This document provides an overview of American music. It discusses various genres that originated or developed substantially in the United States, including folk, classical, popular music, as well as American Indian music, jazz, blues, and rock. It also examines the music industry and provides historical context on the development of music education and holidays/festivals in America. The document is compiled from various articles on American music genres. It includes chapters on the history and characteristics of specific styles as well as biographies of influential artists.
Dance music is music composed, played, or both, specifically to accompany dancing.
It can be either the whole musical piece or part of a larger musical arrangement. Dance music works usually bear the name of the corresponding dance, e.g. waltzes, the tango, the bolero, the can-can, minuets, salsa, various kinds of jigs and the breakdown. Other dance forms include contradance, the merengue, the cha-cha-cha. Often it is difficult to know whether the name of the music came first or the name of the dance. Although dance is often accompanied by music, it can also be presented alone (Postmodern dance) or provide its own accompaniment (tap dance). Dance presented with music may or may not be performed in time to the music depending on the style of dance. Dance performed without music is said to be danced to its own rhythm. An introduction to classical and modern dance including hip hop dance, what is dance, and the dance music (electronic music, rock and roll, disco, house, techno, trance, etc.)
Movie is considered to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences.
Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as — in metonymy — the field in general. The origin of the name comes from the fact that photographic film (also called filmstock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist — motion pictures (or just pictures or “picture”), the silver screen, photoplays, the cinema, picture shows, flicks — and commonly movies.
An introduction to interpersonal relationship – methods, advice and tips for friendship, dating and online dating, intimate relationship, love and kiss, flirting, seduction, romance, marriage and wedding.
Interpersonal relationships are social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. They vary in differing levels of intimacy and sharing, implying the discovery or establishment of common ground, and may be centered around something(s) shared in common. The study of relationships is of concern to sociology, psychology and anthropology. Dating is a form of courtship consisting of social activities done by two persons with the aim of each assessing the other’s suitability as a partner in an intimate relationship or as a spouse.
Insurance terminology and risk management.
Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care.
A detailed guide of everything you want and need to know about fish.
A fish is a water-dwelling vertebrate with gills that doesn”t change form, as amphibians do, during its life. Most are cold-blooded, though some (such as some species of tuna and shark) are warm-blooded. There are over 29,000 species of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Fishing is the activity of hunting for fish. Fishing is a very ancient practice that dates back at least to the Mesolithic period which began about 10,000 years ago.
Fishing is the activity of hunting for fish. By extension, the term fishing is also applied to hunting for other aquatic animals such as various types of shellfish as well as squid, octopus, turtles, frogs and some edible marine invertebrates. Fish as a food describes the edible parts of water-dwelling, cold-blooded vertebrates with gills, as well as certain other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish. An aquarium (plural aquariums or aquaria) is a vivarium, usually contained in a clear-sided container (typically constructed of glass or high-strength plastic) in which water-dwelling plants and animals (usually fish, and sometimes invertebrates, as well as amphibians, marine mammals, and reptiles) are kept in captivity, often for public display; or it is an establishment featuring such displays. A detailed guide of everything you want and need to know about fish.
Sports betting is the general activity of predicting sports results by making a wager on the outcome of a sporting event.
Aside from simple wagers–betting a friend that one’s favorite baseball team will win its division, for instance, or buying a football “square” for the Super Bowl–sports betting is commonly done through a bookmaker. Bookmakers generally offer two types of wagers on the winner of a sporting event: a straight-up or money line bet, or a point spread wager. Moneylines and straight-up prices are used to set odds on sports such as soccer, baseball and hockey (the scoring nature of which renders point spreads impractical) as well as individual vs. individual matches, like boxing.
The e-book details the most interesting and important characteristics of the automobiles, car maintenance, styling features, car body style, the standard classification of the cars, an history of the automobiles, introduction in the automotive industry, and the traffic code, rules and signs.
An automobile, usually called a car (an old word for carriage) or a truck, is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own engine. Older terms include horseless carriage and motor car, with “motor” referring to what is now usually called the engine. It has seats for the driver and, almost without exception, for at least one passenger. The automobile was hailed as an environmental improvement over horses when it was first introduced. Before its introduction, in New York City, over 10,000 tons of manure had to be removed from the streets daily. However, in 2006 the automobile is one of the primary sources of worldwide air pollution and cause of substantial noise and health effects.
Dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, sports, training and behavior, types, working dogs. Dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films.
The dog is a canine mammal of the Order Carnivora. Dogs were first domesticated from wolves at least 12,000 years ago but perhaps as long as 150,000 years ago based on recent genetic fossil evidence and DNA evidence. In this time, the dog has developed into hundreds of breeds with a great degree of variation. This guide details the dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, dog sports, training and behavior, dog types, working dogs, as well as dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films about dogs, dogs as pets, and many other related aspects.
Dance music is music composed, played, or both, specifically to accompany dancing.
It can be either the whole musical piece or part of a larger musical arrangement. Dance music works usually bear the name of the corresponding dance, e.g. waltzes, the tango, the bolero, the can-can, minuets, salsa, various kinds of jigs and the breakdown. Other dance forms include contradance, the merengue, the cha-cha-cha. Often it is difficult to know whether the name of the music came first or the name of the dance. Although dance is often accompanied by music, it can also be presented alone (Postmodern dance) or provide its own accompaniment (tap dance). Dance presented with music may or may not be performed in time to the music depending on the style of dance. Dance performed without music is said to be danced to its own rhythm. An introduction to classical and modern dance including hip hop dance, what is dance, and the dance music (electronic music, rock and roll, disco, house, techno, trance, etc.)
Movie is considered to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences.
Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as — in metonymy — the field in general. The origin of the name comes from the fact that photographic film (also called filmstock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist — motion pictures (or just pictures or “picture”), the silver screen, photoplays, the cinema, picture shows, flicks — and commonly movies.
An introduction to interpersonal relationship – methods, advice and tips for friendship, dating and online dating, intimate relationship, love and kiss, flirting, seduction, romance, marriage and wedding.
Interpersonal relationships are social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. They vary in differing levels of intimacy and sharing, implying the discovery or establishment of common ground, and may be centered around something(s) shared in common. The study of relationships is of concern to sociology, psychology and anthropology. Dating is a form of courtship consisting of social activities done by two persons with the aim of each assessing the other’s suitability as a partner in an intimate relationship or as a spouse.
Insurance terminology and risk management.
Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care.
A detailed guide of everything you want and need to know about fish.
A fish is a water-dwelling vertebrate with gills that doesn”t change form, as amphibians do, during its life. Most are cold-blooded, though some (such as some species of tuna and shark) are warm-blooded. There are over 29,000 species of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Fishing is the activity of hunting for fish. Fishing is a very ancient practice that dates back at least to the Mesolithic period which began about 10,000 years ago.
Fishing is the activity of hunting for fish. By extension, the term fishing is also applied to hunting for other aquatic animals such as various types of shellfish as well as squid, octopus, turtles, frogs and some edible marine invertebrates. Fish as a food describes the edible parts of water-dwelling, cold-blooded vertebrates with gills, as well as certain other water-dwelling animals such as mollusks, crustaceans, and shellfish. An aquarium (plural aquariums or aquaria) is a vivarium, usually contained in a clear-sided container (typically constructed of glass or high-strength plastic) in which water-dwelling plants and animals (usually fish, and sometimes invertebrates, as well as amphibians, marine mammals, and reptiles) are kept in captivity, often for public display; or it is an establishment featuring such displays. A detailed guide of everything you want and need to know about fish.
Sports betting is the general activity of predicting sports results by making a wager on the outcome of a sporting event.
Aside from simple wagers–betting a friend that one’s favorite baseball team will win its division, for instance, or buying a football “square” for the Super Bowl–sports betting is commonly done through a bookmaker. Bookmakers generally offer two types of wagers on the winner of a sporting event: a straight-up or money line bet, or a point spread wager. Moneylines and straight-up prices are used to set odds on sports such as soccer, baseball and hockey (the scoring nature of which renders point spreads impractical) as well as individual vs. individual matches, like boxing.
The e-book details the most interesting and important characteristics of the automobiles, car maintenance, styling features, car body style, the standard classification of the cars, an history of the automobiles, introduction in the automotive industry, and the traffic code, rules and signs.
An automobile, usually called a car (an old word for carriage) or a truck, is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own engine. Older terms include horseless carriage and motor car, with “motor” referring to what is now usually called the engine. It has seats for the driver and, almost without exception, for at least one passenger. The automobile was hailed as an environmental improvement over horses when it was first introduced. Before its introduction, in New York City, over 10,000 tons of manure had to be removed from the streets daily. However, in 2006 the automobile is one of the primary sources of worldwide air pollution and cause of substantial noise and health effects.
Dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, sports, training and behavior, types, working dogs. Dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films.
The dog is a canine mammal of the Order Carnivora. Dogs were first domesticated from wolves at least 12,000 years ago but perhaps as long as 150,000 years ago based on recent genetic fossil evidence and DNA evidence. In this time, the dog has developed into hundreds of breeds with a great degree of variation. This guide details the dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, dog sports, training and behavior, dog types, working dogs, as well as dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films about dogs, dogs as pets, and many other related aspects.
Dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, sports, training and behavior, types, working dogs. Dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films.
The dog is a canine mammal of the Order Carnivora. Dogs were first domesticated from wolves at least 12,000 years ago but perhaps as long as 150,000 years ago based on recent genetic fossil evidence and DNA evidence. In this time, the dog has developed into hundreds of breeds with a great degree of variation. This guide details the dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, dog sports, training and behavior, dog types, working dogs, as well as dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films about dogs, dogs as pets, and many other related aspects.
A comprehensive guide of chess: history, famous games and players, rules, strategy, tactics, chess and the computer, documentation and literature, variants.
Chess (the “Game of Kings”) is a board game for two players, which requires 32 chesspieces (or chessmen) and a board demarcated by 64 squares. Gameplay does not involve random luck; consisting solely of strategy, (see also tactics, and theory). Chess is one of humanity’s more popular games; it is has been described not only as a game, but also as both art and science. Chess is sometimes seen as an abstract wargame; as a “mental martial art”.
A comprehensive guide of chess: history, famous games and players, rules, strategy, tactics, chess and the computer, documentation and literature, variants.
Chess (the “Game of Kings”) is a board game for two players, which requires 32 chesspieces (or chessmen) and a board demarcated by 64 squares. Gameplay does not involve random luck; consisting solely of strategy, (see also tactics, and theory). Chess is one of humanity’s more popular games; it is has been described not only as a game, but also as both art and science. Chess is sometimes seen as an abstract wargame; as a “mental martial art”.
An animated cartoon is a short, hand-drawn (or made with computers to look similar to something hand-drawn) moving picture for the cinema, TV or computer screen, featuring some kind of story or plot.
Animation is the optical illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements. In film and video production, this refers to techniques by which each frame of a film or movie is produced individually. Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Anime is a medium of animation originating in Japan, with distinctive character and background aesthetics that visually set it apart from other forms of animation. An animated cartoon is a short, hand-drawn (or made with computers to look similar to something hand-drawn) moving picture for the cinema, TV or computer screen, featuring some kind of story or plot (even if it is a very short one). Manga is the Japanese word for comics and print cartoons. Outside of Japan, it usually refers specifically to Japanese comics. Special effects (abbreviated SPFX or SFX) are used in the film, television, and entertainment industry to visualize scenes that cannot be achieved by normal means, such as space travel. Stop motion is a generic gereral term for an animation technique which makes static objects appear to move.
Christmas characters and food, Christmas-linked holidays and music, Santa Claus and traditions. Related to Annunciation, Incarnation; Crucifixion; Advent, the four weeks preceding Christmas; and the period between the day after Thanksgiving and the Sunday after New Year”s Day, the American holiday season.
Christmas or Christmas Day is a holiday celebrating the birth of Jesus, the central figure of Christianity. Aspects of celebration may include gift-giving, Christmas trees, display of Nativity sets, church attendance, the Father Christmas/Santa Claus myth, and family gatherings. Users of the Gregorian calendar observe the holiday on December 25. Some Eastern Orthodox Churches celebrate on December 25 by the Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 on the Gregorian calendar. These dates are merely traditional; the great majority of scholars agree that the actual birthdate of Jesus is unknown. In Western culture, the holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of the gifts being attributed to Santa Claus (also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Basil and Father Frost). However, various local and regional Christmas traditions are still practiced, despite the widespread influence of American, British and Australian Christmas motifs disseminated by film, popular literature, television, and other media.
A short guide about how to play blackjack, blackjack variants, strategies, tournaments, card counting, advantage gambling techniques, terminology.
The rules of casino blackjack are generally determined by law or regulation, which establishes certain rule variations allowed at the discretion of the casino. The rules of any particular game are generally posted on or near the table, failing which there is an expectation that casino staff will provide them on request. Over 100 variations of blackjack have been documented.
