and 2 (big problem) and the scale
(Cronbach’s a ¼ .90) is coded so that a higher value indicates higher levels of neighborhood disorder.
Results
A series of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses were performed to examine factors
related to low self-control (see Table 2). Two models were constructed to test the distinct effects
of control variables, parental recognition of deviant behavior, parental monitoring, and all theoreti-cal
relevant variables on low self-control. We checked any potential problems for multicollinearity
among independent variables; examination of the variance inflation factor (VIF) and condition
index values shows no significant problem of multicollinearity in the models. First, a base model
(Model 1) that includes the control variables of gender, parental income, family structure, and neigh-borhood
disorder was estimated. The results indicate that family structure and neighborhood disorder
are significantly related to low self-control. Individuals from intact families are more likely to report
higher levels of self-control, consistent with the theory’s expectation. Also, the results show that youth
living in disorderly neighborhoods are more likely to report lower levels of self-control. Parental rec-ognition
of deviant behavior and parental monitoring (Model 2) are added to the baseline model to
examine the effect of parental practices on youth’s levels of self-control. Contrary to several previous
findings (Finkenauer et al., 2005; Gibbs et al., 1998; Hay, 2001; Hay Forrest, 2006), the results indi-cate
that neither parental monitoring nor parental recognition of deviant behavior is significantly
related to low self-control, after controlling the effects of control variables. We also examined the
cumulative effect of both parental monitoring and parental recognition of deviance on youth’s levels
of self-control since Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) did not specify whether key elements of parental
practices have independent or cumulative effects on child levels of self-control (Hay, 2001). Further
analyses indicate that the results are almost identical with those presented in the current study. Family
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
9. 86 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 11(1)
Table 3. Negative Binomial Regression Models of Deviant Behaviors (N ¼ 277)
Model 1 Model 2
Gender (Male ¼ 1) 0.33 (0.33) 0.15 (0.29)
Parental income 0.19 * (0.08) 0.15 * (0.08)
Family structure (Intact family ¼ 1) 0.65 * (0.30) 0.32 (0.28)
Neighborhood disorder 0.08 (0.05) 0.05 (0.05)
Parental recognition of deviant behavior 0.21* (0.09) 0.12 (0.09)
Parental monitoring 0.11 (0.06) 0.20 *** (0.06)
Low self-control 0.07 *** (0.01)
Constant 2.55 *** (0.56) 2.55 *** (0.56)
Nagelkerke R2, 0.03 0.07
Note. Standard errors in parentheses.
*p .05. **p .01. ***p .001.
structure and neighborhood disorder continue to exert significant effects on low self-control in the final
model. Furthermore, an examination of R2 values in two models indicates that parental practice vari-ables
provide little added explanation to a final model.
Next, a series of negative binomial regression analyses are conducted to examine relative effects
of parental practice elements and low self-control on delinquency. OLS regression is not a suitable
method of estimation since an examination of the distribution of a general deviant behavior index
indicates that a majority of the youth in the sample reported no engagement in deviant behaviors.
Also, the distribution of delinquent behaviors is skewed in the positive direction, violating OLS’s
key assumptions such as homogeneity of residual variance (Osgood, Finken, McMorris, 2002).
Therefore, negative binomial regressions were used to examine the relationships between theoreti-cally
relevant factors and deviance (see Table 3).
The results in Model 1 indicate that parental income, family structure, and parental recognition of
deviant behavior are significantly related to general deviant behaviors. Consistent with several prior
studies (McCarthy, Gersten, Langner, 1982; Rankin, 1983; Rebellon, 2002), the current study indi-cates
that youth from intact families report less involvement in delinquency. The results also show that
youth whose parents recognized their children’s deviant behaviors or monitor their children’s where-abouts,
activities, and associates are less likely to commit deviant behaviors. Interestingly, the results
show that youth from higher income families are more likely to commit deviance. In the full model
(Model 2), low self-control is added to the basic model. As expected, the findings indicate that low
self-control is significantly and positively related to general deviant behaviors. Youth with low
self-control are more likely to report involvement in delinquency. However, parental monitoring has
a significant effect on delinquent behaviors, while parental recognition of deviant behavior is no longer
significantly related to delinquency after the inclusion of low self-control to the final model.
