This document summarizes an archaeological study of iron smelting furnaces and slag among the Fipa people in Tanzania. The researchers identified three intact iron smelting furnaces called Malungu standing 2.75-3.09 meters tall. They also found remnants of a smaller refining furnace and one smelting furnace. Excavation of one intact furnace revealed layers of soil, charcoal, burnt wood, and high quantities of slag. Physical analysis of the slag was conducted to better understand the indigenous smelting technology and establish criteria to distinguish furnace types based on slag properties. The researchers aim to preserve knowledge about this disappearing cultural heritage.
The Onkalo nuclear waste repository is being constructed in Finland to store highly radioactive nuclear waste for 100,000 years. It involves excavating a network of tunnels 400-450 meters underground in solid granite bedrock. Once operational in 2020, nuclear waste will be sealed inside copper capsules and buried in the tunnels. However, some scientists have criticized the project, arguing that the copper capsules may corrode more quickly than expected, in only around 1,000 years rather than the intended 100,000 years. Constant water leakage into the tunnels also poses a challenge to the long-term safety and isolation of the nuclear waste.
Subsurface Models of Abitumen-Rich Area near Ode-Irele, Southwestern Nigeria.iosrjce
Subsurface geophysical investigation around Looda village, near Ode-Irele was carried out with the
principal objective of evaluating the depth to the bituminous sand and its thickness with a view to suggesting
better environmentally compatible exploitation technique.Electrical resistivity survey using the Schlumberger
array was employed to generate subsurface models. 13 VES points along three (3) traverses were established in
the study area with manual curve matching followed by Computer iteration of the vertical electrical sounding
(VES) data. A careful study of the results, together with the knowledge of the Stratigraphy of the area was used
to develop the subsurface models.Two distinct models were generated. The first model generated is
characterised by a thin top soil (less than 1m thick) comprising the overburden underlain by dry sand (1.0m -
4.6m thick) which overlies bituminous sand horizon (6m -19m thick). This horizon is underlain by sandy silty
clay. The second model generated is defined by top soil (0.5m -1.8m thick) underlain by bituminous sand
horizon (2.5m -14.8m thick) which overlies saturated sand (1.9-11.3m thick). A fairly impervious sandy silty
clay layer underlies this aquifer.Huge deposit of heavy oil sand with thickness ranging from about 2.5m to
19.0m was observed between a depth of about 0.5m and 5.4m in the study area. This depth is relatively shallow
andcan be exploited preferably by open cast mining. However, precaution must be taken to prevent burst out
and contamination of the aquifer sandwiched between the bituminous sand and sandy clay horizons in some
locations during exploitation.
This report summarizes geochemical data from 8 coal samples collected from Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua, Indonesia. It provides background information on Indonesia's coal resources, the geology of Indonesian coal basins, and descriptions of the specific sample locations. Indonesia has significant coal resources, estimated at 38.8 billion metric tons in 2000. The coal deposits are largely Cenozoic in age and range from lignite to bituminous coal in rank. Samples were collected from active mines in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi to characterize the coals based on proximate and ultimate analysis, elemental concentrations, and other parameters for the World Coal Quality Inventory program.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document reports on a geological field mapping exercise conducted by a group of students in Oyo State, Nigeria. It includes an introduction, objectives, description of the study area location and accessibility. The dominant rock types identified are granite and gneiss. Structural features like folds, fractures, joints and veins were observed. Mapping tools used included a compass, GPS, hammer and sample bags. Economic minerals identified include quartz, feldspar and mica. The rocks have potential uses in construction. A geological map and cross-section of the study area are presented.
The document summarizes the history of the Chasnala mine inundation accident that killed 375 workers in 1975. It describes the mine's location and coal seams. The accident occurred when a ventilation connection being driven punctured into old, flooded workings, allowing water to flood the underground mine. The immediate cause was driving the connection closer to an incline than permitted, violating the sanctioned plan. Blasting just before may have also contributed by bursting out the intervening coal block.
Granomeric Analysis of Mamu Formation and Enugu Shale around Ozalla and Its E...iosrjce
The study area lies within the Anambra Basin which geologically made up of Enugu Shale and
Mamu Formation. This study aimed at determining the geology and depositional environments of these
Formations through field relationship and grain size distribution as well as morphometric studies. The field
data shows Enugu Shale as fissile, light grey with extraformational clast which graded into Mamu Formation
which is made up of alternating sequence of shale, siltstone, mudstone, coal and sand, it shows a fluctuating
environment. The granulometric study of sand member of Mamu Formation shows characteristic very well
sorted, fine to medium grains which were deposited in relatively turbulent well aerated marine environment
probably above wave base. The bivariate and the multivariate results reveal Aeolian/shallow marine deposit.
The fissility of Enugu Shale suggests that it was deposited in low energy environment, distal to proximal lagoon
environment and the presence of extraformatonal clast indicates fluvial incursion. However, it can be concluded
that Mamu Formation was deposited in fluctuating environment ranging from an oxygenated shallow marine to
acidic swampy environment. Hence is paralic Formation.
The Onkalo nuclear waste repository is being constructed in Finland to store highly radioactive nuclear waste for 100,000 years. It involves excavating a network of tunnels 400-450 meters underground in solid granite bedrock. Once operational in 2020, nuclear waste will be sealed inside copper capsules and buried in the tunnels. However, some scientists have criticized the project, arguing that the copper capsules may corrode more quickly than expected, in only around 1,000 years rather than the intended 100,000 years. Constant water leakage into the tunnels also poses a challenge to the long-term safety and isolation of the nuclear waste.
