The document provides information about adrenal hormones including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, catecholamines, and sex steroids. It discusses the structure and function of the adrenal glands, hormone synthesis pathways, mechanisms of action, regulation, effects of abnormalities, and laboratory testing. The objectives are to identify major adrenal hormones, explain their functions and abnormalities, and understand the mechanisms of action of adrenal steroid hormones.
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that sit at the top of the kidneys. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline. They also produce androgens in their innermost cortical layer. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, and recent data (1998) suggest that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within normal adrenal glands, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
This document provides information about hormones produced by the adrenal glands and hypothalamus-pituitary axis. It discusses the major adrenal hormones including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, catecholamines, and sex steroids. For each hormone, it describes the site of production, regulation, effects, abnormalities of hypo- and hypersecretion, and laboratory tests. It also summarizes the female and male sex hormones produced by the ovaries and testes, as well as placental hormones critical during pregnancy.
This document contains exam questions for a Biochemistry II course covering topics such as factors influencing laboratory examination results, enzyme assays, glucose regulation, lipids and lipoproteins, cholesterol metabolism, metabolic relationships between organs, and protein metabolism. It includes 10 multiple choice or short answer questions.
1. Graves disease and Hashimoto's disease are autoimmune diseases that affect the thyroid gland. Graves disease causes hyperthyroidism by overactivating the thyroid, while Hashimoto's causes hypothyroidism by underactivating it. Signs and symptoms differ accordingly.
2. Hormones act through push-me pull-you systems to maintain homeostasis. Examples include calcium regulation by parathyroid hormone and catecholamine release in response to the sympathetic nervous system.
3. The document defines and provides examples of different modes of hormone action: autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, and endocrine. It also describes the major hormone precursors and the types of hormones they
The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and have two functional parts - the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones that each secrete different hormones. The medulla secretes catecholamines like epinephrine. These hormones work together and with the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis to regulate processes like glucose metabolism, immune function, and the stress response. Stress can stimulate the adrenals to secrete glucocorticoids and other hormones to mobilize energy and resources in the body.
The adrenal glands produce important steroid hormones including cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens. Disorders can result from too much or too little production of these hormones. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is caused by enzyme deficiencies that cause excessive androgen production. Cushing's disease is caused by a pituitary tumor that overproduces ACTH, leading to excessive cortisol levels. Addison's disease results from primary adrenal failure or secondary ACTH deficiency, causing low cortisol levels. Laboratory tests evaluate cortisol levels and response to stimulation to diagnose these adrenal disorders.
The document discusses steroid hormones, their biosynthesis from cholesterol, and their classification. It describes that steroid hormones are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and secreted as mineralocorticoids like aldosterone, glucocorticoids like cortisol, and sex hormones. The document also discusses the roles of various steroid hormones, conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease, and the use of steroids in treatment. It provides details on the enzymatic processes involved in steroid hormone synthesis and factors that influence their activities.
The document discusses hormone signal transduction pathways. It defines hormones as chemical messengers that target specific cells. There are four major modes of intracellular signal transduction: synaptic, paracrine, autocrine, and endocrine. The endocrine system includes endocrine glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones can be steroid hormones derived from cholesterol or non-steroid hormones like proteins and peptides. Hormones bind to intracellular or cell surface receptors and trigger second messenger pathways that alter cellular activity. Common second messengers include cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP. The document outlines several classes of cell surface receptors like G-protein coupled receptors and enzyme-linked receptors and their roles in signal transduction.
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that sit at the top of the kidneys. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline. They also produce androgens in their innermost cortical layer. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, and recent data (1998) suggest that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within normal adrenal glands, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
This document provides information about hormones produced by the adrenal glands and hypothalamus-pituitary axis. It discusses the major adrenal hormones including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, catecholamines, and sex steroids. For each hormone, it describes the site of production, regulation, effects, abnormalities of hypo- and hypersecretion, and laboratory tests. It also summarizes the female and male sex hormones produced by the ovaries and testes, as well as placental hormones critical during pregnancy.
This document contains exam questions for a Biochemistry II course covering topics such as factors influencing laboratory examination results, enzyme assays, glucose regulation, lipids and lipoproteins, cholesterol metabolism, metabolic relationships between organs, and protein metabolism. It includes 10 multiple choice or short answer questions.