Discussion
An extensive body of research with diverse populations and research methods has tested Gottfredson
and Hirschi’s GTC and generated empirical results which are generally supportive of key proposi-tions
of the theory. However, no research to date has tested the applicability of low self-control the-ory
on a sample of Hispanic youth in the United States. The current study is an attempt to fill the void
by analyzing data derived from a sample of 277 Hispanic youth in the southwestern United States by
examining the relationships among parental practices, low self-control, and delinquency.
Surprisingly, the results indicate that parental recognition of deviant behaviors and parental mon-itoring
are not significantly related to youth’s levels of self-control. These findings are unexpected,
considering that strong family relationships and attachments are emphasized in Hispanic culture, and
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
10. Vera and Moon 87
several prior studies (see Gibson et al., 2010; Pratt et al., 2004) have found a significant relationship
between parental practices and self-control. Also, it is important to indicate that neighborhood disorder
is significantly and positively related to low self-control in the current study. Hispanic youth who
reported an extensive problem in their neighborhood are more likely to report lower levels of self-control.
Overall, these results suggest that adverse neighborhood conditions play a significant role in
influencing the development of self-control among Hispanic adolescents, contrary to the theory’s pre-diction.
The present study’s findings of no effects of parental practices on self-control and of significant
neighborhood influence on self-control might be because the sample was drawn from an impoverished
and disadvantaged neighborhoodwhere approximately 94%of students in the school district are eligible
for free or reduced-price lunch and a large number of immigrants reside. Prior research (see Allen et al.,
2008; Coatsworth, Pantin, and Szapocznik, 2002) indicate that immigrant Hispanic parents are more
likely to face major life challenges such as poverty, loss of social support network, and language barrier.
Hispanic parents with limited English proficiency rely on their children for communication and are
socially isolated, which may undermine parental authority and capacity for controlling and supervising
their children (Allen et al., 2008; Miranda, Bilot, Peluso, Berman, Van Meek, 2006). Without proper
parental control and supervision, it may be that Hispanic youth residing in a disadvantaged neighbor-hood
are more susceptible to the effects of neighborhood conditions as found in the current study. This
finding is consistent with prior empirical research (Pratt et al., 2004, p. 234) which found that neighbor-hood
context is a significant predictor of self-control and that minority children are less likely than racial
majority children to be supervised by their parents in adverse neighborhood environments. These
empirical findings may cast doubt on the narrowly defined parental practices/self-control relationship
and suggest the necessity of expanding the theoretical frameworks underlying sources of self-control,
especially among Hispanic children growing up in high-risk neighborhoods.
Though it is designed to contribute to the extant literature, the current study has several limita-tions
that must be noted. First, the present study used a convenience sample of Hispanic youth in one
school district. Therefore, we should be cautious in generalizing the current findings beyond this
sample to the larger Hispanic population. Second, causal relationships among parental practices, low
self-control, and delinquent behaviors could not be fully examined because of the use of the cross-sectional
data. Also, we were not able to examine reciprocal effects of child antisocial/problem
behaviors and parental practices; not only do parental practices contribute to the development of
child self-control, but also a child’s problem behaviors likely influence parental practices which
in turn affect child self-control. A study by Huh, Tristan, Wade, and Stice (2006), using a longitu-dinal
sample of 496 adolescent girls, examined reciprocal relations between parenting and children’s
problem behavior and found that child antisocial behavior is a significant predictor of future
decreases in parental control. To better capture a sequence of parental practice, child self-control,
and deviance, longitudinal research is necessary. Third, attitudinal measures of low self-control
employed in the current study are often criticized for failing to properly measure the concept of low
self-control (see Longshore et al., 1996; Piquero Bouffard, 2007). Moreover, Hirschi (2004) rede-fined
and expanded the concept of self-control and emphasized the importance of measuring
situation-based self-control. Empirical research by Piquero and Bouffard (2007) indicates that
Hirschi’s redefined self-control measure is a better predictor of both drunk driving and sexual coer-cion
than the Grasmick et al. scale. Additional research is required to measure situation-based self-control
and its effect on deviant behaviors among Hispanic youth. Fourth, parental punishment, one
of three key dimensions of parental practices set out in the theory, was not measured. It may be that
omission of parental punishment contributes to weakness of the test of low self-control theory as
prior research (see Grasmick et al., 1993) indicates a significant relationship between parental pun-ishment
and low self-control. Future research with more comprehensive and broader measures of
parental practice (including authoritative parental styles) is necessary to establish whether causal
relationships among parenting, self-control, and delinquency exit; prior research indicates that
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
11. 88 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 11(1)
Goffredson and Hirschi’s notion of effective parenting may be restricted. Fifth, recent research (see
Boutwell Beaver, 2010; Miller et al., 2009) has examined the effects of maternal and paternal prac-tices
on youth’s levels of self-control and found the differential and distinctive impact of maternal and
paternal parental styles on child levels of self-control. For example, Boutwell and Beaver (2010) found
that maternal involvement is significantly related to child levels of self-control, while paternal invol-vement
is not a significant predictor of low self-control. A study by Miller et al. (2009) also showed
that maternal attachment is a significant predictor of both low self-control and deviant behaviors in the
expected direction. However, paternal attachment is not significantly related to deviant behaviors.