Subsurface Models of Abitumen-Rich Area near Ode-Irele, Southwestern Nigeria.iosrjce
Subsurface geophysical investigation around Looda village, near Ode-Irele was carried out with the
principal objective of evaluating the depth to the bituminous sand and its thickness with a view to suggesting
better environmentally compatible exploitation technique.Electrical resistivity survey using the Schlumberger
array was employed to generate subsurface models. 13 VES points along three (3) traverses were established in
the study area with manual curve matching followed by Computer iteration of the vertical electrical sounding
(VES) data. A careful study of the results, together with the knowledge of the Stratigraphy of the area was used
to develop the subsurface models.Two distinct models were generated. The first model generated is
characterised by a thin top soil (less than 1m thick) comprising the overburden underlain by dry sand (1.0m -
4.6m thick) which overlies bituminous sand horizon (6m -19m thick). This horizon is underlain by sandy silty
clay. The second model generated is defined by top soil (0.5m -1.8m thick) underlain by bituminous sand
horizon (2.5m -14.8m thick) which overlies saturated sand (1.9-11.3m thick). A fairly impervious sandy silty
clay layer underlies this aquifer.Huge deposit of heavy oil sand with thickness ranging from about 2.5m to
19.0m was observed between a depth of about 0.5m and 5.4m in the study area. This depth is relatively shallow
andcan be exploited preferably by open cast mining. However, precaution must be taken to prevent burst out
and contamination of the aquifer sandwiched between the bituminous sand and sandy clay horizons in some
locations during exploitation.
This report summarizes geochemical data from 8 coal samples collected from Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua, Indonesia. It provides background information on Indonesia's coal resources, the geology of Indonesian coal basins, and descriptions of the specific sample locations. Indonesia has significant coal resources, estimated at 38.8 billion metric tons in 2000. The coal deposits are largely Cenozoic in age and range from lignite to bituminous coal in rank. Samples were collected from active mines in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi to characterize the coals based on proximate and ultimate analysis, elemental concentrations, and other parameters for the World Coal Quality Inventory program.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document reports on a geological field mapping exercise conducted by a group of students in Oyo State, Nigeria. It includes an introduction, objectives, description of the study area location and accessibility. The dominant rock types identified are granite and gneiss. Structural features like folds, fractures, joints and veins were observed. Mapping tools used included a compass, GPS, hammer and sample bags. Economic minerals identified include quartz, feldspar and mica. The rocks have potential uses in construction. A geological map and cross-section of the study area are presented.
The document summarizes the history of the Chasnala mine inundation accident that killed 375 workers in 1975. It describes the mine's location and coal seams. The accident occurred when a ventilation connection being driven punctured into old, flooded workings, allowing water to flood the underground mine. The immediate cause was driving the connection closer to an incline than permitted, violating the sanctioned plan. Blasting just before may have also contributed by bursting out the intervening coal block.
Granomeric Analysis of Mamu Formation and Enugu Shale around Ozalla and Its E...iosrjce
The study area lies within the Anambra Basin which geologically made up of Enugu Shale and
Mamu Formation. This study aimed at determining the geology and depositional environments of these
Formations through field relationship and grain size distribution as well as morphometric studies. The field
data shows Enugu Shale as fissile, light grey with extraformational clast which graded into Mamu Formation
which is made up of alternating sequence of shale, siltstone, mudstone, coal and sand, it shows a fluctuating
environment. The granulometric study of sand member of Mamu Formation shows characteristic very well
sorted, fine to medium grains which were deposited in relatively turbulent well aerated marine environment
probably above wave base. The bivariate and the multivariate results reveal Aeolian/shallow marine deposit.
The fissility of Enugu Shale suggests that it was deposited in low energy environment, distal to proximal lagoon
environment and the presence of extraformatonal clast indicates fluvial incursion. However, it can be concluded
that Mamu Formation was deposited in fluctuating environment ranging from an oxygenated shallow marine to
acidic swampy environment. Hence is paralic Formation.
A study was conducted in which Seventy nine samples of coal were collected from four different wells of the Mui basin between November, 2005 and July, 2006, and analyzed for calorific value, fixed carbon, moisture content, ash content,, volatile matter, sulphur and iron content. Calorific value was analyzed using the bomb calorimetric method, by igniting a weighed portion of each sample in the bomb for one hour and measuring the corrected rise in temperature. For sulphur, one gram of each sample was mixed with three grams of Eschka mixture and ashed at 825°C for 1 ½ hours in a muffle furnace. The resulting residue was dissolved in hot water, filtered and the filtrate reacted with barium nitrate to precipitate barium sulphate. The Sulphur content was then determined from the total barium sulphate content. Iron in the coal sample, was analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Samples were first ashed at 950°C in a muffle furnace before extracting the iron using aqua regia (a 3:1 mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid). The aim of the research was to use these experimental results to ascertain the presence of coal in the already sunk wells and also establish its quality as to whether it was anthracite coal, bituminous or lignite coal. Results of the coal quality were of vital use to the Ministry of Energy in Kenya in establishing as to whether this coal could be used for power generation or in steel industry among other uses. The coal exploration programme under the Ministry of Energy in Kenya has been going on with an aim of establishing Coal in different parts of the Country, so that it can be used to limit overdependence on imported petroleum and Coal. From the proximate analysis results, the coal samples were found to have an average calorific value of 21.16Mj/Kg, 52.16% fixed carbon, 45.89% volatile matter, 26.53% ash content, 2.10% sulphur, 2.04% iron and 2.04% moisture. About 33% of the samples were found to be anthracite. The rest were classified as 20.3% bituminous, 11.4% lignite, 11.4%peat, 3.8%carbonaceous shales, and 20.1% rock.