Each blackjack game has a basic strategy, which is playing a hand of any total value against any dealer’s up-card, which loses the least money to the house in the long term.
Blackjack can be played in tournament form, where players start with equal numbers of chips and the aim is to finish among the top chip-holders.
Gambling as a betting action – wagering money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money or material goods.
A guide about what is gambling (with a special section for online gambling), casino games with both beatable casino games (poker , blackjack, video poker with progressive jackpot, pai gow poker, betting, horse racing – parimutuel, slot machines and other gambling machines) and unbeatable casino games (baccarat, craps, roulette, keno, casino war, faro, pachinko, sic bo, let it ride, 3-card poker, 4-card poker, red dog, Caribbean stud poker, etc.), and non-casino gambling games (bingo, lottery, mahjong, backgammon, bridge, etc.).
Fixed-odds gambling in sports is also present in this book with horse racing, greyhound racing, football (particularly association football, American football and rugby), golf, tennis, cricket, baseball, basketball, ice hockey, snooker, motor sports, boxing, darts, cross-country skiing and biathlon. Please, don’t forget to take a look to the legality of the gambling and online gambling, as well as to the articles, warnings and links dedicated to the gambling addiction. Extreme cases of problem gambling may cross over into the realm of mental disorders.
This book is intended to be an introduction to the poker game, emphasizing on the online poker, the betting structure, poker variants, poker strategy and specific poker tournaments.
Online poker is the game of poker played over the Internet. Online poker rooms tend to be viewed as more player-friendly and allow the players to play for very low stakes. It has been partly responsible for a dramatic increase in the number of poker players worldwide. While the practice of comping players with free meals, hotel rooms, and merchandise is quite common in B&M casinos, online poker rooms have needed to develop new ways to reward faithful customers. The most common way of doing this is through deposit bonuses, where the player is given a bonus code to enter when placing money into an account. One common feature of the online poker sites is to offer tournaments called satellites by which the winners gain entry to real-life poker tournaments. Online poker rooms reward customers through deposit bonuses, where the player is given a bonus code to enter when placing money into an account.
A short guide about what is and how to play bingo, the game in US and United Kingdom, and its major variations.
Since its invention in 1934, modern bingo has evolved into multiple variations, with each jurisdiction’s gambling laws regulating how the game is played. There are also nearly unlimited patterns that may be specified for play. Some patterns only require one number to be matched, up to cover-all games which award the jackpot for covering an entire card and certain games award prizes to players for matching no numbers or achieving no pattern.
Bingo is often used as an instructional tool in American primary schools and in teaching English as a foreign language in many countries. It became increasingly more popular across the UK with more purpose-built bingo halls.
Keno is an important variation of bingo game, often played at modern casinos, and also offered as a game in some state lotteries.
Scratchcard is another major variation. The scratchcard is a small token, usually made of cardboard, where one or more areas contain concealed information: they are covered by a substance (usually latex) that cannot be seen through, but can be scratched off.
A short introduction about Easter from the perspective of various religions, traditions and cultures, including Easter season, Easter bread, Easter eggs, greetings, etc.
Easter is the most important religious holiday of the Christian liturgical year, observed in March, April, or May to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, which Christians believe occurred after his death by crucifixion in AD 27-33 (see Good Friday). Easter can also refer to the season of the church year, lasting for fifty days, which follows this holiday and ends at Pentecost. The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians. The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics and some Lutherans and Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil. This, the most important liturgy of the year, begins in total darkness with the blessing of the Easter fire, the lighting of the large Paschal candle (symbolic of the Risen Christ) and the chanting of the Exsultet or Easter Proclamation attributed to Saint Ambrose of Milan. A short introduction about Easter from the perspective of various religions, traditions and cultures, including Easter season, Easter bread, Easter eggs, greetings, etc.
The book is an overview of the major subfields and concepts in physics, including a brief outline of the history of physics and its subfields.
Physics (from Greek from φυσικός (phusikos): natural, from φύσις (fysis): Nature) is the science of Nature in the broadest sense. Physicists study the behaviour and interactions of matter and radiation. Theories of physics are generally expressed as mathematical relations. Well-established theories are often referred to as physical laws or laws of physics; however, like all scientific theories, they are ultimately provisional. Physics is very closely related to the other natural sciences, particularly chemistry. The book is an overview of the major subfields and concepts in physics, including a brief outline of the history of physics and its subfields.
https://www.telework.ro/en/e-books/physics-help/
A guide for the cat lovers about the cat behavior, cat attractants, cat breeds, cat health and food, type of cats, cats as pets, fictional cats, films about cats, historical cats. A book full with pictures of the most important cat breeds, tips and advice for cat behavior, cat diseases and how to take care of the cats.
The cat, also called the domestic cat or house cat, is a small feline carnivorous mammal of the subspecies Felis silvestris catus. Its most immediate pre-domestication ancestor is the African wild cat, Felis silvestris lybica. The cat has been living in close association with humans for at least 3,500 years; the Ancient Egyptians routinely used cats to keep mice and other rodents (mostly rats) away from their grain (and also believed that cats were sacred to the goddess Bastet). The history of the domestic cat may stretch back even further, as 8,000-year-old bones of humans and cats were found buried together on the island of Cyprus.
Internet casino guide – best gambling on net and casino bonus.
Online casinos, also known as virtual casinos, are the online version of land-based (“brick and mortar”) casinos. They allow you to play casino games through the Internet. Some online casinos provide various games, while others only provide only one type of game. Online poker is also very popular and there are many dedicated companies that provide this activity.
https://www.telework.ro/en/e-books/gaming-online-casinos/
Introduction in poetry: nature of poetry, tools, history, terms (periods, styles and movements, technical means, tropes, measures of verse, verse forms, national poetry...
Poetry is traditionally a written art form (although there is also an ancient and modern poetry which relies mainly upon oral or pictorial representations) in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content.
The increased emphasis on the aesthetics of language and the deliberate use of features such as repetition, meter and rhyme, are what are commonly used to distinguish poetry from prose, but debates over such distinctions still persist, while the issue is confounded by such forms as prose poetry and poetic prose.
Some modernists (such as the Surrealists) approach this problem of definition by defining poetry not as a literary genre within a set of genres, but as the very manifestation of human imagination, the substance which all creative acts derive from.
English Translation Style Guide for European UnionNicolae Sfetcu
This Style Guide is intended primarily for English-language authors and translators, both in-house and freelance, working for the European Commission. But now that so many texts in and around the EU institutions are drafted in English by native and non-native speakers alike, its rules, reminders and handy references aim to serve a wider readership as well.
The Guide is divided into two clearly distinct parts, the first dealing with linguistic conventions applicable in all contexts and the second with the workings of the European Union — and with how those workings are expressed and reflected in English. This should not be taken to imply that ‘EU English’ is different from ‘real English’; it is simply a reflection of the fact that the European Union as a unique body has had to invent a terminology to describe itself. However, the overriding aim in both parts of the Guide is to facilitate and encourage the writing of clear and reader-friendly English.
Riscuri și provocări în inteligența artificială: Cutii negre și actorii de am...Nicolae Sfetcu
Inteligența artificială a creat oportunități fără precedent, dar și noi riscuri. Creșterea exponențială a capabilităților modelelor de inteligența artificială permite atingerea unor niveluri de valoare și generalizare neatinse până acum. Cu toate acestea, opacitatea acestor modele a crescut, de asemenea, iar natura lor de cutie neagră face dificilă, chiar și pentru experți, explicarea justificării concluziilor lor. Acest lucru poate reprezenta un punct critic din punct de vedere tehnologic și social, deoarece riscul este real, după cum demonstrează episoadele recente, ale sistemelor de antrenament care sunt compromise de părtiniri și prejudecăți de discriminare, care au învățat din datele de instruire. Prin urmare, este posibil ca învățarea din urmele digitale ale deciziilor trecute să poată duce la încorporarea prejudecăților invizibile existente în modelele rezultate, perpetuându-le.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 41-47
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT21269
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/riscuri-si-provocari-in-inteligenta-artificiala-cutii-negre-si-actorii-de-amenintare/
EU Clear English Tips for Translators - eBookNicolae Sfetcu
Here are some tips to help translators avoid copying structure and wording from other languages that would be awkward in English.
They should be useful to non-native speakers, but may serve as handy reminders for native speakers too.
Funcții PHP definite de utilizator în dezvoltarea WordPressNicolae Sfetcu
PHP definește o gamă largă de funcții ca blocuri reutilizabile de instrucțiuni în limbajul de bază, și multe sunt, de asemenea, disponibile în diferite extensii. Aceste funcții sunt bine documentate în documentația online PHP. Funcțiile personalizate pot fi definite de dezvoltator. O funcție nu se va executa automat când se încarcă o pagină, ea poate fi apelată de oriunde și oricând în cadrul programului. PHP acceptă declarații de tip privind parametrii funcției, care sunt aplicate în timpul execuției.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 37-40
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT37237
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/functii-php-definite-de-utilizator-in-dezvoltarea-wordpress/
Practici comune pentru limbajul de programare în CNicolae Sfetcu
Odată cu utilizarea pe scară largă, o serie de practici și convenții comune au evoluat pentru a ajuta la evitarea erorilor în programele C. Acestea sunt simultan o demonstrație a aplicării bunelor principii de inginerie software într-un limbaj, și o indicație a limitărilor C. Deși puține sunt utilizate universal, iar unele sunt controversate, fiecare dintre acestea se bucură de o utilizare largă.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 30-36
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT80750
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/practici-comune-pentru-programarea-in-c/
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 3, Septembrie 2023 - RezumateNicolae Sfetcu
Revista IT & C este o publicație trimestrială din domeniile tehnologiei informației și comunicații, și domenii conexe de studiu și practică.
Cuprins:
EDITORIAL
Provocări în inteligența artificială
TEHNOLOGIA INFORMAȚIEI
Blockchain Design and Modelling
TELECOMUNICAȚII
Arhitectura de bază a rețelelor 5G
INTERNET
Big Data Ethics in Education and Research
SOFTWARE
Tableau Software: Vizualizarea și analiza datelor
PROGRAMARE
Rezumarea automată în inteligența artificială prin învățare nesupravegheată: TextRank
DEZVOLTARE WEB
Argumentele funcțiilor PHP – Transmiterea argumentelor prin referință
SECURITATE CIBERNETICĂ
Criptomonede și criptosecurități – Contracte inteligente
ISSN 2821– 8469 ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT55267
EAN , Cod IT23 , ID 32330
IT & C (PDF, EPUB, MOBI pentru Kindle) https://www.internetmobile.ro/revista/revista-it-c-volumul-2-numarul-3-septembrie-2023/
Vizualizarea datelor cu aplicațiile Tableau SoftwareNicolae Sfetcu
Tableau este un instrument de analiză și vizualizare a datelor care se poate conecta cu multe surse de date, creând tablouri de bord interactive. Tableau utilizează inovații de integrare a aplicațiilor, cum ar fi API-urile JavaScript și aplicația de conectare unică, pentru a include în mod constant analiza Tableau în aplicațiile de afaceri de bază. Tableau interoghează baze de date relaționale, cuburi de procesare analitică online, baze de date în cloud și foi de calcul pentru a genera vizualizări de date de tip grafic. De asemenea, software-ul poate extrage, stoca și prelua date dintr-un motor de date în memorie.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 23-29
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT10117
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/vizualizarea-datelor-cu-aplicatiile-tableau-software/
La revendication de Hooke sur la loi de la gravitéNicolae Sfetcu
Dans une note intitulée « Un état vrai de l'affaire et la controverse entre Sr Isaak Newton et le Dr Robert Hooke comme priorité de cette noble hypothèse du mouvement des planètes autour du Soleil en tant que leurs centres » non publié au cours de sa vie, Hooke a décrit sa théorie de la gravité. Pour soutenir sa « priorité », Hooke cite ses conférences sur les mouvements planétaires du 23 mai 1666, « Une tentative de prouver le mouvement de la Terre à partir d'observations » publiées en 1674 et la correspondance avec Isaac Newton en 1679.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.26375.24485
Dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, sports, training and behavior, types, working dogs. Dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films.
The dog is a canine mammal of the Order Carnivora. Dogs were first domesticated from wolves at least 12,000 years ago but perhaps as long as 150,000 years ago based on recent genetic fossil evidence and DNA evidence. In this time, the dog has developed into hundreds of breeds with a great degree of variation. This guide details the dog anatomy, breeding, breeds, equipment, health, law, monuments, organizations, related professions and professionals, shows and showing, dog sports, training and behavior, dog types, working dogs, as well as dogs in popular culture, famous dogs, fictional dogs, films about dogs, dogs as pets, and many other related aspects.