These findings may suggest the necessity of separately examining the effect of maternal and paternal
parental practices on the development of self-control to fully understand causal relationships among
parental practice, low self-control, and delinquency. Sixth, several studies (see Hay, 2001) indicate the
necessity of expanding the narrow concepts of effective parental practice set out in the theory. Hay
(2001) investigated the effects of broader dimensions of authoritative parental practices (parental
acceptance/involvement, psychological autonomy, fair discipline, and nonphysical discipline) on
youth’s self-control and found that fair discipline and nonphysical parental discipline are significant
predictors of levels of self-control. Due to the data limitations, the current study was not able to exam-ine
the effects of broader dimensions of authoritative parenting on levels of self-control among His-panic
youth. Further research with comprehensive measurements of effective parental practices is
necessary to illuminate the relationship between parental practices and self-control.
Overall, our findings advance the empirical development of low self-control theory, providing par-tial
support for the generalizability and applicability of the theory in explaining delinquency among
Hispanic adolescents. More research with diverse samples is necessary to further assess a parental
socialization/self-control relationship in culturally diverse settings. It is also crucial to conduct more
empirical research exploring additional sources of self-control such as community/school and genetic
factors. In recent years, a small but growing number of studies (see Beaver Wright, 2005; Boutwell
Beaver, 2010; Pratt et al., 2004; Teasdale Silver, 2009; Turner et al., 2005) suggest that genetic
factors and societal institutions (community/school) greatly influence children’s development of self-control,
challenging Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) argument that genetic factors and school exert
no significant influence on levels of self-control. These findings suggest that parental practices as the
primary single cause of self-control articulated by the low self-control theory need reconsideration and
empirical testing. We argue that more research is necessary to better understand whether genetic fac-tors
and social institutions are important sources of the development of self-control and whether these
external and genetic factors interact with parenting in developing children’s self-control.
Appendix A
Table A1. Correlation Matrix Among Major Independent, Dependent, and Control Variables (N ¼ 277)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
(1) 1
(2) .04 1
(3) .01 .11 1
(4) .00 .03 .12* 1
(5) .07 .04 .00 .03 1
(6) .17** .03 .01 .00 .76*** 1
(7) .06 .05 .21*** .38*** .05 .01 1
(8) .04 .09 .06 .14* .22*** .19** .35*** 1
Note. (1) Male, (2) Parental income, (3) Family structure, (4) Neighborhood disorder, (5) Parental recognition of deviant beha-vior,
(6) Parental monitoring, (7) Low self-control, (8) General deviance.
*p .05. **p .01. ***p .001.