Ground magnetic and geoelectrical methods were used to delineate sulphide deposits in the Oshiri area of southeastern Nigeria. The ground magnetic survey identified shallow tectonic structures like fractures and faults capable of hosting sulphide deposits. Induced polarization and electrical resistivity tomography identified isolated chargeable bodies between 25-30m deep and 50-70m wide, with low resistivity values of 10-50Ωm, representing zones of potential sulphide mineralization. Using geometric modeling, the chargeable bodies were estimated to contain over 100,000 tonnes of economically viable sulphide deposits. The integrated geophysical approach successfully mapped subsurface structures and identified targets for further exploration and investment.
Determination of Thickness of Overburden in Basement Area Using Schlumberger ...iosrjce
The overburden thickness of Abuja (Lat. 70
12´N – 9
0 30´ N and Long. 50
24´E- 7
0
19´E)
has been estimated. The geophysical method used was the electrical resistivity and the electrodes
array was Schlumberger type. The equipment utilized were four electrodes, hammer, four reels of
wires, crocodile clips, measuring tape, global positioning systems(GPS) and a terrameter. The survey
was carried out in two locations and the average resistivity values of the first four geoelectrical layers
were from the surface, 590 Ωm, 1800 Ωm, 1900 Ωm and 760 Ωm. These layers were interpreted as
probably top soil, laterite, weathered basement rock and fairly weathered basement rock. The
average thickness of the overburden was found to be 5.43m
This document discusses coal mining methods, including their advantages and disadvantages. It describes surface mining methods like opencast mining and underground mining techniques. Surface mining is cheaper but has disadvantages like disturbing overburden and creating unstable spoil tips. Underground mining can access deeper seams but is more expensive, inflexible, and dangerous due to risks of gas, dust, fires and roof collapses. The document also outlines the history of coal mining and various techniques used over time.
This document summarizes the 7-year history of the Berkeley Archaeologists at Çatalhöyük (BACH) project excavation of Building 3, a Neolithic structure at Çatalhöyük in Turkey. The BACH project began in 1997 and excavated Building 3 from 1997-2003. Key events included discovering post-Neolithic burials in 1997, excavating the well-preserved roof of Building 3 in 1998, finding possible closure rituals above the final floors in 1999, and discovering the last burial of Building 3, a child in a basket, at the end of the 1999 season. Digital documentation methods like photography, video diaries, and databases were pioneered by the BACH project to
Plate tectonics involves the movement of tectonic plates which form the continents and oceans. This movement is caused by convection currents in the molten rock beneath the plates. As the plates move, they push against each other causing mountains to form. The Earth's core, made of iron and nickel, generates the planet's magnetic field as it rotates, similar to a dynamo. This magnetic field protects the Earth from solar radiation. While plate tectonics and the inner workings of the planet remain mysterious, it continues to shape our world and protect it every day.
Geotechnical Investigation of Soil around Arawa-Kundulum Area of Gombe Town, ...iosrjce
This Project work involves the investigation of soil at Arawa- Kundulum area in Gombe town of
North Eastern Nigeria. The study area is a newly developing part of Gombe town but has been defaced by
cracks on buildings, and this calls for appropriate geotechnical investigation of soils of the area. Soil samples
were collected from eight (8) different locations within the study area. At each trial pit, four (4) samples were
collected at intervals of 0.5m, 1.0m, 1.5m and 2.0m depths below ground level and were investigated for their
Geotechnical properties with a view to classifying for their suitability or otherwise for infrastructural
development. The geotechnical tests carried out on these samples include: Natural moisture content, Specific
gravity, Physico-chemical tests, Particle size distribution (Sieve analysis), Atterberg limits and Compaction
tests. All these tests were carried out using the BS 1377, (1990) Parts 1 - 9 specification. Based on the test
results obtained from the study area, comparison were made with some standard specifications and it was
revealed that the soil samples are clayey soils which are unsuitable for most engineering construction because
they have poor bearing capacities. However from the investigation above, the main geotechnical problems that
affect design and engineering structures are found to be presence of expansive soil composed of silt and clay
with high plasticity index. This soil is therefore not recommended for Engineering purposes. In the event of
siting a building project, the soil should be stabilized before embarking on the project
The document summarizes a study of soil gas and water geochemistry at the Ungaran geothermal field in central Java, Indonesia. Soil gas surveys detected fault systems trending NNE-SSW and WNW-ESE through elevated CO2 and mercury. High mercury concentrations near fumaroles indicate the upflow zone of high temperature geothermal fluids may be located north of the fumaroles. Water chemistry shows thermal springs in the upflow zone are acidic Ca-Mg-SO4 type, while those near fumaroles are Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Ca-(Na)-SO4-HCO3, and those southeast are mixed Na-(Ca)-Cl-(HCO3
Evaluation of groundwater potential of crystalline basement area of kogi stat...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that used electrical resistivity methods to evaluate the groundwater potential of the crystalline basement area of Kogi State Polytechnic in Nigeria. Thirty-six vertical electrical soundings were conducted along six profiles and identified four subsurface layers: a top soil layer ranging from 0.2-5 meters thick; a weathered basement layer from 5-12 meters thick; a fractured basement layer from 6.2-196 meters thick; and a fresh bedrock of unknown thickness. The study aims to delineate fractures in the basement rocks that could serve as potential sources of groundwater within the study area.
Sedimentology and Geochemical Evaluation of Campano-Maastrichtian Sediments, ...Premier Publishers
This document summarizes research on the sedimentology and geochemistry of Campano-Maastrichtian sediments in the Anambra Basin in Nigeria. Sedimentological analysis of 11 sandstone samples found they consisted of medium to coarse grains that were poorly to moderately sorted and very platykurtic. Six localities studied indicated fluvial-floodplain-marginal marine facies for two formations and marine facies for two others. Geochemical analysis found total organic carbon levels indicating good to excellent source rock potential. Maturity levels suggest the rocks are immature to early mature, with potential reservoir units in fluvial and marginal marine sandstones. Regional seals may be provided by shales and claystones.