A comprehensive guide of chess: history, famous games and players, rules, strategy, tactics, chess and the computer, documentation and literature, variants.
Chess (the “Game of Kings”) is a board game for two players, which requires 32 chesspieces (or chessmen) and a board demarcated by 64 squares. Gameplay does not involve random luck; consisting solely of strategy, (see also tactics, and theory). Chess is one of humanity’s more popular games; it is has been described not only as a game, but also as both art and science. Chess is sometimes seen as an abstract wargame; as a “mental martial art”.
A comprehensive guide of chess: history, famous games and players, rules, strategy, tactics, chess and the computer, documentation and literature, variants.
Chess (the “Game of Kings”) is a board game for two players, which requires 32 chesspieces (or chessmen) and a board demarcated by 64 squares. Gameplay does not involve random luck; consisting solely of strategy, (see also tactics, and theory). Chess is one of humanity’s more popular games; it is has been described not only as a game, but also as both art and science. Chess is sometimes seen as an abstract wargame; as a “mental martial art”.
An animated cartoon is a short, hand-drawn (or made with computers to look similar to something hand-drawn) moving picture for the cinema, TV or computer screen, featuring some kind of story or plot.
Animation is the optical illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements. In film and video production, this refers to techniques by which each frame of a film or movie is produced individually. Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Anime is a medium of animation originating in Japan, with distinctive character and background aesthetics that visually set it apart from other forms of animation. An animated cartoon is a short, hand-drawn (or made with computers to look similar to something hand-drawn) moving picture for the cinema, TV or computer screen, featuring some kind of story or plot (even if it is a very short one). Manga is the Japanese word for comics and print cartoons. Outside of Japan, it usually refers specifically to Japanese comics. Special effects (abbreviated SPFX or SFX) are used in the film, television, and entertainment industry to visualize scenes that cannot be achieved by normal means, such as space travel. Stop motion is a generic gereral term for an animation technique which makes static objects appear to move.
Christmas characters and food, Christmas-linked holidays and music, Santa Claus and traditions. Related to Annunciation, Incarnation; Crucifixion; Advent, the four weeks preceding Christmas; and the period between the day after Thanksgiving and the Sunday after New Year”s Day, the American holiday season.
Christmas or Christmas Day is a holiday celebrating the birth of Jesus, the central figure of Christianity. Aspects of celebration may include gift-giving, Christmas trees, display of Nativity sets, church attendance, the Father Christmas/Santa Claus myth, and family gatherings. Users of the Gregorian calendar observe the holiday on December 25. Some Eastern Orthodox Churches celebrate on December 25 by the Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 on the Gregorian calendar. These dates are merely traditional; the great majority of scholars agree that the actual birthdate of Jesus is unknown. In Western culture, the holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of the gifts being attributed to Santa Claus (also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Basil and Father Frost). However, various local and regional Christmas traditions are still practiced, despite the widespread influence of American, British and Australian Christmas motifs disseminated by film, popular literature, television, and other media.
A short guide about how to play blackjack, blackjack variants, strategies, tournaments, card counting, advantage gambling techniques, terminology.
The rules of casino blackjack are generally determined by law or regulation, which establishes certain rule variations allowed at the discretion of the casino. The rules of any particular game are generally posted on or near the table, failing which there is an expectation that casino staff will provide them on request. Over 100 variations of blackjack have been documented.
Each blackjack game has a basic strategy, which is playing a hand of any total value against any dealer’s up-card, which loses the least money to the house in the long term.
Blackjack can be played in tournament form, where players start with equal numbers of chips and the aim is to finish among the top chip-holders.
Gambling as a betting action – wagering money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money or material goods.
A guide about what is gambling (with a special section for online gambling), casino games with both beatable casino games (poker , blackjack, video poker with progressive jackpot, pai gow poker, betting, horse racing – parimutuel, slot machines and other gambling machines) and unbeatable casino games (baccarat, craps, roulette, keno, casino war, faro, pachinko, sic bo, let it ride, 3-card poker, 4-card poker, red dog, Caribbean stud poker, etc.), and non-casino gambling games (bingo, lottery, mahjong, backgammon, bridge, etc.).
Fixed-odds gambling in sports is also present in this book with horse racing, greyhound racing, football (particularly association football, American football and rugby), golf, tennis, cricket, baseball, basketball, ice hockey, snooker, motor sports, boxing, darts, cross-country skiing and biathlon. Please, don’t forget to take a look to the legality of the gambling and online gambling, as well as to the articles, warnings and links dedicated to the gambling addiction. Extreme cases of problem gambling may cross over into the realm of mental disorders.
This book is intended to be an introduction to the poker game, emphasizing on the online poker, the betting structure, poker variants, poker strategy and specific poker tournaments.
Online poker is the game of poker played over the Internet. Online poker rooms tend to be viewed as more player-friendly and allow the players to play for very low stakes. It has been partly responsible for a dramatic increase in the number of poker players worldwide. While the practice of comping players with free meals, hotel rooms, and merchandise is quite common in B&M casinos, online poker rooms have needed to develop new ways to reward faithful customers. The most common way of doing this is through deposit bonuses, where the player is given a bonus code to enter when placing money into an account. One common feature of the online poker sites is to offer tournaments called satellites by which the winners gain entry to real-life poker tournaments. Online poker rooms reward customers through deposit bonuses, where the player is given a bonus code to enter when placing money into an account.
A short guide about what is and how to play bingo, the game in US and United Kingdom, and its major variations.
Since its invention in 1934, modern bingo has evolved into multiple variations, with each jurisdiction’s gambling laws regulating how the game is played. There are also nearly unlimited patterns that may be specified for play. Some patterns only require one number to be matched, up to cover-all games which award the jackpot for covering an entire card and certain games award prizes to players for matching no numbers or achieving no pattern.
Bingo is often used as an instructional tool in American primary schools and in teaching English as a foreign language in many countries. It became increasingly more popular across the UK with more purpose-built bingo halls.
Keno is an important variation of bingo game, often played at modern casinos, and also offered as a game in some state lotteries.
Scratchcard is another major variation. The scratchcard is a small token, usually made of cardboard, where one or more areas contain concealed information: they are covered by a substance (usually latex) that cannot be seen through, but can be scratched off.
A short introduction about Easter from the perspective of various religions, traditions and cultures, including Easter season, Easter bread, Easter eggs, greetings, etc.
Easter is the most important religious holiday of the Christian liturgical year, observed in March, April, or May to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, which Christians believe occurred after his death by crucifixion in AD 27-33 (see Good Friday). Easter can also refer to the season of the church year, lasting for fifty days, which follows this holiday and ends at Pentecost. The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians. The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics and some Lutherans and Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil. This, the most important liturgy of the year, begins in total darkness with the blessing of the Easter fire, the lighting of the large Paschal candle (symbolic of the Risen Christ) and the chanting of the Exsultet or Easter Proclamation attributed to Saint Ambrose of Milan. A short introduction about Easter from the perspective of various religions, traditions and cultures, including Easter season, Easter bread, Easter eggs, greetings, etc.
The book is an overview of the major subfields and concepts in physics, including a brief outline of the history of physics and its subfields.
Physics (from Greek from φυσικός (phusikos): natural, from φύσις (fysis): Nature) is the science of Nature in the broadest sense. Physicists study the behaviour and interactions of matter and radiation. Theories of physics are generally expressed as mathematical relations. Well-established theories are often referred to as physical laws or laws of physics; however, like all scientific theories, they are ultimately provisional. Physics is very closely related to the other natural sciences, particularly chemistry. The book is an overview of the major subfields and concepts in physics, including a brief outline of the history of physics and its subfields.
https://www.telework.ro/en/e-books/physics-help/
A guide for the cat lovers about the cat behavior, cat attractants, cat breeds, cat health and food, type of cats, cats as pets, fictional cats, films about cats, historical cats. A book full with pictures of the most important cat breeds, tips and advice for cat behavior, cat diseases and how to take care of the cats.
The cat, also called the domestic cat or house cat, is a small feline carnivorous mammal of the subspecies Felis silvestris catus. Its most immediate pre-domestication ancestor is the African wild cat, Felis silvestris lybica. The cat has been living in close association with humans for at least 3,500 years; the Ancient Egyptians routinely used cats to keep mice and other rodents (mostly rats) away from their grain (and also believed that cats were sacred to the goddess Bastet). The history of the domestic cat may stretch back even further, as 8,000-year-old bones of humans and cats were found buried together on the island of Cyprus.
Internet casino guide – best gambling on net and casino bonus.
Online casinos, also known as virtual casinos, are the online version of land-based (“brick and mortar”) casinos. They allow you to play casino games through the Internet. Some online casinos provide various games, while others only provide only one type of game. Online poker is also very popular and there are many dedicated companies that provide this activity.
https://www.telework.ro/en/e-books/gaming-online-casinos/
Introduction in poetry: nature of poetry, tools, history, terms (periods, styles and movements, technical means, tropes, measures of verse, verse forms, national poetry...
Poetry is traditionally a written art form (although there is also an ancient and modern poetry which relies mainly upon oral or pictorial representations) in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content.
The increased emphasis on the aesthetics of language and the deliberate use of features such as repetition, meter and rhyme, are what are commonly used to distinguish poetry from prose, but debates over such distinctions still persist, while the issue is confounded by such forms as prose poetry and poetic prose.
Some modernists (such as the Surrealists) approach this problem of definition by defining poetry not as a literary genre within a set of genres, but as the very manifestation of human imagination, the substance which all creative acts derive from.
English Translation Style Guide for European UnionNicolae Sfetcu
This Style Guide is intended primarily for English-language authors and translators, both in-house and freelance, working for the European Commission. But now that so many texts in and around the EU institutions are drafted in English by native and non-native speakers alike, its rules, reminders and handy references aim to serve a wider readership as well.
The Guide is divided into two clearly distinct parts, the first dealing with linguistic conventions applicable in all contexts and the second with the workings of the European Union — and with how those workings are expressed and reflected in English. This should not be taken to imply that ‘EU English’ is different from ‘real English’; it is simply a reflection of the fact that the European Union as a unique body has had to invent a terminology to describe itself. However, the overriding aim in both parts of the Guide is to facilitate and encourage the writing of clear and reader-friendly English.
Riscuri și provocări în inteligența artificială: Cutii negre și actorii de am...Nicolae Sfetcu
Inteligența artificială a creat oportunități fără precedent, dar și noi riscuri. Creșterea exponențială a capabilităților modelelor de inteligența artificială permite atingerea unor niveluri de valoare și generalizare neatinse până acum. Cu toate acestea, opacitatea acestor modele a crescut, de asemenea, iar natura lor de cutie neagră face dificilă, chiar și pentru experți, explicarea justificării concluziilor lor. Acest lucru poate reprezenta un punct critic din punct de vedere tehnologic și social, deoarece riscul este real, după cum demonstrează episoadele recente, ale sistemelor de antrenament care sunt compromise de părtiniri și prejudecăți de discriminare, care au învățat din datele de instruire. Prin urmare, este posibil ca învățarea din urmele digitale ale deciziilor trecute să poată duce la încorporarea prejudecăților invizibile existente în modelele rezultate, perpetuându-le.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 41-47
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT21269
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/riscuri-si-provocari-in-inteligenta-artificiala-cutii-negre-si-actorii-de-amenintare/
EU Clear English Tips for Translators - eBookNicolae Sfetcu
Here are some tips to help translators avoid copying structure and wording from other languages that would be awkward in English.
They should be useful to non-native speakers, but may serve as handy reminders for native speakers too.
Funcții PHP definite de utilizator în dezvoltarea WordPressNicolae Sfetcu
PHP definește o gamă largă de funcții ca blocuri reutilizabile de instrucțiuni în limbajul de bază, și multe sunt, de asemenea, disponibile în diferite extensii. Aceste funcții sunt bine documentate în documentația online PHP. Funcțiile personalizate pot fi definite de dezvoltator. O funcție nu se va executa automat când se încarcă o pagină, ea poate fi apelată de oriunde și oricând în cadrul programului. PHP acceptă declarații de tip privind parametrii funcției, care sunt aplicate în timpul execuției.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 37-40
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT37237
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/functii-php-definite-de-utilizator-in-dezvoltarea-wordpress/
Practici comune pentru limbajul de programare în CNicolae Sfetcu
Odată cu utilizarea pe scară largă, o serie de practici și convenții comune au evoluat pentru a ajuta la evitarea erorilor în programele C. Acestea sunt simultan o demonstrație a aplicării bunelor principii de inginerie software într-un limbaj, și o indicație a limitărilor C. Deși puține sunt utilizate universal, iar unele sunt controversate, fiecare dintre acestea se bucură de o utilizare largă.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 30-36
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT80750
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/practici-comune-pentru-programarea-in-c/
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 3, Septembrie 2023 - RezumateNicolae Sfetcu
Revista IT & C este o publicație trimestrială din domeniile tehnologiei informației și comunicații, și domenii conexe de studiu și practică.