1. Graves disease and Hashimoto's disease are autoimmune diseases that affect the thyroid gland. Graves disease causes hyperthyroidism by overactivating the thyroid, while Hashimoto's causes hypothyroidism by underactivating it. Signs and symptoms differ accordingly.
2. Hormones act through push-me pull-you systems to maintain homeostasis. Examples include calcium regulation by parathyroid hormone and catecholamine release in response to the sympathetic nervous system.
3. The document defines and provides examples of different modes of hormone action: autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, and endocrine. It also describes the major hormone precursors and the types of hormones they
The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and have two functional parts - the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones that each secrete different hormones. The medulla secretes catecholamines like epinephrine. These hormones work together and with the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis to regulate processes like glucose metabolism, immune function, and the stress response. Stress can stimulate the adrenals to secrete glucocorticoids and other hormones to mobilize energy and resources in the body.
The adrenal glands produce important steroid hormones including cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens. Disorders can result from too much or too little production of these hormones. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is caused by enzyme deficiencies that cause excessive androgen production. Cushing's disease is caused by a pituitary tumor that overproduces ACTH, leading to excessive cortisol levels. Addison's disease results from primary adrenal failure or secondary ACTH deficiency, causing low cortisol levels. Laboratory tests evaluate cortisol levels and response to stimulation to diagnose these adrenal disorders.
The document discusses steroid hormones, their biosynthesis from cholesterol, and their classification. It describes that steroid hormones are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and secreted as mineralocorticoids like aldosterone, glucocorticoids like cortisol, and sex hormones. The document also discusses the roles of various steroid hormones, conditions like Cushing's syndrome and Addison's disease, and the use of steroids in treatment. It provides details on the enzymatic processes involved in steroid hormone synthesis and factors that influence their activities.
The document discusses hormone signal transduction pathways. It defines hormones as chemical messengers that target specific cells. There are four major modes of intracellular signal transduction: synaptic, paracrine, autocrine, and endocrine. The endocrine system includes endocrine glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones can be steroid hormones derived from cholesterol or non-steroid hormones like proteins and peptides. Hormones bind to intracellular or cell surface receptors and trigger second messenger pathways that alter cellular activity. Common second messengers include cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP. The document outlines several classes of cell surface receptors like G-protein coupled receptors and enzyme-linked receptors and their roles in signal transduction.
The document discusses adrenal glands and their hormones. It describes the location and structure of the adrenal glands and their two components - the medulla and cortex. The cortex contains three zones (glomerulosa, fasciculata, and reticularis) that each secrete different hormones such as aldosterone, cortisol, and DHEA. It also discusses the synthesis of adrenal hormones from cholesterol, regulated by the HPA axis in response to stress. Glucocorticoids like cortisol help maintain blood glucose and metabolism during stress.
in this slide u are able to well known about the introduction of hormones.
categories, classification, function, structure, regulation, location, mechanism of action, how hormone regulates our body function, how it maintains the homeostasis condition.
structure of hormones.
The document discusses the anatomy, embryology, histology, functions and pathologies of the adrenal glands. It covers the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex (cortisol, aldosterone) and medulla (epinephrine, norepinephrine), their roles and regulatory pathways. Key conditions discussed include Cushing's syndrome, Conn's syndrome, Addison's disease and pheochromocytoma. The synthesis, actions and metabolism of adrenal hormones are summarized along with tests used in diagnosis of adrenal disorders.
The document discusses corticosteroids, including their history, physiology, regulation, classification, mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic uses, interactions, adverse reactions and contraindications. Corticosteroids are steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that regulate a wide range of physiologic systems such as carbohydrate metabolism, immune function and electrolyte balance. They have many therapeutic uses including replacement therapy for adrenal insufficiency, treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions.
The adrenal glands are located above each kidney and are vital organs that produce hormones. They have two parts - the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The cortex secretes corticosteroids like mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones. It synthesizes these hormones from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic reactions in the mitochondria. The medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine which assist the sympathetic nervous system. Corticosteroids are transported through the bloodstream bound to carrier proteins and degraded mainly in the liver before excretion.