Prehistoric Metal Mining in Britain: The Study of Cobble Stone Mining Tools Based on Artefact Study, Ethnography and Experimentation
Minería Prehistórica en Gran Bretaña: El Estudio de Herramientas Mineras Líticas a Partir de Estudios Artefactuales, Etnografía y Experimentación 33
Simon Timberlake and Brenda Craddock
Hydrocarbon Generative Potential of Campanian Source Rock from Ihube, Anambra...Premier Publishers
Shale from basal Campanian strata of the Anambra Basin has been characterized by geochemical techniques. The aims of this study were to assess the quality of its organic matter, evaluate its thermal evolution and highlight its potential as a source rock. The HI versus Tmax and HI versus OI diagrams were used in classifying the organic matter in the shale indicating the presence of Type III kerogen. Tmax values between 424 and 441ºC indicate that the shales are thermally immature to marginally mature with respect to petroleum generation. Hydrogen Index (HI) values range from 13.89 to 38.89mgHC/gTOC while S1 + S2 yields values ranging from 0.19 to 0.78mgHC/g rock, suggesting that the shale have gas generating potential. The TOC of shale samples of the studied Ihube locality ranges from 1.31 to 1.98%, an indication of a good source rock of terrestrially derived organic matter. The high oxygen index (OI) (26.93 mgCO2g-1TOC) and TS (1.32) suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. Based on the kerogen type, shales from Ihube, Nkporo Formation will equally generate oil and gas if its organic matter attained sufficient thermal temperature.
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Multispectral-TIR Data Analysis by Split Window Algorithm for Coal Fire Detec...inventionjournals
This document discusses using remote sensing to detect and monitor coal fires in the Jharia coal field in India. It provides background on coal fires, how they start and their impacts. It describes using the ASTER satellite to retrieve land surface temperature over Jharia in 2006 and 2009 using a split window algorithm. Land surface temperature is an important parameter for detecting thermally anomalous pixels indicating coal fire. The study aims to map and monitor the spatial and temporal dynamics of coal fires between 2006 and 2009.
Ancient Egyptian Materials And TechnologyAlicia Buske
This document provides an overview of the edited volume "Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology". It includes a list of chapters focused on various inorganic and organic materials used in ancient Egypt, such as stone, soil, painting materials, pottery, metals, faience, glass, papyrus, basketry, textiles, leather, ivory, wood, mummification materials, oils, resins, adhesives, hair, food production, brewing, winemaking, fruits and vegetables. The document also provides publishing information for the book, including the publisher, year of publication, editors, and copyright details.
Afipko Field Mapping | Okoye David IkechukwuDAVID OKOYE
The environment of Ebonyi state especially Afikpo, lies between latitude 5degrees, 53minutes and 5degrees, 55 minutes, and longitude 7degrees, 53 minutes and 56 minutes. The area under study has mainly sedimentary environment which is geologically situated within Afikpo syncline which is a part of the lower Benue trough. The area comprises of the Ezeaku formation which is turonian in age, Amasiri sandstone, Ezeaku siltstone and Ezeaku shale. These formations are characterized by lithofacies like shale siltstone sandstone, generally dipping southeast. The basic sedimentary structure found there are planar beddings, cross beddings, biogenic structures, joints etc. The drainage pattern is dentritic and comprises of rivers, springs and streams. Paleontological analysis revealed the presence of fossils like Orphiomophia. Among other geologic features in the area of study.
Hydrogeological Application of Refraction Seismicsiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) multidisciplinary peer-reviewed Journal with reputable academics and experts as board member. IOSR-JESTFT is designed for the prompt publication of peer-reviewed articles in all areas of subject. The journal articles will be accessed freely online.
Groundwater prospecting and Aquifer Delineation using Vertical Electrical Sou...iosrjce
A total of twenty seven (27) vertical electrical soundings (VES) where carried out on the basement
complex area of Kumbotso Local Government Area of Kano with a spread of 40m-45m adopted. The results
obtained revealed three to four geo-electric layers of the subsurface. The third weathered basement and a forth
fractured basement rock constitutes the Aquiferous water bearing layers with resistivity ranges from 6Ωm -
265Ωm respectively with average thickness of 19m and 15m respectively. The result shows the weathered
regolith to be thicker than the fractured bedrock layer; average depth range of boreholes in the area is between
30m-35m while the average static water levels in dug wells is 8.3m. It is highly recommended that a spread of
between 75-85m be used in the future and also the use of EM method to locate deep fractures as important in
maximizing the borehole yield.
A study was conducted in which Seventy nine samples of coal were collected from four different wells of the Mui basin between November, 2005 and July, 2006, and analyzed for calorific value, fixed carbon, moisture content, ash content,, volatile matter, sulphur and iron content. Calorific value was analyzed using the bomb calorimetric method, by igniting a weighed portion of each sample in the bomb for one hour and measuring the corrected rise in temperature. For sulphur, one gram of each sample was mixed with three grams of Eschka mixture and ashed at 825°C for 1 ½ hours in a muffle furnace. The resulting residue was dissolved in hot water, filtered and the filtrate reacted with barium nitrate to precipitate barium sulphate. The Sulphur content was then determined from the total barium sulphate content. Iron in the coal sample, was analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Samples were first ashed at 950°C in a muffle furnace before extracting the iron using aqua regia (a 3:1 mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid). The aim of the research was to use these experimental results to ascertain the presence of coal in the already sunk wells and also establish its quality as to whether it was anthracite coal, bituminous or lignite coal. Results of the coal quality were of vital use to the Ministry of Energy in Kenya in establishing as to whether this coal could be used for power generation or in steel industry among other uses. The coal exploration programme under the Ministry of Energy in Kenya has been going on with an aim of establishing Coal in different parts of the Country, so that it can be used to limit overdependence on imported petroleum and Coal. From the proximate analysis results, the coal samples were found to have an average calorific value of 21.16Mj/Kg, 52.16% fixed carbon, 45.89% volatile matter, 26.53% ash content, 2.10% sulphur, 2.04% iron and 2.04% moisture. About 33% of the samples were found to be anthracite. The rest were classified as 20.3% bituminous, 11.4% lignite, 11.4%peat, 3.8%carbonaceous shales, and 20.1% rock.