Cuprins:
EDITORIAL
Provocări în inteligența artificială
TEHNOLOGIA INFORMAȚIEI
Blockchain Design and Modelling
TELECOMUNICAȚII
Arhitectura de bază a rețelelor 5G
INTERNET
Big Data Ethics in Education and Research
SOFTWARE
Tableau Software: Vizualizarea și analiza datelor
PROGRAMARE
Rezumarea automată în inteligența artificială prin învățare nesupravegheată: TextRank
DEZVOLTARE WEB
Argumentele funcțiilor PHP – Transmiterea argumentelor prin referință
SECURITATE CIBERNETICĂ
Criptomonede și criptosecurități – Contracte inteligente
ISSN 2821– 8469 ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT55267
EAN , Cod IT23 , ID 32330
IT & C (PDF, EPUB, MOBI pentru Kindle) https://www.internetmobile.ro/revista/revista-it-c-volumul-2-numarul-3-septembrie-2023/
Vizualizarea datelor cu aplicațiile Tableau SoftwareNicolae Sfetcu
Tableau este un instrument de analiză și vizualizare a datelor care se poate conecta cu multe surse de date, creând tablouri de bord interactive. Tableau utilizează inovații de integrare a aplicațiilor, cum ar fi API-urile JavaScript și aplicația de conectare unică, pentru a include în mod constant analiza Tableau în aplicațiile de afaceri de bază. Tableau interoghează baze de date relaționale, cuburi de procesare analitică online, baze de date în cloud și foi de calcul pentru a genera vizualizări de date de tip grafic. De asemenea, software-ul poate extrage, stoca și prelua date dintr-un motor de date în memorie.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 23-29
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT10117
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/vizualizarea-datelor-cu-aplicatiile-tableau-software/
La revendication de Hooke sur la loi de la gravitéNicolae Sfetcu
Dans une note intitulée « Un état vrai de l'affaire et la controverse entre Sr Isaak Newton et le Dr Robert Hooke comme priorité de cette noble hypothèse du mouvement des planètes autour du Soleil en tant que leurs centres » non publié au cours de sa vie, Hooke a décrit sa théorie de la gravité. Pour soutenir sa « priorité », Hooke cite ses conférences sur les mouvements planétaires du 23 mai 1666, « Une tentative de prouver le mouvement de la Terre à partir d'observations » publiées en 1674 et la correspondance avec Isaac Newton en 1679.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.26375.24485
Procesarea Big Data cu instrumente avansateNicolae Sfetcu
Datele trebuie procesate cu instrumente avansate de colectare și analiză, pe baza unor algoritmi prestabiliți, pentru a putea obține informații relevante. Algoritmii trebuie să ia în considerare și aspecte invizibile pentru percepțiile directe. Big Data în procesele guvernamentale cresc eficiența costurilor, productivitatea și inovația. Registrele civile sunt o sursă pentru Big Data. Datele prelucrate ajută în domenii critice de dezvoltare, cum ar fi îngrijirea sănătății, ocuparea forței de muncă, productivitatea economică, criminalitatea, securitatea și gestionarea dezastrelor naturale și a resurselor.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 18-22
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT91785
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/procesarea-big-data/
Corupţia, Globalizarea și NeocolonialismulNicolae Sfetcu
O introducere în conceptele interdependente despre corupţie, globalizare prin instituţiile financiare internaţionale, şi neocolonialism înţeles ca exploatarea resurselor şi materiilor prime a ţărilor sărace şi în curs de dezvoltare de unele mari corporaţii multinaţionale.
Corupţia este atât o cauză majoră cât şi un rezultat al sărăciei în întreaga lume. Ea apare la toate nivelurile societăţii, de la autorităţile locale şi naţionale, la societatea civilă, sistemul judiciar, întreprinderile mari şi mici, unităţile militare, etc. Corupţie sistemică (sau corupţia endemică) este corupţia, care se datorează în primul rând punctelor slabe ale unei organizaţii sau proces. Aceasta poate fi contrastată la funcţionarii sau agenţii individuali corupţi din cadrul sistemului. Factorii care încurajează corupţia sistemică includ stimulente contradictorii, puteri discreţionare, puteri de monopol, lipsa de transparenţă, salarii mici, şi o cultură a impunităţii. printre actele specifice de corupţie se numără luarea de mită, şantaj, şi deturnarea de fonduri, într-un sistem în care corupţia devine regula mai degrabă decât excepţia.
Neocolonialismului este practica de utilizare a capitalismului, globalizării, şi a forţelor culturale, pentru a controla o ţară, în locul unui control direct militar sau politic. Un astfel de control poate fi economic, cultural, sau lingvistic. Societăţile corporative care aparţin culturii impuse pot pătrunde mult mai uşor pe pieţele din aceste ţări. Astfel, neocolonialismului este rezultatul final al unor interese de afaceri sau geopolitice se obţine prin deformarea culturii ţărilor colonizate.
În urma unei ideologii cunoscut sub numele de neoliberalism, şi răspândită de instituţii financiare similare, cunoscută sub numele de "Consensul de la Washington", au fost impuse politici de ajustare structurală pentru a se asigura de rambursarea datoriilor şi restructurarea economică. Dar, în realitate s-a cerut ţărilor sărace să-şi reducă cheltuielile cu sănătatea, educaţia şi dezvoltarea, făcându-se o prioritate din rambursarea datoriilor şi a altor politici economice favorizante pentru ţările dezvoltate.Practic, FMI şi Banca Mondială au cerut ţărilor sărace să reducă nivelul de trai al populaţiei.
Corupţia, crimele de stat corporativ, şi crima organizată, sunt oricum considerate atât crime internaţionale cât şi crime de stat la nivel naţional. În cele mai multe cazuri crima de stat este considerată ca aplicabilă atunci când statul se implică direct în secretomania excesivă şi acoperirea unor activităţi ilegale, dezinformarea, şi o evidenţă financiară superficială sau chiar incorectă (care încurajează evaziunea fiscală în cazul unora din oficialii guvernamentali), reflectănd adesea interesele doar a anumitor clase sociale şi interese de grup, şi încălcând astfel drepturile omului.
Corupţia presupune cel puţin o persoană care corupe, una coruptă, şi o masă mare de păgubiţi inerţi. Vina este a tuturor!
Performanța și standardele rețelelor de telecomunicații 5GNicolae Sfetcu
Pentru măsurarea precisă a performanței 5G se utilizează simulatoare și teste specifice. Inițial, termenul a fost asociat cu standardul IMT-2020 al Uniunii Internaționale de Telecomunicații, care necesita o viteză maximă teoretică de descărcare de 20 gigabiți pe secundă și 10 gigabiți pe secundă viteza de încărcare, împreună cu alte cerințe. Apoi, grupul de standarde industriale 3GPP a ales standardul 5G NR (New Radio) împreună cu LTE ca propunere pentru transmitere la standardul IMT-2020.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 13-17
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT52354
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/performanta-si-standardele-retelelor-de-telecomunicatii-5g/
Intelligence Info, Volumul 2, Numărul 3, Septembrie 2023Nicolae Sfetcu
Revista Intelligence Info este o publicație trimestrială din domeniile intelligence, geopolitică și securitate, și domenii conexe de studiu și practică.
Cuprins:
EDITORIAL
Rolul serviciilor de informații în război, de Nicolae Sfetcu
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence Analysis, de Nicolae Sfetcu
ISTORIA
Reformele serviciilor secrete de la Mihail Moruzov la Eugen Cristescu, între inovație și decadență, de Rodica Liseanu
Take Ionescu – O biografie vectorială în istoria partidelor politice și în semantica diplomației, de Rodica Liseanu
GEOPOLITICA
Apusul universalismului european, de Lisa-Maria Achimescu
Chinese Hegemony in the Production of Rare Earths, de Emilian M. Dobrescu
România. Între ‘gura de rai’ geografică şi răspântia geopolitică, de Radu Carp
SECURITATE
Schimbarea paradigmelor în mediul internațional de securitate, de Alexandru Cristian
Adevăr și dezinformare în fenomenul OZN, de Dan D. Farcaș
ȘTIINȚA INFORMAȚIEI
Utilizarea analiticii rețelelor sociale în intelligence, de Nicolae Sfetcu
ISSN 2821-8159 ISSN-L 2821-8159, DOI: 10.58679/II30199
EAN , Cod II23 , ID 22330
Intelligence Info (PDF, EPUB, MOBI pentru Kindle) https://www.intelligenceinfo.org/revista/revista-intelligence-info-volumul-2-numarul-3-septembrie-2023/
Ontologii narative în tehnologia blockchainNicolae Sfetcu
Paul Ricoeur a examinat o serie de forme diferite de discurs extins, începând cu discursul metaforic. Discursul narativ este una din formele investigate, configurând concepte eterogene care identifică acțiunile într-un moment în care un lucru se întâmplă nu numai după altceva, ci și din cauza altui lucru dintr-o poveste sau istorie care poate fi urmată. Reformează evenimentele fizice ca evenimente narative, care au sens deoarece spun ceea ce se întâmplă într-o poveste sau într-o istorie. Narațiunile sunt întotdeauna o sinteză a conceptelor eterogene care configurează episoadele povestirii.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 7-12
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT70323
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/ontologii-narative-in-tehnologia-blockchain/
Philosophy of Blockchain Technology - OntologiesNicolae Sfetcu
About the necessity and usefulness of developing a philosophy specific to the blockchain technology, emphasizing on the ontological aspects. After an Introduction that highlights the main philosophical directions for this emerging technology, in Blockchain Technology I explain the way the blockchain works, discussing ontological development directions of this technology in Designing and Modeling. The next section is dedicated to the main application of blockchain technology, Bitcoin, with the social implications of this cryptocurrency. There follows a section of Philosophy in which I identify the blockchain technology with the concept of heterotopia developed by Michel Foucault and I interpret it in the light of the notational technology developed by Nelson Goodman as a notational system. In the Ontology section, I present two developmental paths that I consider important: Narrative Ontology, based on the idea of order and structure of history transmitted through Paul Ricoeur's narrative history, and the Enterprise Ontology system based on concepts and models of an enterprise, specific to the semantic web, and which I consider to be the most well developed and which will probably become the formal ontological system, at least in terms of the economic and legal aspects of blockchain technology. In Conclusions I am talking about the future directions of developing the blockchain technology philosophy in general as an explanatory and robust theory from a phenomenologically consistent point of view, which allows testability and ontologies in particular, arguing for the need of a global adoption of an ontological system for develop cross-cutting solutions and to make this technology profitable.
Inteligența artificială, o provocare esențialăNicolae Sfetcu
Inteligența artificială a progresat până la punctul în care este o componentă esențială în aproape toate sectoarele economiei moderne actuale, cu un impact semnificativ asupra vieții noastre private, sociale și politice. Ea a fost întemeiată pe presupunerea că inteligența umană poate fi descrisă atât de precis încât să poată fi făcută o mașină să o simuleze. Acest lucru ridică argumente filozofice despre minte și etica creării de ființe artificiale înzestrate cu inteligență asemănătoare omului. Inteligența artificială sunt o sursă a unui set complet nou de probleme de explicabilitate, responsabilitate și încredere.
IT & C, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 3-6
ISSN 2821 – 8469, ISSN – L 2821 – 8469, DOI: 10.58679/IT30677
URL: https://www.internetmobile.ro/inteligenta-artificiala-o-provocare-esentiala/
Ghidul de faţă se bazează în general pe ghidul în limba engleză „How to write clearly”, aducând o serie de recomandări specifi ce redactării textelor în limba română.
https://www.telework.ro/ro/e-books/ghid-ue-pentru-traduceri/
Activitatea de intelligence – Ciclul intelligenceNicolae Sfetcu
David Singer afirmă că, în prezent, amenințarea constituie principalul obiectiv al agențiilor de informații. Activitatea de informații poate fi considerată ca fiind procesul prin care anumite tipuri de informații sunt solicitate, colectate, analizate și diseminate, și modul în care sunt concepute și desfășurate anumite tipuri de acțiuni secrete. Ciclul intelligence reprezintă un set de procese utilizate pentru a furniza informații utile în luarea deciziilor. Ciclul constă din mai multe procese. Domeniul conex al contrainformațiilor este însărcinat cu împiedicarea eforturilor informative ale altora.
INTELLIGENCE INFO, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 34-40
ISSN 2821 – 8159, ISSN – L 2821 – 8159, DOI: 10.58679/II18551
URL: https://www.intelligenceinfo.org/activitatea-de-intelligence-ciclul-intelligence/
Cunoașterea Științifică, Volumul 2, Numărul 3, Septembrie 2023Nicolae Sfetcu
Revista Cunoașterea Științifică este o publicație trimestrială din domeniile științei și filosofiei, și domenii conexe de studiu și practică.