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
12. Vera and Moon 89
Appendix B
Table B1. Scales Used in the Analysis
Indexes Items
Low self-control (a ¼ .90) 1. I often act on the spur of the moment without stopping to think
2. I don’t devote much thought and effort to preparing for the future
3. I often do whatever brings me pleasure here and now, even at the
cost of some distant goal
4. I’m more concerned with what happens to me in the short run
than in the long run
5. I frequently try to avoid projects that I know will be difficult
6. When things get complicated or difficult, I tend to quit or
withdraw
7. The things in life that are easiest to do bring me the most pleasure
8. I dislike really hard tasks that stretch my abilities to limit
9. I like to test myself every now and then by doing something a little
risky
10. Sometimes I will take a risk just for the fun of it
11. I sometimes find it exciting to do things for which I might get in
trouble
12. Excitement and adventure are more important to me than security
13. If I had a choice, I would almost always rather do something
physical than something mental
14. I almost always feel better when I am on the move than when I am
sitting and thinking
15. I like to get out and do things more than I like to read or
contemplate ideas
16. I seem to have more energy and a greater need for activity than
most other people of my age
17. I try to look out for myself first, even if it means making things
difficult for other people
18. I’m not very sympathetic to other people when they are having
problems
19. If things I do upset people, it is their problem not mine
20. I will try you get the things I want even when I know it’s causing
problems for other people
21. I lose my temper easily
22. Often, when I am angry at people I feel more like hurting them than
talking to them about why I am angry
23. When I am really angry, other people better stay away from me
24. When I have a serious disagreement with someone, it is usually
hard for me to talk calmly about it without getting upset
Parental monitoring (a ¼ .85) 1. My parents are familiar with all or most of my close friends
2. My parents know where I am when I am away from home
3. My parents who I am with when I am away from home
Parental recognition of deviant
behaviors (a ¼ .84)
1. My parents usually know if (when) I commit deviant behavior
2. My parents usually recognize when I am in trouble
(continued)
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
13. 90 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 11(1)
Table B1 (continued)
Indexes Items
Youth’s perception toward
neighborhood disorder (a ¼ .90)
1. Vandalism (i.e., building and personal belongings broken
2. Winos and junkies
3. Abandoned houses
4. Burglaries and thefts
5. Run-down and poorly kept buildings
6. Assaults and muggings
General deviance (a ¼ .94) 1. Stealing or tried to steal something not belonged to them
2. Fighting in a group with others
3. Running away from home
4. Drinking alcohol
5. Smoking
6. Joining a gang
7. Skipping classes without an excuse
8. Hitting or threatened to hit fellow students at school
9. Using force or strong-arm methods to get money or things from
other students
10. Using force or strong-arm methods to get money or things from
other people, not students
11. Stealing or tried to steal something at school
12. Breaking or tried to break into a building or vehicle to steal
something or just to look around
13. Damaging, destroyed, marked up, or tagged somebody else’s
property on purpose
14. Throwing objects such as rocks or bottles at people
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-cation
of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed the receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article: This research was supported by grant from the University of Texas, San Antonio.
References
Allen, M., Svetaz, M. V., Hardeman, R., Resnick, M. D. (2008). What research tells us about Latino parent-ing
practices and their relationship to youth sexual behavior. Washington, DC: The National Campaign to
Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy.
Arneklev, B. J., Grasmick, H. G., Bursik, R. J. (1999). Evaluating the dimensionality and invariance of ‘‘low
self-control’’. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 15, 307-331.
Arneklev, B. J., Harold, G. G., Tittle, C. R., Bursik, R. J. (1993). Low self-control and imprudent behavior.
Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 9, 225-247.
Baron, S. W. (2003). Self-control, social consequences, and criminal behavior: Street youth and the general
theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 403-425.
Beaver, K. M., Shutt, E. J., Boutwell, B. B., Ratchford, M., Roberts, K., Barnes, J. C. (2009). Genetic and
environmental influences on levels of self-control and delinquent peer affiliation. Criminal Justice and
Behavior, 36, 41-60.
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
14. Vera and Moon 91
Beaver, K. M., Wright, J. P. (2005). Evaluating the effects of birth complications on low self-control in a
sample of twins. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 450-471.
Boutwell, B. B., Beaver, K. M. (2010). The intergenerational transmission of low self-control. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency, 47, 174-209.
Burt, C. H., Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G. (2006). A longitudinal test of the effects of parenting and
the stability of self-control: Negative evidence for the general theory of crime. Criminology, 44,
353-396.
Burton, V. S., Cullen, F. T., Evan, T. D., Alarid, L. F., Dunaway, R. G. (1998). Gender, self-control, and
crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 123-147.
Coatsworth, J. D., Pantin, H., Szapocznik, J. (2002). Familias Unidas: A family-centered ecodevelopmental
intervention to reduce risk for problem behavior among Hispanic adolescents. Clinical Childand Family
Psychology Review, 5, 113-132.
Conner, B. T., Stein, J. A., Longshore, D. (2009). Examining self-control as a multidimensional predictor of
crime and drug use in adolescents with criminal histories. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services and
Research, 36, 137-149.