This lecture introduces hormones, including their classification, synthesis, secretion, transport, and measurement. Hormones are chemical substances secreted into the bloodstream that influence target cells. They are classified by chemical structure as proteins/polypeptides, steroids, or derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine. Hormones act through receptor binding and intracellular signaling to regulate processes like homeostasis, growth, development, and reproduction. Their effects are modulated by feedback loops and vary over daily/seasonal cycles. Measurement techniques include bioassays, radioimmunoassays, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays.
The document discusses adrenocorticosteroids and their uses. It describes the adrenal glands and hormones they produce, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens. It outlines the therapeutic uses of adrenocorticosteroids in treating adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, inflammatory disorders, and more. Side effects are noted if used long-term or withdrawn abruptly.
The document discusses adrenocorticosteroids and their uses. It describes the adrenal glands and hormones they produce, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens. It outlines the therapeutic uses of adrenocorticosteroids in treating adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, inflammatory disorders, and more. Side effects are noted if used long-term or withdrawn abruptly.
The document discusses adrenocorticosteroids and their uses. It describes the adrenal glands and hormones they produce, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens. It outlines the therapeutic uses of adrenocorticosteroids in treating adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, inflammatory disorders, and more. Side effects are also summarized.
The adrenal glands produce important hormones including cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenal androgens. Each gland is composed of an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex is divided into three zones producing different hormones. The zona glomerulosa produces mineralocorticoids like aldosterone. The zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids like cortisol. The zona reticularis produces small amounts of sex hormones. Disorders of the adrenal glands can cause too little or too much production of these hormones, leading to diseases like Addison's disease or Cushing's syndrome with their associated signs and symptoms.
ACTH is a polypeptide hormone released by the anterior pituitary gland that controls secretions of the adrenal cortex. CRH from the hypothalamus stimulates production and release of ACTH. The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones that synthesize and secrete different types of steroids: mineralocorticoids in the outer zone, glucocorticoids in the middle zone, and adrenal androgens in the inner zone. Glucocorticoids such as cortisol are involved in metabolism and stress response and have anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects.
The adrenal glands consist of an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone and glucocorticoids like cortisol. The medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenal insufficiency can be primary, secondary, or tertiary and results in low cortisol levels. Addison's disease is primary adrenal insufficiency caused by destruction of the adrenal cortex. It causes symptoms like fatigue, weight loss, and hypoglycemia due to low cortisol and mineralocorticoid deficiencies.
This document summarizes an evaluation seminar on cell signaling and signal transduction pathways presented by Mrutyunjay B Bellad of the Department of Pharmacology at H.S.K. College of Pharmacy in Bagalkot. The seminar covered various topics related to cell signaling including introduction, types of cell signaling, signal molecules and their actions, signaling through different receptor types, second messengers, G-protein coupled receptors, and signal transduction pathways. References included standard pharmacology textbooks.
The adrenal gland is located on top of each kidney and is composed of an outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex secretes three main types of hormones: mineralocorticoids like aldosterone, glucocorticoids like cortisol, and androgens. Aldosterone regulates sodium and potassium levels while cortisol regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism and has anti-inflammatory effects. Both aldosterone and cortisol secretion are regulated by the renin-angiotensin system and ACTH from the pituitary gland.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the endocrine system in 3 paragraphs or less.
The endocrine system communicates regulatory messages within the body using hormones, which are chemical signals secreted into the bloodstream. It works alongside the nervous system, with some chemicals serving as both hormones and neurotransmitters. Hormones bind to receptors to elicit physiological responses through various signaling pathways and feedback loops.
The major glands of the endocrine system and their hormones are described. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland form a key regulatory axis, with the hypothalamus controlling the pituitary which releases hormones that target other glands. Glands release hormones that control processes like metabolism, development, and responses to stress.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the endocrine system in 3 paragraphs or less.
The endocrine system communicates regulatory messages within the body using hormones, which are chemical signals secreted into the bloodstream. It works alongside the nervous system, with some chemicals serving as both hormones and neurotransmitters. Hormones bind to receptors to elicit physiological responses through feedback loops.