Ground magnetic and geoelectrical methods were used to delineate sulphide deposits in the Oshiri area of southeastern Nigeria. The ground magnetic survey identified shallow tectonic structures like fractures and faults capable of hosting sulphide deposits. Induced polarization and electrical resistivity tomography identified isolated chargeable bodies between 25-30m deep and 50-70m wide, with low resistivity values of 10-50Ωm, representing zones of potential sulphide mineralization. Using geometric modeling, the chargeable bodies were estimated to contain over 100,000 tonnes of economically viable sulphide deposits. The integrated geophysical approach successfully mapped subsurface structures and identified targets for further exploration and investment.
Determination of Thickness of Overburden in Basement Area Using Schlumberger ...iosrjce
The overburden thickness of Abuja (Lat. 70
12´N – 9
0 30´ N and Long. 50
24´E- 7
0
19´E)
has been estimated. The geophysical method used was the electrical resistivity and the electrodes
array was Schlumberger type. The equipment utilized were four electrodes, hammer, four reels of
wires, crocodile clips, measuring tape, global positioning systems(GPS) and a terrameter. The survey
was carried out in two locations and the average resistivity values of the first four geoelectrical layers
were from the surface, 590 Ωm, 1800 Ωm, 1900 Ωm and 760 Ωm. These layers were interpreted as
probably top soil, laterite, weathered basement rock and fairly weathered basement rock. The
average thickness of the overburden was found to be 5.43m
This document discusses coal mining methods, including their advantages and disadvantages. It describes surface mining methods like opencast mining and underground mining techniques. Surface mining is cheaper but has disadvantages like disturbing overburden and creating unstable spoil tips. Underground mining can access deeper seams but is more expensive, inflexible, and dangerous due to risks of gas, dust, fires and roof collapses. The document also outlines the history of coal mining and various techniques used over time.
This document summarizes the 7-year history of the Berkeley Archaeologists at Çatalhöyük (BACH) project excavation of Building 3, a Neolithic structure at Çatalhöyük in Turkey. The BACH project began in 1997 and excavated Building 3 from 1997-2003. Key events included discovering post-Neolithic burials in 1997, excavating the well-preserved roof of Building 3 in 1998, finding possible closure rituals above the final floors in 1999, and discovering the last burial of Building 3, a child in a basket, at the end of the 1999 season. Digital documentation methods like photography, video diaries, and databases were pioneered by the BACH project to
Plate tectonics involves the movement of tectonic plates which form the continents and oceans. This movement is caused by convection currents in the molten rock beneath the plates. As the plates move, they push against each other causing mountains to form. The Earth's core, made of iron and nickel, generates the planet's magnetic field as it rotates, similar to a dynamo. This magnetic field protects the Earth from solar radiation. While plate tectonics and the inner workings of the planet remain mysterious, it continues to shape our world and protect it every day.
Geotechnical Investigation of Soil around Arawa-Kundulum Area of Gombe Town, ...iosrjce
This Project work involves the investigation of soil at Arawa- Kundulum area in Gombe town of
North Eastern Nigeria. The study area is a newly developing part of Gombe town but has been defaced by
cracks on buildings, and this calls for appropriate geotechnical investigation of soils of the area. Soil samples
were collected from eight (8) different locations within the study area. At each trial pit, four (4) samples were
collected at intervals of 0.5m, 1.0m, 1.5m and 2.0m depths below ground level and were investigated for their
Geotechnical properties with a view to classifying for their suitability or otherwise for infrastructural
development. The geotechnical tests carried out on these samples include: Natural moisture content, Specific
gravity, Physico-chemical tests, Particle size distribution (Sieve analysis), Atterberg limits and Compaction
tests. All these tests were carried out using the BS 1377, (1990) Parts 1 - 9 specification. Based on the test
results obtained from the study area, comparison were made with some standard specifications and it was
revealed that the soil samples are clayey soils which are unsuitable for most engineering construction because
they have poor bearing capacities. However from the investigation above, the main geotechnical problems that
affect design and engineering structures are found to be presence of expansive soil composed of silt and clay
with high plasticity index. This soil is therefore not recommended for Engineering purposes. In the event of
siting a building project, the soil should be stabilized before embarking on the project
The document summarizes a study of soil gas and water geochemistry at the Ungaran geothermal field in central Java, Indonesia. Soil gas surveys detected fault systems trending NNE-SSW and WNW-ESE through elevated CO2 and mercury. High mercury concentrations near fumaroles indicate the upflow zone of high temperature geothermal fluids may be located north of the fumaroles. Water chemistry shows thermal springs in the upflow zone are acidic Ca-Mg-SO4 type, while those near fumaroles are Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Ca-(Na)-SO4-HCO3, and those southeast are mixed Na-(Ca)-Cl-(HCO3
Evaluation of groundwater potential of crystalline basement area of kogi stat...Alexander Decker
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Groundwater prospecting and Aquifer Delineation using Vertical Electrical Sou...iosrjce
A total of twenty seven (27) vertical electrical soundings (VES) where carried out on the basement
complex area of Kumbotso Local Government Area of Kano with a spread of 40m-45m adopted. The results
obtained revealed three to four geo-electric layers of the subsurface. The third weathered basement and a forth
fractured basement rock constitutes the Aquiferous water bearing layers with resistivity ranges from 6Ωm -
265Ωm respectively with average thickness of 19m and 15m respectively. The result shows the weathered
regolith to be thicker than the fractured bedrock layer; average depth range of boreholes in the area is between
30m-35m while the average static water levels in dug wells is 8.3m. It is highly recommended that a spread of
between 75-85m be used in the future and also the use of EM method to locate deep fractures as important in
maximizing the borehole yield.