Cuprins:
EDITORIAL
Știința schimbărilor climatice, de Nicolae Sfetcu
ȘTIINȚE NATURALE
Interactions between the brain, the biofields, and the physical, de Adrian Klein și Robert Neil Boyd
The Psycho-Neural Connectivity, de Adrian Klein
ȘTIINȚE SOCIALE
School dropout rate in Romania, de Alexandra Mocanu
Ipoteza hipercivilizațiilor, de Dan D. Farcas
The Importance of the Rare Earths for the World Economy, de Emilian M. Dobrescu
Puteri emergente şi noile paradigme în mediul internațional de securitate, de Alexandru Cristian
Models of Emotional Intelligence in Research and Education, de Nicolae Sfetcu
Cultura anime în România, de Alexandra Mocanu
ȘTIINȚE FORMALE
Etica în inteligența artificială: provocări și perspective, de Sebastian Bidașcă
FILOSOFIE
Portretul biblic al unicornilor și paranoia fără fundamente privind seria „My Little Pony”, de Valentina-Andrada Minea
Materialism şi realitatea esteticii: Argumente şi contraargumente la scrisorile lui Friedrich Schiller privind educaţia estetică a omului (1/3), de Petru Ababii
Unele aspecte ale filosofiei lui Albert Einstein și Henri Bergson, timpul şi paradoxul lui Zenon în viziune critică nonsofisticată, de Petru Ababii
RECENZII CĂRȚI
Humanism, Becoming and the Demiurge in The Adventures of Pinocchio, de Nicolae Sfetcu
ISSN 2821-8086 ISSN-L 2821-8086, DOI: 10.58679/CS90773
EAN 725657205492, Cod CS23P , ID 12330
Cunoașterea Științifică (PDF, EPUB, MOBI pentru Kindle) https://www.cunoasterea.ro/revista/revista-cunoasterea-stiintifica-volumul-2-numarul-3-septembrie-2023/
Manual pentru începători pentru întreţinerea şi depanarea calculatoarelor, cu o introducere în noţiuni de calculatoare, hardware, software (inclusiv sisteme de operare) şi securitatea pe Internet.
Un calculator de uz general are patru componente principale: unitatea logică aritmetică (ALU), unitatea de control, memoria, şi dispozitive de intrare şi ieşire (denumite colectiv I/O). Aceste piese sunt interconectate prin bus-uri, de multe ori făcut din grupuri de fire.
Caracteristica definitorie a computerelor moderne, care le distinge de toate celelalte maşini, este că acestea pot fi programate. Asta presupune că un anumit tip de instrucţiuni (program) poate fi implementat în calculator, care le va procesa. Calculatoare moderne, bazate pe arhitectura von Neumann, au adesea codul maşină în forma unui limbaj de programare imperativ.
Drobeta Turnu Severin Heavy Water Plant: ConstructionNicolae Sfetcu
The heavy water plant was established under the name of Combinatul Chimic Drobeta, by Decree 400/16.11.1979, under the Inorganic Products Industrial Center (CIPA) Râmnicu Vâlcea. The thermo-electric plant for supplying the heavy water factory with steam was decided to be located in Halânga village, three kilometers from the factory. The process water required for the factory was brought from the Danube, and the hydrogen sulphide used in the process was produced in the plant, through a specific technology, and then compressed, liquefied and stored in special tanks. The works on the heavy water factory at Drobeta Turnu Severin started in 1979, based on a derogatory HCM. The equipment for the heavy water plant was purchased through the Industrial Center for Chemical and Refinery Equipment (CIUTCR). All equipment and facilities that transported hydrogen sulphide had to meet strict quality assurance conditions.
CUNOAȘTEREA ȘTIINȚIFICĂ, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 39-44
ISSN 2821 – 8086, ISSN – L 2821 – 8086, DOI: 10.58679/CS96723
URL: https://www.cunoasterea.ro/drobeta-turnu-severin-heavy-water-plant-construction/
Din punct de vedere metodologic, atât Newton cât și Einstein, și ulterior Dirac, au susținut fără rezerve principiul simplității matematice în descoperirea noilor legi fizice ale naturii. Lor li s-au alăturat și Poincaré și Weyl. Eduard Prugovecki afirmă că gravitația cuantică a impus luarea în considerare a unor întrebări epistemologice fundamentale, care pot fi identificate în filosofie cu problema minții-corp și cu problema liberului arbitru. Aceste întrebări au influențat epistemologia mecanicii cuantice sub forma “paralelismului psiho-fizic” al lui von Neumann și analiza ulterioară a tezei de către Wigner că “colapsul pachetului de unde” are loc în mintea “observatorului”.
CUNOAȘTEREA ȘTIINȚIFICĂ, Volumul 2, Numărul 1, Martie 2023, pp. 20-38
ISSN 2821 – 8086, ISSN – L 2821 – 8086, DOI: 10.58679/CS96800
URL: https://www.cunoasterea.ro/epistemologia-gravitatiei-cuantice/
Heart Touching Romantic Love Shayari In English with ImagesShort Good Quotes
Explore our beautiful collection of Romantic Love Shayari in English to express your love. These heartfelt shayaris are perfect for sharing with your loved one. Get the best words to show your love and care.
Boudoir photography, a genre that captures intimate and sensual images of individuals, has experienced significant transformation over the years, particularly in New York City (NYC). Known for its diversity and vibrant arts scene, NYC has been a hub for the evolution of various art forms, including boudoir photography. This article delves into the historical background, cultural significance, technological advancements, and the contemporary landscape of boudoir photography in NYC.
This tutorial offers a step-by-step guide on how to effectively use Pinterest. It covers the basics such as account creation and navigation, as well as advanced techniques including creating eye-catching pins and optimizing your profile. The tutorial also explores collaboration and networking on the platform. With visual illustrations and clear instructions, this tutorial will equip you with the skills to navigate Pinterest confidently and achieve your goals.
Hadj Ounis's most notable work is his sculpture titled "Metamorphosis." This piece showcases Ounis's mastery of form and texture, as he seamlessly combines metal and wood to create a dynamic and visually striking composition. The juxtaposition of the two materials creates a sense of tension and harmony, inviting viewers to contemplate the relationship between nature and industry.
This document announces the winners of the 2024 Youth Poster Contest organized by MATFORCE. It lists the grand prize and age category winners for grades K-6, 7-12, and individual age groups from 5 years old to 18 years old.
Fashionista Chic Couture Maze & Coloring Adventures is a coloring and activity book filled with many maze games and coloring activities designed to delight and engage young fashion enthusiasts. Each page offers a unique blend of fashion-themed mazes and stylish illustrations to color, inspiring creativity and problem-solving skills in children.
The cherry: beauty, softness, its heart-shaped plastic has inspired artists since Antiquity. Cherries and strawberries were considered the fruits of paradise and thus represented the souls of men.
3. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
2
The book is made by organizing Telework articles (main sources: my own articles, Wikipedia under
the CC BY-SA 3.0 license adapted by Nicolae Sfetcu, and other sources). Text license: CC BY-SA 3.0
The information in this book (licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License) is from 2006
and has not been updated.
DISCLAIMER:
The author and publisher are providing this book and its contents on an “as is” basis and
make no representations or warranties of any kind with respect to this book or its contents.
The author and publisher disclaim all such representations and warranties for a particular
purpose. In addition, the author and publisher do not represent or warrant that the
information accessible via this book is accurate, complete or current.
Except as specifically stated in this book, neither the author or publisher, nor any authors,
contributors, or other representatives will be liable for damages arising out of or in
connection with the use of this book. This is a comprehensive limitation of liability that
applies to all damages of any kind, including (without limitation) compensatory; direct,
indirect or consequential damages, including for third parties.
You understand that this book is not intended as a substitute for consultation with a licensed,
educational, legal or finance professional. Before you use it in any way, you will consult a
licensed professional to ensure that you are doing what’s best for your situation.
This book provides content related to educational topics. As such, use of this book implies
your acceptance of this disclaimer.
4. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Contents
American Music..............................................................................................................................................1
American Music........................................................................................................................................... 17
Music of the US............................................................................................................................................. 18
Characteristics.................................................................................................................................... 18
Folk music ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Classical music.................................................................................................................................... 20
Popular music..................................................................................................................................... 22
Music industry.................................................................................................................................... 30
Music education................................................................................................................................. 31
Holidays and festivals...................................................................................................................... 31
References............................................................................................................................................ 32
Notes....................................................................................................................................................... 33
Further reading.................................................................................................................................. 35
American Indian music........................................................................................................................ 36
Chicken scratch....................................................................................................................................... 36
Notes....................................................................................................................................................... 37
Further reading.................................................................................................................................. 37
Dene music ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Ghost Dance.............................................................................................................................................. 37
Historical foundations..................................................................................................................... 38
Jack Wilson's vision.......................................................................................................................... 39
Role in Wounded Knee Massacre................................................................................................ 40
Anthropological perspectives....................................................................................................... 41
Movements with similarities ........................................................................................................ 43
References............................................................................................................................................ 43
Further reading.................................................................................................................................. 44
Innu music ................................................................................................................................................ 44
Inuit music................................................................................................................................................ 44
Katajjaq.................................................................................................................................................. 45
Source .................................................................................................................................................... 46
5. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Reference.............................................................................................................................................. 46
Iroquois music......................................................................................................................................... 46
Kiowa music............................................................................................................................................. 47
Source .................................................................................................................................................... 47
Kwakiutl music........................................................................................................................................ 47
Maroon music.......................................................................................................................................... 48
Native American flute........................................................................................................................... 48
History................................................................................................................................................... 48
Construction........................................................................................................................................ 48
Music ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
Films....................................................................................................................................................... 50
Native American hip hop..................................................................................................................... 50
Other rappers...................................................................................................................................... 50
References............................................................................................................................................ 50
Notes....................................................................................................................................................... 50
Native American music........................................................................................................................ 51
Folk song............................................................................................................................................... 51
Traditional music cultures............................................................................................................. 52
Pan-tribalism....................................................................................................................................... 56
References............................................................................................................................................ 57
Navajo music............................................................................................................................................ 58
Contemporary popular.................................................................................................................... 58
Traditional ........................................................................................................................................... 58
Peyote songs........................................................................................................................................ 59
Source .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Peyote song............................................................................................................................................... 59
Source .................................................................................................................................................... 60
Pueblo music............................................................................................................................................ 60
Source .................................................................................................................................................... 60
Sioux music............................................................................................................................................... 60
Yuman music............................................................................................................................................ 61
Source .................................................................................................................................................... 61
Further reading.................................................................................................................................. 61
6. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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American classical music .................................................................................................................... 61
Beginnings............................................................................................................................................ 61
Second New England School......................................................................................................... 62
Joplin ...................................................................................................................................................... 62
20th century........................................................................................................................................ 63
Glass........................................................................................................................................................ 63
American folk music.............................................................................................................................. 64
American Primitivism .......................................................................................................................... 64
Quotes.................................................................................................................................................... 65
Cajun music .............................................................................................................................................. 65
Lyrics...................................................................................................................................................... 65
Instruments ......................................................................................................................................... 65
Dance and festivals........................................................................................................................... 66
Jug band ..................................................................................................................................................... 66
Old-time music........................................................................................................................................ 68
History................................................................................................................................................... 68
Instrumentation................................................................................................................................. 69
Old-time music as dance music.................................................................................................... 70
Learning old-time music................................................................................................................. 70
Regional styles.................................................................................................................................... 71
Notes....................................................................................................................................................... 73
Films....................................................................................................................................................... 74
Skiffle .......................................................................................................................................................... 74
Skiffle bands ........................................................................................................................................ 75
String band ............................................................................................................................................... 75
American hip hop................................................................................................................................... 75
The East Coast..................................................................................................................................... 75
Midwest................................................................................................................................................. 77
The South.............................................................................................................................................. 78
The West and West Coast............................................................................................................... 79
East Coast hip hop.................................................................................................................................. 80
Old school hip hop (1970–1986) ................................................................................................ 81
The Golden Age of Hip Hop (1986–1993) ............................................................................... 82
7. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Modern Hip Hop (1993–Present) ............................................................................................... 84
Musical style & Regional difference ........................................................................................... 86
Southern rap ............................................................................................................................................ 87
History and rise to popularity...................................................................................................... 87
Typical features.................................................................................................................................. 88
West Coast hip hop................................................................................................................................ 89
Origins and Early Success .............................................................................................................. 89
The First Great Divide: East vs. West......................................................................................... 90
The Second Great Divide: Commercial vs. Underground................................................... 91
The Third Generation of the West Coast.................................................................................. 91
American march music ........................................................................................................................ 92
History................................................................................................................................................... 92
The John Philip Sousa Revolution............................................................................................... 94
March Music Composers................................................................................................................. 94
Famous Marches................................................................................................................................ 95
Musicality and the March Music Form...................................................................................... 96
Difficulty..............................................................................................................................................102
Instrumentation...............................................................................................................................103
Marches in Culture..........................................................................................................................103
References..........................................................................................................................................103
American popular music ...................................................................................................................104
Early popular song..........................................................................................................................104
Early recorded popular music....................................................................................................107
1950s and 60s...................................................................................................................................110
1970s and 80s...................................................................................................................................114
1990s to the present ......................................................................................................................118
International and social impact.................................................................................................119
References..........................................................................................................................................120
Notes.....................................................................................................................................................121
Further reading................................................................................................................................123
American patriotic music..................................................................................................................123
Music history of the United States......................................................................................................125
American roots music....................................................................................................................125
8. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Popular music...................................................................................................................................127
1940s and 1950s .............................................................................................................................128
1960s and 70s...................................................................................................................................131
1970s....................................................................................................................................................132
1980s and 90s...................................................................................................................................134
Minstrel show........................................................................................................................................135
History.................................................................................................................................................135
Structure.............................................................................................................................................141
Characters ..........................................................................................................................................142
Music and dance...............................................................................................................................146
Legacy..................................................................................................................................................147
Notes.....................................................................................................................................................148
References..........................................................................................................................................150
Ethnic music in the United States.......................................................................................................151
African American music ....................................................................................................................151
19th century......................................................................................................................................151
Early 20th century ..........................................................................................................................151
Mid 20th century.............................................................................................................................152
The 1970s and 1980s.....................................................................................................................153
The 1990s and 2000s.....................................................................................................................154
References..........................................................................................................................................154
Anglo-American music.......................................................................................................................154
References..........................................................................................................................................155
Notes.....................................................................................................................................................155
Celtic music in the United States....................................................................................................155
Irish American Music.....................................................................................................................156
References..........................................................................................................................................156
Notes.....................................................................................................................................................156
Further reading................................................................................................................................157
Latin music in the United States.....................................................................................................157
Present day Latin music................................................................................................................158
Music of immigrant communities in the United States .........................................................158
Armenia...............................................................................................................................................158
9. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Cape Verde.........................................................................................................................................159
China.....................................................................................................................................................159
Czech ....................................................................................................................................................159
Eastern European Jews.................................................................................................................159
England................................................................................................................................................159
Philippines .........................................................................................................................................159
France ..................................................................................................................................................160
Germany..............................................................................................................................................160
Greece ..................................................................................................................................................160
Iran........................................................................................................................................................160
Ireland..................................................................................................................................................161
Italy.......................................................................................................................................................162
Jamaica ................................................................................................................................................162
Japan.....................................................................................................................................................162
Norway................................................................................................................................................162
Poland..................................................................................................................................................162
Serbia and Montenegro.................................................................................................................163
Slovenia...............................................................................................................................................163
Ukraine................................................................................................................................................163
Vietnam...............................................................................................................................................163
Tejano music..........................................................................................................................................163
American styles of music .......................................................................................................................166
American pop.........................................................................................................................................166
References..........................................................................................................................................166
American rock .......................................................................................................................................167