Major glands of the endocrine system include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain, which regulate other glands. The thyroid and parathyroid glands control calcium and metabolism. The pancreas regulates blood sugar through insulin and glucagon. The adrenal glands and gonads produce hormones for stress response and sexual development
This document summarizes plasma proteins and immunoglobulins. It discusses that plasma is composed of water, electrolytes, nutrients, wastes, and plasma proteins. The major plasma proteins include albumin, globulins, and immunoglobulins. Albumin is the most abundant plasma protein and serves important functions like transport and maintenance of osmotic pressure. Globulins include acute phase proteins, ceruloplasmin, transferrin, and others. Immunoglobulins are antibody proteins that are involved in immune responses through antigen binding and activating effector functions. The five major immunoglobulin classes are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE.
This document discusses enzymes and their role in diagnosing diseases. It notes that enzymes can act as diagnostic markers for underlying diseases and as reagents for biochemical estimations. It focuses on functional and nonfunctional plasma enzymes, noting that the latter arise from cell destruction. Increased or decreased levels of certain enzymes can indicate tissue damage or diseases. The document then discusses specific enzymes - creatine phosphokinase, aspartate transaminase, lactate dehydrogenase - that are measured to diagnose acute myocardial infarction. It provides details on normal values, time courses of elevation, and prognostic significance for using these enzymes to detect heart attacks.
Steroids act by entering cells and binding to steroid receptors. There are five main types of steroids classified by the receptors they bind to, including glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex. Steroid receptors are ligand-activated nuclear receptor proteins that form dimers and regulate gene transcription by binding to DNA. Long term or high dose glucocorticoid use can lead to adverse effects such as diabetes, osteoporosis, immunosuppression, and cataracts as demonstrated by a case study of a 55-year-old patient with a history of asthma who developed multiple health issues from prolonged betamethasone use.
Travel Clinic Cardiff: Health Advice for International TravelersNX Healthcare
Travel Clinic Cardiff offers comprehensive travel health services, including vaccinations, travel advice, and preventive care for international travelers. Our expert team ensures you are well-prepared and protected for your journey, providing personalized consultations tailored to your destination. Conveniently located in Cardiff, we help you travel with confidence and peace of mind. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
The document discusses adrenal glands and their hormones. It describes the location and structure of the adrenal glands and their two components - the medulla and cortex. The cortex contains three zones (glomerulosa, fasciculata, and reticularis) that each secrete different hormones such as aldosterone, cortisol, and DHEA. It also discusses the synthesis of adrenal hormones from cholesterol, regulated by the HPA axis in response to stress. Glucocorticoids like cortisol help maintain blood glucose and metabolism during stress.
in this slide u are able to well known about the introduction of hormones.
categories, classification, function, structure, regulation, location, mechanism of action, how hormone regulates our body function, how it maintains the homeostasis condition.
structure of hormones.
The document discusses the anatomy, embryology, histology, functions and pathologies of the adrenal glands. It covers the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex (cortisol, aldosterone) and medulla (epinephrine, norepinephrine), their roles and regulatory pathways. Key conditions discussed include Cushing's syndrome, Conn's syndrome, Addison's disease and pheochromocytoma. The synthesis, actions and metabolism of adrenal hormones are summarized along with tests used in diagnosis of adrenal disorders.
The document discusses corticosteroids, including their history, physiology, regulation, classification, mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic uses, interactions, adverse reactions and contraindications. Corticosteroids are steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that regulate a wide range of physiologic systems such as carbohydrate metabolism, immune function and electrolyte balance. They have many therapeutic uses including replacement therapy for adrenal insufficiency, treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune conditions.
The adrenal glands are located above each kidney and are vital organs that produce hormones. They have two parts - the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The cortex secretes corticosteroids like mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones. It synthesizes these hormones from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic reactions in the mitochondria. The medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine which assist the sympathetic nervous system. Corticosteroids are transported through the bloodstream bound to carrier proteins and degraded mainly in the liver before excretion.
This lecture introduces hormones, including their classification, synthesis, secretion, transport, and measurement. Hormones are chemical substances secreted into the bloodstream that influence target cells. They are classified by chemical structure as proteins/polypeptides, steroids, or derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine. Hormones act through receptor binding and intracellular signaling to regulate processes like homeostasis, growth, development, and reproduction. Their effects are modulated by feedback loops and vary over daily/seasonal cycles. Measurement techniques include bioassays, radioimmunoassays, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays.