2. J. U. Ngonadi, P. I. Eze-Uzomaka
33
archaeologists in the twentieth century (Lechaptois, 1913, Wyckaert, 1914, Greig, 1937, Robert, 1949, Wise,
1958a, 1958b; Willis, 1966, 1981; Wembah-Rashid, 1969, Mapunda, 1995, 2003, 2010; Barndon, 1992, 2001;
Ngonadi, 2010). The first stage is the primary smelting conducted in three different furnaces: The earliest is the
globular, Katukutu, dated to between 1550 and 1800 AD; the high shaft, Malungu, an impressive 2 - 4 m tall
furnace and the low shaft generally classified as Type C furnaces (Childs, 1991; Kense, 1983), Barongo, are
dated to later than the mid-nineteenth century AD. Brown ores of limonite and hematite were reduced in these
furnaces fuelled by charcoal and green wood. The second stage was the secondary refining carried out in a
smaller forced air draft furnace, ichiteengwe, varying in height of 40 - 50 cm and of the B type. This furnace was
used in order to consolidate the bloom and was operated by three bag bellows of goatskin connected to bamboo
sticks and tuyère made of clay. The third stage was the forging, ukusula, of iron, ulolo, into objects. The forging
was conducted over an open fire or a small three-walled stone forge. The Fipa forge, impeembe, was a grass-
thatched hut located within the village (Mapunda, 1995; Barndon, 1992). Two of the same bellows, umwuuwa,
that were used in the secondary refining furnace were also used during forging (Barndon, 2001: p. 2).
2. Ufipa Iron Smelting Furnaces
Three Malungu furnaces were identified with the kind assistance of Nzei Mlaya at Miangarua village in Mpui
Ward of Sumbawanga District (see Figure 1). Located on the plateau, two of these were complete while the
other furnace had disintegrated. These still standing iron smelting furnaces are about 2.75 - 3.09 m high. In Ku-
kumo village, at the escarpment, we located two still standing Malungu furnaces. The former is located on lati-
tude 08.40854˚S and longitude 031.66304˚E at an elevation of 1922 m above sea level and is 3.09 m high from
the ground surface with an exterior basal diameter of 5.60 m (Ngonadi, 2010, 2011). The latter in Itekesya (or
Itekesha) community is geographically situated within latitude 08.41816˚S and longitude 031.66953˚E, on an
elevation of 1931 m. This was 2.79 m high from the southern corner and 3.17 m from the northern corner with
an exterior basal diameter of 4.95 m. Each furnace had a peep-hole facing east, measuring 3 - 4.5 cm in diameter
with 10 tuyère ports. More so, two visible furnace remains were identified on the surrounding landscape. One
was the remains of kintengwe with evidence of flow slag littered around it (a miniature iron refining furnace)
Figure 1. Map of Sumbawanga district showing the study areas.
3. J. U. Ngonadi, P. I. Eze-Uzomaka
34
found in Vimbwa village (Figure 2). The geographical coordinates of this site which lies on the slope of a hill is
on latitude 08.39919˚S and longitude 031.66690˚E with a ground elevation of 1963 m above sea level. The other
was an Ilungu iron smelting furnace in Kukumo village which lies on latitude 08.40999˚S and longitude
031.66569˚E and on an elevation of 1927 m. Vimbwa refining furnace outcrop which was the first to be seen
and nearest to Miangarua furnace 1 is 5.62 km. Pottery and slag samples were collected from the surface for
identification and analysis, with the aim of understanding the technology and thereby opening up areas for fur-
ther research.
3. Description of Miangarua Site
The site is located on latitude 08.34880˚S and longitude 031.67115˚E and 4.47 km away from the nearest village,
Liapona and is 11.22 km away from Kaengesa Ward bus stand. The site lies on a low hill that forms part of the
foothill of the Sumbawanga folding mountains on Mr. Victor Kapusi’s farm. The slope of the site is to the north
in the direction of a stream, which is 155 m away. The site consists of great distribution quantities of iron slag,
tuyères and tuyère pieces, furnace fragments, two still standing furnaces, one collapsed furnace and other arc-
haeological materials. On the eastern corner of furnace #1, is a mound that was partly dug probably for the con-
struction of mud bricks. Where the furnace had collapsed the furnace base is surrounded by heaps of slag and
tuyère. Human settlement is sparse as four houses can be sited from the surroundings and the area is being ex-
ploited for agricultural and pastoral production. Iron smelting in this area must have been practiced on a full in-
dustrial scale to meet regional demands given the quantity and scatter of metallurgical debris in and around the
site. Surface collection of slag, tuyère fragments, daub and furnace wall debris was gathered, counted, weighed,
recorded and left behind.
Figure 2. Map of Miangarua site showing the contour lines and archaeologi-
cal features mentioned in the text.