Cretacci, M. A. (2008). A general test of self-control theory: Has its importance been exaggerated? Interna-tional
Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 52, 538-553.
DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M. G. (2008). The Gottfredson-Hirschi critiques revisited: Reconciling self-control the-ory,
criminal careers, and career criminals. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative
Criminology, 52, 520-537.
Desmond, M., Lopez Turley, R. N. (2009). The role of familism in explaining the Hispanic-White college
application gap. Social Problems, 56, 311334.
Escovar, P. L., Lazarus, P. J. (1982). Cross-cultural-rearing practices: Implications for school psychologists.
School Psychology International, 3, 143-148.
Evans, T. D., Cullen, F. T., Burton, V. S., Dunaway, R. G., Benson, M. L. (1997). The social consequences of
self-control: Testing the general theory of crime. Criminology, 35, 475-504.
Feldman, S. S., Weinberger, D. A. (1994). Self-restraint as a mediator of family influences on boy’s delin-quent
behavior: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 65, 195-211.
Finkenauer, C., Engels, R. C., Baumeister, R. F. (2005). Parenting behaviour and adolescent behavioural and
emotional problems: The role of self-control. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 58-69.
Forde, D. R., Kennedy, L. W. (1997). Risky lifestyles, routine activities, and the general theory of crime.
Justice Quarterly, 14, 265-294.
Gibbs, J. J., Giever, D., Martin, J. (1998). Parental management and self-control: An empirical test of Gott-fredson
and Hirschi’s general theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 40-70.
Gibson, C. L., Sullivan, C. J., Jones, S., Piquero, A. R. (2010). ‘‘Does it take a village?’’ Assessing neighbor-hood
influences on children’s self-control. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 47, 31-62.
Gottfredson, M. R., Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Grasmick, H. G., Tittle, C. R., Bursik, R. J., Arneklev, B. J. (1993). Testing the core empirical implications of
Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 5-29.
Hay, C. (2001). Parenting, self-control, and delinquency: A test of self-control theory. Criminology, 39,
707-736.
Hay, C., Forrest, W. (2006). The development of self-control: Examining self-control theory’s stability the-sis.
Criminology, 44, 739-774.
Henry, B., Caspi, A.,Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A. (1996). Temperamental and familial predictors of violent and
nonviolent criminal convictions: Age 3 to 18. Developmental Psychology, 32, 614-623.
Hirschi, T. (2004). Self-control and crime. In R. F. Baumeister K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation:
Research, theory and applications (pp. 537-552). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Hope, T. L., Chapple, C. L. (2005). Maternal characteristics, parenting, and adolescent sexual behavior: The
role of self-control. Deviant Behavior, 26, 25-45.
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
15. 92 Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 11(1)
Hope, T. L., Grasmick, H. G., Pointon, L. J. (2003). The family in Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of
crime: Structure, parenting, and self-control. Sociological Focus, 36, 291-311.
Huh, D., Tristan, J., Wade, E., Stice, E. (2006). Does problem behavior elicit poor parenting?: A prospective
study of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Research, 21, 185-204.
Latimore, T. L., Tittle, C. R., Grasmick, H. G. (2006). Childrearing, self-control, and crime: Additional evi-dence.
Sociological Inquiry, 76, 343-371.
Longshore, D., Turner, S., Stein, J. A. (1996). Self-control in a criminal sample: An examination of construct
validity. Criminology, 34, 209-228.
McCarthy, E. D., Gersten, J. C., Langner, T. S. (1982). The behavioral effects of father absence of children
and their mothers. Social Behahvior and Personality, 10, 11-23.
Meldrum, R. C. (2008). Beyond parenting: An examination of the etiology of self-control. Journal of Criminal
Justice, 36, 244-251.
Miller, H. V., Jennings, W. G., Alvarez-Rivera, L. L., Lanza-Kaduce, L. (2009). Self-control, attachment,
and deviance among Hispanic adolescents. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37, 77-84.
Miranda, A. O., Bilot, J. M., Peluso, P. R., Berman, K., Van Meek, L. G. (2006). Latino families: The rele-vance
of the connection among acculturation, family dynamics, and health for family counseling research
and practice. The Family Journal, 14, 268-273.
Nakhaie, M. R., Silverman, R. A., LaGrange, T. C. (2000). Self-control and social control: An examination of
gender, ethnicity, class and delinquency. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 25, 35-59.