The document discusses adrenocorticosteroids and their uses. It describes the adrenal glands and hormones they produce, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens. It outlines the therapeutic uses of adrenocorticosteroids in treating adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, inflammatory disorders, and more. Side effects are noted if used long-term or withdrawn abruptly.
The document discusses adrenocorticosteroids and their uses. It describes the adrenal glands and hormones they produce, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens. It outlines the therapeutic uses of adrenocorticosteroids in treating adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, inflammatory disorders, and more. Side effects are noted if used long-term or withdrawn abruptly.
The document discusses adrenocorticosteroids and their uses. It describes the adrenal glands and hormones they produce, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens. It outlines the therapeutic uses of adrenocorticosteroids in treating adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, inflammatory disorders, and more. Side effects are also summarized.
The adrenal glands produce important hormones including cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenal androgens. Each gland is composed of an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex is divided into three zones producing different hormones. The zona glomerulosa produces mineralocorticoids like aldosterone. The zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids like cortisol. The zona reticularis produces small amounts of sex hormones. Disorders of the adrenal glands can cause too little or too much production of these hormones, leading to diseases like Addison's disease or Cushing's syndrome with their associated signs and symptoms.
ACTH is a polypeptide hormone released by the anterior pituitary gland that controls secretions of the adrenal cortex. CRH from the hypothalamus stimulates production and release of ACTH. The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones that synthesize and secrete different types of steroids: mineralocorticoids in the outer zone, glucocorticoids in the middle zone, and adrenal androgens in the inner zone. Glucocorticoids such as cortisol are involved in metabolism and stress response and have anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects.
The adrenal glands consist of an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone and glucocorticoids like cortisol. The medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenal insufficiency can be primary, secondary, or tertiary and results in low cortisol levels. Addison's disease is primary adrenal insufficiency caused by destruction of the adrenal cortex. It causes symptoms like fatigue, weight loss, and hypoglycemia due to low cortisol and mineralocorticoid deficiencies.
This document summarizes an evaluation seminar on cell signaling and signal transduction pathways presented by Mrutyunjay B Bellad of the Department of Pharmacology at H.S.K. College of Pharmacy in Bagalkot. The seminar covered various topics related to cell signaling including introduction, types of cell signaling, signal molecules and their actions, signaling through different receptor types, second messengers, G-protein coupled receptors, and signal transduction pathways. References included standard pharmacology textbooks.
The adrenal gland is located on top of each kidney and is composed of an outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex secretes three main types of hormones: mineralocorticoids like aldosterone, glucocorticoids like cortisol, and androgens. Aldosterone regulates sodium and potassium levels while cortisol regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism and has anti-inflammatory effects. Both aldosterone and cortisol secretion are regulated by the renin-angiotensin system and ACTH from the pituitary gland.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the endocrine system in 3 paragraphs or less.
The endocrine system communicates regulatory messages within the body using hormones, which are chemical signals secreted into the bloodstream. It works alongside the nervous system, with some chemicals serving as both hormones and neurotransmitters. Hormones bind to receptors to elicit physiological responses through various signaling pathways and feedback loops.
The major glands of the endocrine system and their hormones are described. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland form a key regulatory axis, with the hypothalamus controlling the pituitary which releases hormones that target other glands. Glands release hormones that control processes like metabolism, development, and responses to stress.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the endocrine system in 3 paragraphs or less.
The endocrine system communicates regulatory messages within the body using hormones, which are chemical signals secreted into the bloodstream. It works alongside the nervous system, with some chemicals serving as both hormones and neurotransmitters. Hormones bind to receptors to elicit physiological responses through feedback loops.
Major glands of the endocrine system include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain, which regulate other glands. The thyroid and parathyroid glands control calcium and metabolism. The pancreas regulates blood sugar through insulin and glucagon. The adrenal glands and gonads produce hormones for stress response and sexual development
This document summarizes plasma proteins and immunoglobulins. It discusses that plasma is composed of water, electrolytes, nutrients, wastes, and plasma proteins. The major plasma proteins include albumin, globulins, and immunoglobulins. Albumin is the most abundant plasma protein and serves important functions like transport and maintenance of osmotic pressure. Globulins include acute phase proteins, ceruloplasmin, transferrin, and others. Immunoglobulins are antibody proteins that are involved in immune responses through antigen binding and activating effector functions. The five major immunoglobulin classes are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE.