4. J. U. Ngonadi, P. I. Eze-Uzomaka
35
4. Malungu Furnace Description
This was a tall, tapering, induced (natural) draught furnace called Ilungu (singular) Malungu (plural) in Swahili
(Figure 3). It measures 2.71 m from the eastern side and 2.41 m from the western side from ground to top but
measured 3.09 m after excavation. The difference in height can be due to soil deposition from the western corner
of the furnace as a result of erosion action or digging the mound close to the furnace for soil for construction of
mud bricks as evidenced in the vicinity. The outside diameter of the furnace from the southern tuyère port to the
northern tuyère port measures 170 cm. The exterior from the eastern tuyère port to the western tuyère port
measures 142 cm while the interior diameter of the furnace running from the southern tuyère port to the northern
tuyère port measures 142 cm and from the eastern to the western tuyère port, it measures 136 cm. The outside
circumference of the furnace above the tip of the tuyère openings measures 500 cm, 310 cm, 287 cm, 252 cm,
and 223 cm and then thins away to the tip measuring 170 cm. The width of the furnace wall from the broken part
on the northern corner measures 13 cm and thins out to the top. Some tuyères retrieved through excavation showed
heavy encrusting with vitreous slag both on the inside and the outside. This is an indication that the tuyères were
used for slag taping.
The exterior surface of the furnace was rough but it seemed like it was initially smoothened or plastered but
became worn-out with time. The furnace interior was highly vitrified or melted, and the walls also show signs of
superimposed rings of clay during construction. A hole popularly referred to as a peephole, which we disagree
with, given the temperature inside the furnace, measuring 103 - 111 cm from the ground surface was located on
the eastern corner of the furnace with an internal diameter of 7.2 cm. The furnace possesses 10 tuyère ports in-
tact with spacing between 27 and 37 cm. The height of the tuyère apertures ranges from 13 - 35 cm.
Figure 3. A view of the partly damaged Malungu furnace that was excavated.
Photo: Ngonadi John Uche (2010).
5. J. U. Ngonadi, P. I. Eze-Uzomaka
36
5. Excavation: Methods and Stratigraphy
A grid of 2 × 5 sq. m blocks was laid out over furnace #1. The inside and outside of the furnace was excavated
as sub-units. Excavation followed an arbitrary level of 5 cm in the interior of the furnace and 10 cm on the exte-
rior of the furnace. After leveling from surface to 35 cm given the deposition of furnace wall fragments in the
interior (F1#1), an arbitrary level of 5 cm was adopted and excavation continued to a depth of 70 cm. The sub-
datum point was established 50 cm from the southeastern peg of furnace 1 Unit 2 (F1#2) and was leveled from 0
cm - 70 cm given the sloping of the hill (Figure 4 shows a schematic description of the trench) and excavated at
an arbitrary level of 10 cm to a depth of 90 cm. Before excavation, the depths of the four coordinates of F1#2
are: NE—70 cm (08.34877˚S, 031.67117˚E), NW—70 cm (08.34873˚S, 031.67119˚E), SE—0 cm (08.34875˚S,
031.67124˚E), and SW—32 cm (08.34878˚S, 031.67116˚E). Given the fragile nature of the furnace, a 5 cm
amount of soil was left in and around the furnace to avoid collapsing. Evidence of iron slag was more pro-
nounced on the northwestern side of the furnace confirming the initial suggestion of slag tapping. The soils from
the excavation were screened using a 4.5 mm wire mesh to trap small archaeological materials such as slag
beads and the soil identified using a Munsell soil colour chart.
The interior (F1#1) of the furnace presented below showed interestingly an overlapping and interchangeable
soil colours and archaeological deposits.
Level 1: (0 - 35 cm) 2.5YR 4/6 Red, 7.5YR 5/8 Strong brown and 10YR 6/6 Brownish yellow. It produced
great number of charcoal and slag with little tuyère debris.
Level 2: (35 - 40 cm) 2.5YR 3/6 Dark red, 2.5YR 5/6 Light olive brown and 7.5YR 3/4 Dark brown. Two
holes became visible with lots of slag and charcoal.
Level 3: (40 - 45 cm) 10YR 5/2 Grayish brown, 10YR Light yellowish brown and 10YR 6/6 Brownish yellow.
Change in soil colour and decrease in tuyère fragments.
Level 4: (45 - 50 cm) 10YR 3/1 Very dark gray, 10YR 5/1 Gray, 10YR 5/2 Grayish brown and 10YR 6/8
Brownish yellow. The floor at this level was hard fired, compact and produced the highest number of slag.
Level 5: (50 - 55 cm) 2.5YR 4/6 Red and 10YR 5/2 Grayish brown. Presence of charred wood measuring 17
cm - 25 cm from the south, east and western corner of the furnace.
Level 6: (55 - 60 cm) 2.5YR 3/6 Dark red and 5YR 5/1 Gray. More logs of burnt wood in a bed-like position,
like a foundation.
Level 7: (60 - 65 cm) 5YR 4/4 Reddish brown. Decrease in slag, charcoal and charred wood.
Level 8: (65 - 70 cm) 2.5YR 4/6 Red. Change in soil colour and disappearance of cultural materials.
A wall profile (Figure 5) was drawn on the exterior (F1#2) of the furnace oriented on the southern wall run-
ning from SE-SW. The stratigraphic sequence contains tuyère fragments and slag and was made up of 4 layers
Figure 4. Schematic reconstruction of the Trench in Miangarua Site.
6. J. U. Ngonadi, P. I. Eze-Uzomaka
37
(see Figure 6). The first layer, the topsoil was grayish brown (10YR 5/2). The second layer was dark brown—
sandy clay (7.5YR 3/4) while the third layer was reddish brown-sandy silt (5YR 4/4). Finally, the fourth layer,
which was the sterile layer, was red in colour-sandy silt (2.5YR 4/6). The first three layers showed no natural
layering but were very disturbed by rootlets.