1950s....................................................................................................................................................167
1960s....................................................................................................................................................168
1970s....................................................................................................................................................170
1980s....................................................................................................................................................171
2000s....................................................................................................................................................172
Barbershop music................................................................................................................................172
Ringing chords..................................................................................................................................173
Historical origins .............................................................................................................................174
10. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Female Barbershop music and "Beautyshop" quartets....................................................175
Organization......................................................................................................................................175
Notable artists ..................................................................................................................................177
Typical Barbershop Songs ...........................................................................................................178
References..........................................................................................................................................179
Bluegrass music....................................................................................................................................179
Characteristics..................................................................................................................................179
History.................................................................................................................................................180
Subgenres...........................................................................................................................................183
Social and musical impact............................................................................................................183
Bluegrass in movies........................................................................................................................183
Publications.......................................................................................................................................184
Publications with bluegrass content........................................................................................184
Museums.............................................................................................................................................184
References..........................................................................................................................................184
Czech bluegrass.....................................................................................................................................185
Background........................................................................................................................................185
The First Generation ......................................................................................................................185
Second Generation: The Progressive Impulse .....................................................................186
(Neo-)Traditionalism.....................................................................................................................186
Current Scene....................................................................................................................................187
Blues..........................................................................................................................................................187
Characteristics..................................................................................................................................187
History.................................................................................................................................................190
Musical impact..................................................................................................................................196
Social impact .....................................................................................................................................198
References..........................................................................................................................................198
Further reading................................................................................................................................198
Notes.....................................................................................................................................................199
Chicago blues.........................................................................................................................................200
Detroit blues...........................................................................................................................................202
Louisiana blues .....................................................................................................................................202
Louisiana blues musicians...........................................................................................................202
11. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Memphis blues ......................................................................................................................................203
Memphis blues musicians............................................................................................................203
New Orleans blues...............................................................................................................................204
Piedmont blues .....................................................................................................................................205
St. Louis blues........................................................................................................................................205
Texas blues .............................................................................................................................................206
Performers.........................................................................................................................................206
West Coast blues ..................................................................................................................................207
Bounce music.........................................................................................................................................207
Chicano rock...........................................................................................................................................208
Overview.............................................................................................................................................208
History.................................................................................................................................................209
Chicano punk.....................................................................................................................................210
References..........................................................................................................................................210
See also................................................................................................................................................210
Country music .......................................................................................................................................210
History.................................................................................................................................................211
African-American country ...........................................................................................................213
Reception............................................................................................................................................214
Further reading................................................................................................................................215
References..........................................................................................................................................216
Bakersfield sound ................................................................................................................................216
Cowpunk..................................................................................................................................................217
Nashville sound.....................................................................................................................................217
Doo-wop ..................................................................................................................................................217
Go Go.........................................................................................................................................................219
History.................................................................................................................................................219
Popular go-go bands and songs.................................................................................................220
Gospel music..........................................................................................................................................221
Black gospel.......................................................................................................................................221
White Gospel.....................................................................................................................................223
Further reading................................................................................................................................224
Southern gospel....................................................................................................................................224
12. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Origins..................................................................................................................................................224
Representative Artists...................................................................................................................225
Gaither Homecoming Series........................................................................................................226
Today's Southern Gospel..............................................................................................................226
Southern Gospel Media .................................................................................................................226
Progressive Southern Gospel ..........................................................................................................227
Origins..................................................................................................................................................227
Impact of The Gaither Homecoming Series...........................................................................227
Sample Artists...................................................................................................................................228
Heavy metal music...............................................................................................................................228
Characteristics..................................................................................................................................228
History.................................................................................................................................................231
Cultural impact.................................................................................................................................236
Related styles....................................................................................................................................236
Heavy metal dance..........................................................................................................................237
Sources ................................................................................................................................................237
Bay Area thrash metal........................................................................................................................237
Summary.............................................................................................................................................237
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................238
Notable bands...................................................................................................................................238
Florida death metal .............................................................................................................................239
The sound...........................................................................................................................................239
Bands....................................................................................................................................................239
Hip hop music........................................................................................................................................240
Term usage ........................................................................................................................................241
Characteristics..................................................................................................................................241
History.................................................................................................................................................242
Musical impact..................................................................................................................................245
Social impact .....................................................................................................................................245
World hip hop...................................................................................................................................247
Media....................................................................................................................................................247
References..........................................................................................................................................247
Hip hop rivalries...................................................................................................................................247
13. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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N.W.A. vs. Ice Cube..........................................................................................................................248
"East Coast vs. West Coast" .........................................................................................................249
Nas vs. Jay-Z.......................................................................................................................................251
Eminem vs. Benzino & The Source............................................................................................254
Boogie Down Productions vs. The Juice Crew......................................................................255
LL Cool J vs. Kool Moe Dee...........................................................................................................256
LL Cool J vs. Canibus (and The Refugee Camp)....................................................................258
Ja Rule vs. 50 Cent...........................................................................................................................259
50 Cent vs. The Game.....................................................................................................................260
Other known rivalries (not necessarily chronological order).......................................261
Today's feuds ....................................................................................................................................266
East Coast - West Coast hip hop rivalry.......................................................................................269
Background........................................................................................................................................269
Beginning............................................................................................................................................270
Development.....................................................................................................................................270
Other.....................................................................................................................................................271
Aftermath ...........................................................................................................................................272
Jazz.............................................................................................................................................................273
History.................................................................................................................................................273
Improvisation ...................................................................................................................................283
References..........................................................................................................................................283
Asian American jazz............................................................................................................................283
Musicians associated with the Asian American jazz movement...................................284
Dixieland..................................................................................................................................................285
History.................................................................................................................................................285
Etymology ..........................................................................................................................................285
Modern Dixieland............................................................................................................................287
Partial List of Dixieland Musicians ...........................................................................................287
Festivals ..............................................................................................................................................288
Periodicals..........................................................................................................................................288
Swing.........................................................................................................................................................288
History.................................................................................................................................................289
Famous Swing Musicians .............................................................................................................290
14. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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R&B............................................................................................................................................................290
Original rhythm and blues...........................................................................................................290
Contemporary R&B ........................................................................................................................291
Contemporary R&B subgenres ..................................................................................................294
What Radio DJs say.........................................................................................................................295
Soul music...............................................................................................................................................295
The story of soul ..............................................................................................................................295
Genres of soul ...................................................................................................................................297
References..........................................................................................................................................300
Chicago soul............................................................................................................................................300
Funk...........................................................................................................................................................300
History.................................................................................................................................................301
Further reading................................................................................................................................305
P-Funk ......................................................................................................................................................305
History of P-Funk ............................................................................................................................305
Key figures in the development of the P-Funk sound.......................................................309
Notable Songs ...................................................................................................................................310
Memphis soul.........................................................................................................................................311
Northern soul.........................................................................................................................................311
Further reading................................................................................................................................312
Source ..................................................................................................................................................312
Philadelphia soul..................................................................................................................................312
Ragtime....................................................................................................................................................313
Historical context ............................................................................................................................314
Styles of ragtime ..............................................................................................................................315
Ragtime revivals ..............................................................................................................................316
Ragtime composers ........................................................................................................................316
Sources ................................................................................................................................................316
Further reading................................................................................................................................317
Rock music..............................................................................................................................................317
Origins..................................................................................................................................................318
Early Rock 'n' Roll ...........................................................................................................................318
British rock ........................................................................................................................................319
15. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Development of a counterculture (1963-1974)..................................................................320
Corporate movements out of the counterculture (the 1970s)......................................322
Disco, punk and New Wave (1973-1981)..............................................................................324
Rock diversifies in the 1980s......................................................................................................326
Alternative goes mainstream (the 1990s).............................................................................327
Post-grunge and pop punk (1995-2000)...............................................................................329
Present day (2000-Present)........................................................................................................330
Social impacts ...................................................................................................................................331
Trivia....................................................................................................................................................331
Punk...........................................................................................................................................................331
History.................................................................................................................................................332
Culture.................................................................................................................................................332
Subcultures within punk ..............................................................................................................334
Cultural relations.............................................................................................................................336
Bibliography......................................................................................................................................338
Emo............................................................................................................................................................339
History.................................................................................................................................................339
Backlash..............................................................................................................................................344
Sources ................................................................................................................................................345
Hardcore punk ......................................................................................................................................345
Overview.............................................................................................................................................346
The Big 3.............................................................................................................................................346
Early support ....................................................................................................................................348
Negative publicity ...........................................................................................................................348
Slam Dancing.....................................................................................................................................348
Influence .............................................................................................................................................349
Early history in Europe and the UK..........................................................................................350
Hardcore in the 1990s...................................................................................................................352
Hardcore today.................................................................................................................................355
References..........................................................................................................................................356
Grunge music.........................................................................................................................................356
Style, roots, and influences..........................................................................................................356
Mainstream popularity .................................................................................................................358
16. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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Decline of mainstream popularity............................................................................................360
Prominent Seattle area bands ....................................................................................................362
Notes.....................................................................................................................................................362
References..........................................................................................................................................363
Rock and roll..........................................................................................................................................363
Precursors and origins..................................................................................................................364
Early North American rock and roll (1953-1963)..............................................................365
British rock and roll........................................................................................................................366
Books....................................................................................................................................................367
Southern rock........................................................................................................................................367
1950s and 1960s – Origins..........................................................................................................368
1970s – Peak of popularity..........................................................................................................368
1980s and on – Continuing influence......................................................................................369
References..........................................................................................................................................370
Salsa music..............................................................................................................................................370
The word salsa..................................................................................................................................371
History.................................................................................................................................................375
References..........................................................................................................................................379
Notes.....................................................................................................................................................379
Surf music................................................................................................................................................381
Surf instrumental ............................................................................................................................382
Surf pop...............................................................................................................................................382
Surf rock..............................................................................................................................................383
Western music (North America)....................................................................................................384
An account of Western Music .....................................................................................................384
Western Music..................................................................................................................................385
Additional reading ..........................................................................................................................385
License ..........................................................................................................................................................386
GNU Free Documentation License.................................................................................................386
Index ..............................................................................................................................................................393
About the author.......................................................................................................................................396
Nicolae Sfetcu ........................................................................................................................................396
18. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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American Music
The music of the United States is so cool! It reflects the country's multicultural
population through a diverse array of styles. Rock and roll, hip hop, country, rhythm and
blues, and jazz are among the country's most internationally renowned genres. Since the
beginning of the 20th century, popular recorded music from the United States has become
increasingly known across the world, to the point where some forms of American popular
music is listened to almost everywhere.[1]
The original inhabitants of the United States were the hundreds of Native American
tribes, who played the first music in the area. Beginning in the 17th century, immigrants from
England, Spain, and France began arriving in large numbers, bringing with them new styles
and instruments. African slaves brought their own musical traditions, and each subsequent
wave of immigrants also contributed to a sonic melting pot.