This document discusses enzymes and their role in diagnosing diseases. It notes that enzymes can act as diagnostic markers for underlying diseases and as reagents for biochemical estimations. It focuses on functional and nonfunctional plasma enzymes, noting that the latter arise from cell destruction. Increased or decreased levels of certain enzymes can indicate tissue damage or diseases. The document then discusses specific enzymes - creatine phosphokinase, aspartate transaminase, lactate dehydrogenase - that are measured to diagnose acute myocardial infarction. It provides details on normal values, time courses of elevation, and prognostic significance for using these enzymes to detect heart attacks.
Steroids act by entering cells and binding to steroid receptors. There are five main types of steroids classified by the receptors they bind to, including glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex. Steroid receptors are ligand-activated nuclear receptor proteins that form dimers and regulate gene transcription by binding to DNA. Long term or high dose glucocorticoid use can lead to adverse effects such as diabetes, osteoporosis, immunosuppression, and cataracts as demonstrated by a case study of a 55-year-old patient with a history of asthma who developed multiple health issues from prolonged betamethasone use.
Travel Clinic Cardiff: Health Advice for International TravelersNX Healthcare
Travel Clinic Cardiff offers comprehensive travel health services, including vaccinations, travel advice, and preventive care for international travelers. Our expert team ensures you are well-prepared and protected for your journey, providing personalized consultations tailored to your destination. Conveniently located in Cardiff, we help you travel with confidence and peace of mind. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
Are you looking for a long-lasting solution to your missing tooth?
Dental implants are the most common type of method for replacing the missing tooth. Unlike dentures or bridges, implants are surgically placed in the jawbone. In layman’s terms, a dental implant is similar to the natural root of the tooth. It offers a stable foundation for the artificial tooth giving it the look, feel, and function similar to the natural tooth.
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
The skin is the largest organ and its health plays a vital role among the other sense organs. The skin concerns like acne breakout, psoriasis, or anything similar along the lines, finding a qualified and experienced dermatologist becomes paramount.
Know the difference between Endodontics and Orthodontics.Gokuldas Hospital
Your smile is beautiful.
Let’s be honest. Maintaining that beautiful smile is not an easy task. It is more than brushing and flossing. Sometimes, you might encounter dental issues that need special dental care. These issues can range anywhere from misalignment of the jaw to pain in the root of teeth.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
1. Jimma University
institute Of Health Sciences
Department Of Biochemistry
Course Title: Hormone $ Bio Signaling
Seminal Presentation on- Hypothalamus $ Pituitary H
By: Abdlhafiz kasim ID RM0879/15-0
Submitted to:Instructor Tesfaye( MSC )
5/8/2023 1
2. Objectives
• At the end of this chapter the students will able to:
– Identify some of the major Adrenal hormone
– List and explain the hormones of adrenal hormones along
with their abnormalities
– Understanding the mechanism action of adrenal steroid
hormones
5/8/2023 2
3. Adrenal glands
Adrenal glands: two small, triangular-shaped glands located at the
upper portion of each kidney
It is composed of an outer cortex and an inner medulla
Outer cortex
Outermost zona glomerulosa: Synthesis site of
mineralocorticoids
Central zona fasciculata: Synthesis site of glucocorticoids
Inner zona reticularis: Synthesis site of adrenal sex steroid
hormones
Inner medulla: Synthesis site of catecholamines.
5/8/2023 3
5. Adrenal cortical steroid synthesis
The adrenal cortical steroid hormones are derived from the
cholesterol via a branched metabolic pathway
5/8/2023 5
6. 1.Glucocorticoid (Cortisol)
Cortisol is the principal glucocorticoids.
Target organ - every cell of the body
Effects
Regulation of carbohydrate, protein and lipid
metabolism; maintenance of blood pressure and
suppression of the immune response
General characteristics
Steroids, lipid-soluble, protein bound, slow effects
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7. Regulation of cortisol secretion
Hypothalamic regulation: it produces cortico-tropin releasing
factor(CRF).
Pituitary regulation: it produces ACTH in response to CRF
Negative feed-back: cortisol has direct –ve feed back effect on
hypothalamus to decrease CRF & on pituitary to decrease secretion
of ACTH.
Effect of physiological stress on ACTH secretion: Physical & mental
stress can lead to increase cortisol secretion within minutes via
increase ACTH.