6. Discussion
The physical attributes examination of the iron smelting slag retrieved through excavation was done using Ma-
punda’s (2006) model with modifications. Slag with shared attributes were grouped as compound samples and
analyzed as one entity. The attributes are: volume (in cc), weight (in g), density (in g/cc), morphology/shape,
thermal condition, luster, porosity, magnetism, colour/streak, impression/inclusion, fragmentation, weathering,
raw material and surface condition. Together with volume, weight indicates the type of technological process
employed. Evidence shows that smelting slag is generally more massive and heavier than refining or smithing
slag. This is because the former contains more iron than the latter. Slag excavated from the furnace is smaller
and fist-sized chunks compared to the heavier chunks collected from the surface around the furnace, which is a
clear evidence of iron slag tapping technology. The volumes of the slag are expected from an iron smelting fur-
naces of this size and suggest the furnace reuse hypothesis. The thermal condition of the slag samples indicate a
Figure 5. The exterior of the excavated trench in Miangarua site (F1#2).
Photo: Ngonadi John Uche (2010).
Figure 6. Southern wall profile of F1#2, Miangarua Site.
7. J. U. Ngonadi, P. I. Eze-Uzomaka
38
high frequency of molten slag technology resulted from metallurgical processes as opposed to natural processes.
Four attributes were used to determine luster (ceramic, glass, metallic, greasy) and Malungu technology shows
high metallic luster and the frequency of porosity is nil. Magnetism reading was used to determine whether the
slag is ferrous or nonferrous and efficiency of the reduction technique—the higher the magnetic attraction the
higher the content of iron (whether metallic or oxide) present in the slag and vice versa. The iron slag possess
low rate of magnetism, which indicates efficient smelting technology practiced on the plateau. Malungu furnaces are
constructed using tertiary clay, sited very far from residential area and are not more than 300m away from a wa-
ter source.
A total of 1157 complete tuyères (measuring 18 - 22 cm) and tuyère fragments were retrieved with smooth
surfaces, clay texture and sand as the tempering material (for summary see Table 1). The internal diameter
ranges from 3.4 - 4.2 cm and the external diameter are 6.1 - 7.6 cm with a thickness of 2 - 2.9 cm. Tuyère from
this technology has heavy slag coating. A good quantity of charcoal and bark wood strips from minute particles
to pieces measuring 17 - 25 cm at the base of the furnace was noted. These wooden strips are ritual medicine,
vizimba, made at the center of Malungu furnaces to ensure the success of the smelt. Sometimes it is to protect
against otherwise uncontrollable, sinister forces that might harm the smelt (Schmidt & Avery, 1983, Davison &
Mosley, 1988). Small pieces of stone and two hammer stones were excavated. This and other abraded stones
might have been used during ore preparation and later after smelt, discarded and thrown into the furnace (Ma-
punda pers. comm. 2010) as against being a Later Stone Age material. The potsherds retrieved from excavation
are burnished body sherds that seem to represent only a few vessels, presumably vessels used by the smelters for
storing water and food.
7. Conclusion
The method used in arriving at the results of this investigation is based on physical observation that is usually a
researcher’s first line of judgment in the field before the choice of laboratory re-examination is conducted. The
results for this study reveal that the Fipa used two different clay colour, reddish brown and dark brown and two
different furnace morphology. As mentioned above, Malungu furnaces are sited very far from residential areas
for security and concentration among the smelters in order to avoid distraction of any sort, be it sexual or family
responsibility, as their energy is important for the success of the smelt. Since one of the purposes of excavation
was to examine the furnace interior, learn about the height, deposition of metallurgical materials and the type of
ritual practices obtainable. The furnace interior shows rings of slag encrusting evidence of furnace reuse. The
slag from this study shows that Malungu produced heavy and very big slag with evidence of flow marks and a
high frequency of metallic luster. It also has a low rate of magnetism; an indication that the smelting technology
employed can correctly be rated as efficient. Vizimba was identified at center of the furnace interior at levels 50 - 60
cm—showing evidence of ritual practice. Ethnographic and archaeological studies indicate that medicines were
used almost universally to ensure the success of smelting. In most cases, usually these were organic materials,
each ingredient perhaps symbolizing some property to be transferred to the firing process or the product (Davi-
son & Mosley, 1988).
It has been argued (Humphris et al., 2007) that the slag deposited on the landscape as well as its contents is
not necessarily based on the composition of its formation processes in the furnace but based on human decisions.
Such choices during smelting processes or pattern include the inclusion of fluxing materials, which may have
Table 1. Summary of materials recovered and their weights.
Slag Slagy Tuyère
Tuyère/
Tuyère
Fragments
Charcoal/
Burnt Wood
Furnace Wall
Debris
Lithics Potsherds Daub
Surface
Collection
1781 215 441 0 42 0 4 0
Furnace Interior
(F1#2)
3023 32 52 997 119 8 3 9
Furnace
Exterior (F1#2)
1175 66 351 0 9 4 6 15
Weight (kg) 661.9 225.6 32.3 3 471.2 5 - -
8. J. U. Ngonadi, P. I. Eze-Uzomaka
39
had indirect contribution to the formation of the resultant slag. The degree of reduction is a function of fuel-to-
ore ratios and airflow through the furnace; both parameters are directly controlled first by the furnace design,
and then the head smelter during the smelt, etc. Similarly, the addition of quartz sand as a flux in smelting ex-
tremely rich magnetite ore must have evolved in some way.
Acknowledgements
The material published in this paper formed part of a Master of Arts dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements of the degree of MA in Archaeology at the University of Dar es Salaam funded by SIDA/
SAREC through African Archaeology Network. The authors are grateful to Professor Bertram Mapunda and
Professor Felix Chami for their various contributions.
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