Much of modern popular music can trace its roots to the emergence in the late 1800s of
African American blues and the growth in the 1920s of gospel music. African American music
formed an important basis for popular music, which also used elements derived from
European and indigenous musics. Long a land of immigrants, the United States has also seen
documented folk music and recorded popular music produced in the ethnic styles of
Ukrainian, Irish, Scottish, Polish, Mexican and Jewish communities, among others. Many
American cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a number
of regional musical styles. Aside from populous cities like New York, Nashville and Los
Angeles, many smaller cities and regions have produced memorable and distinctive styles of
music. The Cajun and Creole traditions in Louisiana music, the folk and popular styles of
Hawaiian music, and the bluegrass and old time music of the Southeastern states are but a
few examples of the regional diversity of modern American music.
Home | Music of the US | Music history of the United States | Ethnic music in the United
States | American styles of music | License | Index
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Music of the US
Characteristics
The music of the United States can be characterized by the use of syncopation and
asymmetrical rhythms, long, irregular melodies, which are said to "reflect the wide open
geography of (the American landscape)" and the "sense of personal freedom characteristic
of American life".[2] Some distinct aspects of American music, like the call-and-response
format, are derived from African techniques and instruments, introduced by African
Americans brought to North America as slaves.
Throughout the early part of American history, and into modern times, the relationship
between American and European music has been a much-discussed topic among scholars of
American music. Some have urged for the adoption of more purely European techniques and
styles, which are sometimes perceived as more refined or elegant, while others have pushed
for a sense of musical nationalism that celebrates distinctively American styles. Modern
classical music scholar John Warthen Struble has contrasted American and European,
concluding that the music of the United States is inherently distinct because the United States
has not had centuries of musical evolution as a nation. Instead, the music of the United States
is that of dozens or hundreds of indigenous and immigrant groups, all of which developed
largely in regional isolation until the American Civil War, when people from across the
country were brought together in army units, trading musical styles and practices. Struble
deemed the ballads of the Civil War "the first American folk music with discernible features
that can be considered unique to America: the first 'American' sounding music, as distinct
from any regional style derived from another country."[3]
The Civil War, and the period following it, saw a general flowering of American art,
literature and music. Amateur musical ensembles of this era can be seen as the birth of
American popular music. Music author David Ewen describe these early amateur bands as
combining "the depth and drama of the classics with undemanding technique, eschewing
complexity in favor of direct expression. If it was vocal music, the words would be in English,
despite the snobs who declared English an unsingable language. In a way, it was part of the
entire awakening of America that happened after the Civil War, a time in which American
painters, writers and 'serious' composers addressed specifically American themes."[4]
During this period the roots of blues, gospel, jazz and country music took shape; in the 20th
century, these became the core of American popular music, which further evolved into the
styles like rhythm and blues, rock and roll and hip hop music.
Folk music
Main article: American folk music
Folk music in the United States is varied across the country's numerous ethnic groups.
The Native American tribes each play their own varieties of folk music, most of it spiritual in
nature. African American music includes blues and gospel, descendants of West African
music brought to the Americas by slaves and mixed with Western European music. During
the colonial era, English, French and Spanish styles and instruments were brought to the
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Americas. By the early 20th century, the United States had become a major center for folk
music from around the world, including polka, Ukrainian and Polish fiddling, Ashkenazi
Jewish klezmer and several kinds of Latin music.
The Native Americans played the first folk music in what is now the United States, using
a wide variety of styles and techniques. Some commonalities are near universal among
Native American traditional music, however, especially the lack of harmony and polyphony,
and the use of vocables and descending melodic figures. Traditional instrumentations uses
the flute and many kinds of percussion instruments, like drums, rattles and shakers.[5] Since
European and African contact was established, Native American folk music has grown in new
directions, into fusions with disparate styles like European folk dances and Tejano music.
Modern Native American music may be best known for powwow gatherings, pan-tribal
gatherings at which traditionally styled dances and music are performed.[6]
The Thirteen Colonies of the original United States were all former English possessions,
and Anglo culture became a major foundation for American folk and popular music. Many
American folk songs are identical to British songs in arrangements, but with new lyrics, often
as parodies of the original material. American-Anglo songs are also characterized as having
fewer pentatonic tunes, less prominent accompaniment (but with heavier use of drones) and
more melodies in major.[7] Anglo-American traditional music also includes a variety of
broadside ballads, humorous stories and tall tales, and disaster songs regarding mining,
shipwrecks and murder. Legendary heroes like Joe Magarac, John Henry and Jesse James are
part of many songs. Folk dances of British origin include the square dance, descended from
the quadrille, combined with the American innovation of a caller instructing the dancers.[8]
The ancestors of today's African American population were brought to the United States
as slaves, working primarily in the plantations of the South. They were from hundreds of
tribes across West Africa, and they brought with them certain traits of West African music
including call and response vocals and complexly rhythmic music,[9] as well as syncopated
beats and shifting accents.[10] The African musical focus on rhythmic singing and dancing was
brought to the New World, and where it became part of a distinct folk culture that helped
Africans "retain continuity with their past through music". The first slaves in the United
States sang work songs, field hollers[11] and, following Christianization, hymns. In the 19th
century, a Great Awakening of religious fervor gripped people across the country, especially
in the South. Protestant hymns written mostly by New England preachers became a feature
of camp meetings held among devout Christians across the South. When blacks began singing
adapted versions of these hymns, they were called Negro spirituals. It was from these roots,
of spiritual songs, work songs and field hollers, that blues, jazz and gospel developed.
Blues and spirituals
Main article: Blues
Spirituals were primarily expressions of religious faith, sung by slaves on southern
plantations.[12] In the mid to late 19th century, spirituals spread out of the U.S. South. In 1871
Fisk University became home to the Jubilee Singers, a pioneering group that popularized
spirituals across the country. In imitation of this group, gospel quartets arose, followed by
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increasing diversification with the early 20th-century rise of jackleg and singing preachers,
from whence came the popular style of gospel music.
Blues is a combination of African work songs, field hollers and shouts.[13] It developed in
the rural South in the first decade of the 20th century. The most important characteristics of
the blues is its use of the blue scale, with a flatted or indeterminate third, as well as the
typically lamenting lyrics; though both of these elements had existed in African American
folk music prior to the 20th century, the codified form of modern blues (such as with the AAB
structure) did not exist until the early 20th century.[14]
Other immigrant communities
Main article: Music of immigrant communities in the United States
The United States is a melting pot consisting of numerous ethnic groups. Many of these
peoples have kept alive the folk traditions of their homeland, often producing distinctively
American styles of foreign music. Some nationalities have produced local scenes in regions
of the country where they have clustered, like Cape Verdean music in New England,[15]
Armenian music in California,[16] and Italian and Ukrainian music in New York City.[17]
The Creoles are a community with varied non-Anglo ancestry, mostly descendant of
people who lived in Louisiana before its purchase by the U.S. The Cajuns are a group of
Francophones who arrived in Louisiana after leaving Acadia in Canada.[18] The city of New
Orleans, Louisiana, being a major port, has acted as a melting pot for people from all over the
Caribbean basin. The result is a diverse and syncretic set of styles of Cajun and Creole music.
Mexico controlled much of what is now the western United States until the Mexican War,
including the entire state of Texas. After Texas joined the United States, the Mexicans living
in the state (Tejanos) began culturally developing separately from their neighbors to the
south, and remained culturally distinct from other Texans. Central to the evolution of early
Tejano music was the blend of traditional Mexican forms such as the corrido, and Continental
European styles introduced by German and Czech settlers in the late 19th century.[19] In
particular, the accordion was adopted by Tejano folk musicians at the turn of the 20th
century, and it became a popular instrument for amateur musicians in Texas and Northern
Mexico.
Classical music
Main article: American classical music
The European classical music tradition was brought to the United States with some of the
first colonists. European classical music is rooted in the traditions of European art,
ecclesiastical and concert music. The central norms of this tradition developed between
1550 and 1825, centering on what is known as the common practice period. Most American
classical composers attempted to work entirely within European models until the 19th
century. When Antonin Dvorak, a prominent Czech composer, visited the United States from
1892 to 1895, he iterated the idea that American classical music needed its own models
instead of imitating European composers; he helped to inspire subsequent composers to
make a distinctly American style of classical music.[20] By the beginning of 20th century, many
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American composers were incorporating disparate elements into their work, ranging from
jazz and blues to Native American music.
Early classical music
During the colonial era, there were two distinct fields of what is now considered classical
music. One was associated with amateur composers and pedagogues, whose style was based
around simple hymns that were performed with increasing sophistication over time. The
other colonial tradition was that of the mid-Atlantic cities like Philadelphia and Baltimore,
which produced a number of prominent composers who worked almost entirely within the
European model; these composers were mostly English in origin, and worked specifically in
the style of prominent English composers of the day.[21]
European classical music was brought to the United States during the colonial era. Many
American composers of this period worked exclusively with European models, while others,
such as William Billings, Supply Belcher and Justin Morgan, also known as the First New
England School, developed a style almost entirely independent of European models.[22] Of
these composers, Billings is the most well-remembered; he was also influential "as the
founder of the American church choir, as the first musician to use a pitch-pipe, and as the
first to introduce a violoncello into church service".[23] Many of these composers were
amateur singers who developed new forms of sacred music suitable for performance by
amateurs, and often using harmonic methods which would have been considered bizarre by
contemporary European standards.[24] These composers' styles were untouched by "the
influence of their sophisticated European contemporaries", using modal or pentatonic scales
or melodies and eschewing the European rules of harmony.[25]
In the early 19th century, America produced diverse composers like Anthony Philip
Heinrich, who created a unique American style and was the first American composer to write
for a symphony. Many other composers, most famously William Henry Fry and George
Frederick Bristow, supported the idea of an American classical style, though their works
were very European in orientation. It was John Knowles Paine, however, who became the
first American composer to be accepted in Europe. Paine's example inspired the composers
of the Second New England School, which included such figures as Amy Beach, Edward
MacDowell, and Horatio Parker.[26]
Louis Moreau Gottschalk is perhaps the best-remembered American composer of the
19th century, said by music historian Richard Crawford to be known for "bringing
indigenous, or folk, themes and rhythms into music for the concert hall". Gottschalk's music
reflected the cultural mix of his home city, New Orleans, Louisiana, which was home to a
variety of Latin, Caribbean, African American, Cajun and Creole musics. He was well
acknowledged as a talented pianist in his lifetime, and was also a known composer who
remains admired though little performed.[27]
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20th century
The New York classical music scene included Charles Griffes, originally from Elmira, New
York, who began publishing his most innovative material in 1914. His early collaborations
were attempts to use non-Western musical themes. The best-known New York composer,
indeed, the best-known American classical composer of any kind, was George Gershwin.