Nofziger, S. (2008). The ‘‘cause’’ of low self-control: The influence of maternal self-control. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45, 191-224.
Osgood,W. D., Finken, L. L.,McMorris, B. J. (2002). Analyzing multiple-item measures of crime and deviance
II: Tobit regression analysis of transformed scores. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18, 319-347.
Paternoster, R., Brame, R. (1998). The structural similarity of processes generating criminal and analogous
behaviors. Criminology, 36, 663-670.
Paternoster, R., Mazerolle, P. (1994). General strain theory and delinquency: A replication and extension.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 235-263.
Perrone, D., Sullivan, C. J., Pratt, T. C., Margaryan, S. (2004). Parental efficacy, self-control, and
delinquency: A test of general theory of crime on a nationally representative sample of youth. International
Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 298-312.
Piquero, A. R., Bouffard, J. (2007). Something old, something new: A preliminary investigation of Hirschi’s
redefined self-control. Justice Quarterly, 24, 1-27.
Piquero, A. R., Rosay, A. B. (1998). The reliability and validity of Grasmick et al.’s self-control scale:
A comment on Longshore et al. Criminology, 36, 157-173.
Piquero, A. R., Tibbetts, S. (1996). Specifying the direct and indirect effects of low self-control and situa-tional
factors in offenders’ decision making: Toward a more complete model of rational offending. Justice
Quarterly, 13, 481-510.
Polakowski, M. (1994). Linking self- and social control with deviance: Illuminating the structure underlying a
general theory of crime and its relation to deviant activity. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 10, 41-78.
Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A
meta-analysis. Criminology, 38, 931-964.
Pratt, T. C., Turner, M. G., Piquero, A. R. (2004). Parental socialization and community context: A longi-tudinal
analysis of the structural sources of low self-control. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency,
41, 219-243.
Rankin, J. H. (1983). The family context of delinquency. Social Problems, 30, 466-479.
Rebellon, C. J. (2002). Reconsidering the broken homes/delinquency relationship and exploring its mediating
mechanisms. Criminology, 40, 103-136.
Shekarkhar, Z., Gibson, C. L. (2011). Gender, self-control, and offending behaviors among Latino youth.
Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 27, 63-80.
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013
16. Vera and Moon 93
Teasdale, B., Silver, E. (2009). Neighborhoods and self-control: Toward an expanded view of socialization.
Social Problems, 56, 205-222.
Tittle, C. R., Paternoster, R. (2000). Social deviance and crime: An organizational and theoretical approach.
Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
Turner, M. G., Piquero, A. R., Pratt, T. C. (2005). The school context as a source of self-control. Journal of
Criminal Justice, 33, 327-339.
Unnever, J. D., Cullen, F. T., Pratt, T. C. (2003). Parental management, ADHD, and delinquent involvement:
Reassessing Gottfredson and Hirshci’s general theory. Justice Quarterly, 20, 471-500.
Vazsonyi, A. T., Belliston, L. M., Van Loh, T. D., Clifford Wittekind, J. E. (2004). Extending the general
theory of crime to ‘‘the East’’: Low self-control in Japanese late adolescents. Journal of Quanitative Crim-inology,
20, 189-216.
Vazsonyi, A. T., Pickering, L. E., Junger, M., Hessing, D. (2001). An empirical test of a general theory of
crime: A four-nation comparative study of self-control and the prediction of deviance. Journal of Research
in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 91-131.
Wright, J. P., Beaver, K. M. (2005). Do parents matter in creating self-control in their children? A genetically
informed test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of low self-control, Criminology, 43,1169-1202
Bios
Eliseo P. Vera is a District Parole Officer for the Texas Department of Criminal Justice Parole
Division. He is a graduate of the Department of Criminal Justice at the University of Texas, San
Antonio in 2010. His research interests include criminology theory testing, recidivism, and human
trafficking.
Byongook Moon is an Associate Professor in the Department of Criminal Justice at the University
of Texas, San Antonio. His research focuses on the application of criminology theories to explaining
delinquency in South Korea. He also has been involved in research on bullying, community policing,
stress in policing and on the process of recruiting police in South Korea. Recent publications appear
in Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Youth Society, Crime Delinquency, Journal
of Criminal Justice, Journal of International and Comparative Criminal Justice, Policing:
An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management.
Downloaded from yvj.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on August 26, 2013