Gershwin was a songwriter with Tin Pan Alley and the Broadway theatres, and his works
were strongly influenced by jazz, or rather the precursors to jazz that were extant during his
time. Gershwin's work made American classical music more focused, and attracted an
unheard of amount of international attention. Following Gershwin, the first major composer
was Aaron Copland from Brooklyn, who used elements of American folk music, though it
remained European in technique and form. Later, he turned to the ballet and then serial
music.[28]
Many of the later 20th-century composers used modernist and minimalist techniques,
such as John Cage, John Corigliano and Steve Reich, who innovated a technique known as
phasing, in which two musical activities are begun simultaneously and repeated, gradually
drifting out of sync with each other in a natural evolution. Reich was also very interested in
non-Western music, incorporating African rhythmic techniques in his compositions.[28]
Recent composers and performers are strongly influenced by the minimalist works of Philip
Glass, a Baltimore native based out of New York, Meredith Monk and others.[29]
Popular music
The United States has produced many of the most popular musicians and composers in
the modern world. Beginning with the birth of recorded music, American performers have
continued to lead the field of popular music, which out of "all the contributions made by
Americans to world culture... has been taken to heart by the entire world".[30] Most histories
of popular music start with American ragtime or Tin Pan Alley; others, however, trace
popular music back to the European Renaissance and through broadsheets, ballads and other
popular traditions.[31] Other authors typically look at popular sheet music, tracing American
popular music to spirituals, minstrel shows and vaudeville, or the patriotic songs of the Civil
War.
Early popular song
The patriotic lay songs of the American Revolution constituted the first kind of
mainstream popular music. These included "The Liberty Tree", by Thomas Paine. Cheaply
printed as broadsheets, early patriotic songs spread across the colonies and were performed
at home and at public meetings.[32] Fife songs were especially celebrated, and were
performed on fields of battle during the American Revolution. The longest lasting of these
fife songs is "Yankee Doodle", still well known today. The melody dates back to 1755 and was
sung by both American and British troops.[33] Patriotic songs were mostly based on English
melodies, with new lyrics added to denounce British colonialism; others, however, used
tunes from Ireland, Scotland or elsewhere, or did not utilize a familiar melody. The song "Hail
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Columbia" was a major work[34] that remained an unofficial national anthem until the
adoption of "The Star-Spangled Banner".
During the Civil War, when soldiers from across the country commingled, the
multifarious strands of American music began to cross-fertilize each other, a process that
was aided by the burgeoning railroad industry and other technological developments that
made travel and communication easier. Army units included individuals from across the
country, and they rapidly traded tunes, instruments and techniques. The war was an impetus
for the creation of distinctly American songs that became and remained wildly popular.[35]
The most popular songs of the Civil War era included "Dixie", written by Daniel Decatur
Emmett. The song, originally titled "Dixie's Land", was made for the closing of a minstrel
show; it spread to New Orleans first, where it was published and became "one of the great
song successes of the pre-Civil War period".[36] In addition to popular patriotic songs, the Civil
War era also produced a great body of brass band pieces.[37]
Following the Civil War, minstrel shows became the first distinctively American form of
music expression. The minstrel show was an indigenous form of American entertainment
consisting of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, usually performed by white people
in blackface. Minstrel shows used African American elements in musical performances, but
only in simplified ways; storylines in the shows depicted blacks as natural-born slaves and
fools, before eventually becoming associated with abolitionism.[38] The minstrel show was
invented by Dan Emmett and the Virginia Minstrels.[39] Minstrel shows produced the first
well-remembered popular songwriters in American music history: Thomas Rice, Dan
Emmett, and, most famously, Stephen Foster. The composer John Philips Sousa is closely
associated with the most popular trend in American popular music just before the turn of
the century. Formerly the bandmaster of the United States Marine Band, Sousa wrote
military marches like "The Stars and Stripes Forever" that reflected his "nostalgia for [his]
home and country", giving the melody a "stirring virile character".[40]
In the early 20th century, American musical theater was a major source for popular
songs, many of which influenced blues, jazz, country, and other extant styles of popular
music. The center of development for this style was in New York City, where the Broadway
theatres became among the most renowned venues in the city. Theatrical composers and
lyricists like the brothers George and Ira Gershwin created a uniquely American theatrical
style that used American vernacular speech and music. Musicals featured popular songs and
fast-paced plots that often revolved around love and romance.[41]
Blues and gospel
Main articles: Blues and gospel
The blues is a genre of African American folk music that is the basis for much of modern
American popular music. Blues can be seen as part of a continuum of musical styles like
country, jazz, ragtime, and gospel; though each genre evolved into distinct forms, their
origins were often indistinct. Early forms of the blues evolved in and around the Mississippi
Delta in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The earliest blues-like music was primarily
call-and-response vocal music, without harmony or accompaniment and without any formal
musical structure. Slaves and their descendants created the blues by adapting the field
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shouts and hollers, turning them into passionate solo songs.[42] When mixed with the
Christian spiritual songs of African American churches and revival meetings, blues became
the basis of gospel music. Modern gospel began in African American churches in the 1920s,
in the form of worshipers proclaiming their faith in an improvised, often musical manner
(testifying). Composers like Thomas A. Dorsey composed gospel works that used elements
of blues and jazz in traditional hymns and spiritual songs.[43]
Ragtime was a style of music based around the piano, using syncopated rhythms and
chromaticisms.[44] It is primarily a form of dance music utilizing the walking bass, and is
generally composed in sonata form. Ragtime is a refined and evolved form of the African
American cakewalk dance, mixed with styles ranging from European marches[45] and
popular songs to jigs and other dances played by large African American bands in northern
cities during the end of the 19th century. The most famous ragtime performer and composer
was Scott Joplin, known for works such as "Maple Leaf Rag".[46]
Blues became a part of American popular music in the 1920s, when classic female blues
singers like Bessie Smith grew popular. At the same time, record companies launched the
field of race music, which was mostly blues targeted at African American audiences. The most
famous of these acts went on to inspire much of the later popular development of the blues
and blues-derived genres, including the legendary Robert Johnson. By the end of the 1940s,
however, pure blues was only a minor part of popular music, having been subsumed by
offshoots like rhythm & blues and the nascent rock and roll style. Some styles of electric,
piano-driven blues, like the boogie-woogie, retained a large audience. A bluesy style of gospel
also became popular in mainstream America in the 1950s, led by singer Mahalia Jackson.[47]
Jazz
Main article: Jazz
Jazz is a kind of music characterized by swung and blue notes, call and response vocals,
polyrhythms and improvisation. Though originally a kind of dance music, jazz has been a
major part of popular music, and has also become a major element of Western classical
music. Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African
American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band
music.[48] Early jazz was closely related to ragtime, with which it could be distinguished by
the use of more intricate rhythmic improvisation. The earliest jazz bands adopted much of
the vocabulary of the blues, including bent and blue notes and instrumental "growls" and
smears otherwise not used on European instruments. Jazz's roots come from the city of New
Orleans, Louisiana, populated by Cajuns and black Creoles, who combined the French-
Canadian culture of the Cajuns with their own styles of music in the 19th century. Large
Creole bands that played for funerals and parades became a major basis for early jazz, which
spread from New Orleans to Chicago and other northern urban centers.
Though jazz had long since achieved some limited popularity, it was Louis Armstrong
who became one of the first popular stars and a major force in the development of jazz.
Armstrong was an improviser, capable of creating numerous variations on a single melody;
he also popularized scat singing, an improvisational vocal technique in which nonsensical
syllables (vocables) are sung. He was influential in the rise of a kind of pop big band jazz
26. NICOLAE SFETCU: AMERICAN MUSIC
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called swing. Swing is characterized by a strong rhythm section, usually consisting of double
bass and drums, medium to fast tempo, and rhythmic devices like the swung note, which is
common to most jazz. Swing is primarily a fusion of 1930s jazz fused with elements of the
blues and Tin Pan Alley.[49] Swing used bigger bands than other kinds of jazz, leading to
bandleaders tightly arranging the material which discouraged improvisation, previously an
integral part of jazz. Swing became a major part of African American dance, and came to be
accompanied by a popular dance called the swing dance.
Jazz influenced many performers of all the major styles of later popular music, though
jazz itself never again became such a major part of American popular music as during the
swing era. The later 20th century American jazz scene did, however, produce some popular
crossover stars, such as Miles Davis. In the middle of the 20th century, jazz evolved into a
variety of subgenres, beginning with bebop. Bebop is a form of jazz characterized by fast
tempos, improvisation based on harmonic structure rather than melody, and use of the
flatted fifth. Bebop was developed in the early and mid-1940s, later evolving into styles like
hard bop and free jazz. Innovators of the style included Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie,
who arose from small jazz clubs in New York City.[50]
Country music
Main article: Country music
Country music is primarily a fusion of African American blues and spirituals with
Appalachian folk music, adapted for pop audiences and popularized beginning in the 1920s.
The origins of country are in rural Southern folk music, which was primarily Irish and British,
with African and continental European musics.[51] Anglo-Celtic tunes, dance music, and
balladry were the earliest predecessors of modern country, then known as hillbilly music.
Early hillbilly also borrowed elements of the blues and drew upon more aspects of 19th-
century pop songs as hillbilly music evolved into a commercial genre eventually known as
country and western and then simply country.[52] The earliest country instrumentation
revolved around the European-derived fiddle and the African-derived banjo, with the guitar
later added.[53] String instruments like the ukulele and steel guitar became commonplace
due to the popularity of Hawaiian musical groups in the early 20th century.[54]
The roots of commercial country music are generally traced to 1927, when music talent
scout Ralph Peer recorded Jimmie Rodgers and The Carter Family.[55] Popular success was
very limited, though a small demand spurred some commercial recording. After World War
II, there was increased interest in specialty styles like country music, producing a few major
pop stars.[56] The most influential country musician of the era was Hank Williams, a bluesy
country singer from Alabama.[57] He remains renowned as one of country music's greatest
songwriters and performers, viewed as a "folk poet" with a "honky-tonk swagger" and
"working-class sympathies".[58] Throughout the decade the roughness of honky tonk
gradually eroded as the Nashville sound grew more pop-oriented. Producers like Chet Atkins
created the Nashville sound by stripping away all the hillbilly elements of the
instrumentation and using smooth instrumentation and advanced production techniques.
Eventually, most records from Nashville were in this style, which began to incorporate
strings and vocal choirs.[59]
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By the early part of the 1960s, however, the Nashville sound had become perceived as
too watered-down by many more traditionalist performers and fans, resulting in a number
of local scenes like the Lubbock sound and the Bakersfield sound. The Bakersfield sound
began in the mid to late 1950s when performers like Wynn Stewart and Buck Owens began
using elements of Western swing and rock, such as the breakbeat, in their music.[60] In the
'60s performers like Merle Haggard popularized the sound. In the early 1970s, Haggard was
also part of outlaw country, alongside singer-songwriters such as: Willie Nelson and Waylon
Jennings.[61] Outlaw country was rock-oriented and lyrically focused on the criminal antics
of the performers, in contrast to the clean-cut country singers of the Nashville sound.[62] By
the middle of the 1980s, the country music charts were dominated by pop singers, alongside
a nascent revival of honky-tonk-style country with the rise of performers like Dwight
Yoakam. The 1980s also saw the development of alternative country performers like Uncle
Tupelo, who were opposed to the more pop-oriented style of mainstream country. At the
beginning of the 2000s, pop-oriented country acts remained among the best-selling
performers in the United States, especially Garth Brooks.[63]
R&B and soul
Main articles: R&B and soul
R&B, an abbreviation for rhythm and blues, is a style that arose in the 1930s and 1940s.
Early R&B consisted of large rhythm units "smashing away behind screaming blues singers
(who) had to shout to be heard above the clanging and strumming of the various electrified
instruments and the churning rhythm sections".[64] R&B was not extensively recorded and
promoted because record companies felt that it was not suited for most audiences, especially
middle-class whites, because of the suggestive lyrics and driving rhythms.[65] Bandleaders
like Louis Jordan innovated the sound of early R&B, using a band with a small horn section
and prominent rhythm instrumentation. By the end of the 1940s, he had had several hits,
and helped pave the way for contemporaries like Wynonie Harris and John Lee Hooker. Many
of the most popular R&B songs were not performed in the rollicking style of Jordan and his
contemporaries; instead they were performed by white musicians like Pat Boone in a more
palatable mainstream style, which turned into pop hits.[66] By the end of the 1950s,
however, there was a wave of popular black blues-rock and country-influenced R&B
performers like Chuck Berry gaining unprecedented fame among white listeners.[67]
Soul music is a combination of rhythm and blues and gospel which began in the late
1950s in the United States. It is characterized by its use of gospel-music devices, with a
greater emphasis on vocalists and the use of secular themes. The 1950s recordings of Sam
Cooke and James Brown are commonly considered the beginnings of soul. Popular soul was
based around record labels like Stax and Muscle Shoals, home to mainstream stars like Otis
Redding and Aretha Franklin. By the late 1960s, soul had splintered into several genres,[68]
influenced by psychedelic rock and other styles. The social and political ferment of the 1960s
inspired artists like Marvin Gaye to release albums with hard-hitting social commentary,
while another variety became more dance-oriented music, evolving into funk. During the
'70s some highly slick and commercial bands like The Delfonics and Hall & Oates achieved
mainstream success with styles like Philly soul and blue-eyed soul. By the end of the '70s,