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9. Mechanism Of Action
All of the steroids act primarily at the level of cell nucleus (‘nuclear’
action) to increase m-RNA synthesis and increased protein
synthesis.
The first step occurs within minutes, which involves the binding of
the steroids to a corresponding specific receptor protein present in
cytosol.
Glucocorticoids pass into target cells through plasma membrane and
binds to specific glucocorticoid.
receptor protein present in cytosol. The receptors occur in a wide
variety of target tissues, viz. liver,
muscles, adipose tissue,
lymphoid tissue,
skin,
bone,
fibroblasts, etc.
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10. In humans, there are two types of receptor proteins:
1 α form: Containing approx 777 amino acids
2 β form: Having 742 amino acids.
Both differ in amino acid sequence in the C- terminal
end. The receptor molecule has three distinct domains:
I. A steroid binding domain near c-terminus
II. A DNA binding domain near the middle of the molecule
in c-terminal half, and
III. A transcription-activating domain near the N terminal
side. A heat-shock protein, hap 90, binds to the receptor
in the absence of hormone and prevents folding into the
active conformation of the receptor protein.
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11. Glucocorticoids binds to the specific receptor in cytosol
to steroid-binding site.
This binding causes dissociation of the “hsp 90” stabiliser
and permits conversion to the active configuration.
The steroid-receptor complex enters the nucleus, and
bind by DNA-binding site to the Hormone responsive
element (HRE) of specific nuclear genes. This
modulates the transcription rate of those genes, leading
to increased synthesis of many proteins and enzymes
and also to decreased synthesis of some proteins like
corticotrophin.
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12. Glucocorticoid transport
The lipid-soluble glucocorticoids are transported in circulation
bound to carrier proteins
Cortisol is 90-97% protein-bound
Cortisol-binding globulin (CBG) – major transport
protein
Albumin
Sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG)
Conditions that change the level of binding protein affect the
level of total hormone, but not of the biologically active free
hormone
Causes of increased CBG
Estrogen, hyperthyroidism, etc.
Causes of decreased CBG
Malnutrition, chronic liver disease, etc.
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13. Hypersecretion of cortisol
Cushing’s syndrome
Clinical disorder that result from supraphysiological level of
cortisol in the circulation (hypercorticortisolism)
The cause can be primary to the adrenal cortex (adrenal
adenoma in carcinoma) secondary to overproduction of
ACTH (pituitary adenoma) or an ectopic carcinoma that
produce ACTH, eg carcinoma of the lung.
The diagnosis is confirmed by dexamethasone suppression
test.
Plasma ACTH levels are low in primary adrenal disease and
high when there is uncontrolled production of ACTH by a
neoplasm.
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14. Hyposecretion of cortisol
Adreno cortical insufficiency, evident by a low plasma cortisol
concentration
The causes may be:
Primary to the adrenal cortex because of destruction of
cortical tissue by autoimmundisease or infection (addison’s
disease) or
Secondary to ACTH deficiency
The diagnosis is confirmed by finding a subnormal cortisol
response to the administration of exogenous ACTH (rapid
ACTH stimulation test)
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15. 2.Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
Aldosterone: the principal mineralocorticoid hormone .
Target organs - kidneys, sweat and salivary glands and GI tract.
Effects: Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance and extracellular
fluid balance .
It regulates blood volume and blood pressure.
In the kidney, aldosterone causes active sodium reabsorption,
potassium and hydrogen excretion and passive water
reabsorption.
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16. Mechanism of Action
Mineralocorticoids enter the target cells through the plasma
membranes and binds to a specific protein present in cytosol,
and nucleoplasm, called ‘Mineralocorticoid receptors’.
Both high-affinity and low-affinity mineralocorticoid receptors
have been described.
They are present in epithelial cells of renal distal tubular cells
and collecting ducts and also in gastrointestinal mucosa,
salivary gland ducts and sweat ducts.
The steroid-receptor complex then enters the nucleus and
binds to hormone responsive element (HRE) of specific
nuclear genes and increases the transcription rates of genes.
Thus, aldosterone initiates an increase in m-RNA synthesis ↑,
at the level of transcription of DNA.
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17. Aldosterone release
Three release stimulators
Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) – primary stimulation
Extracellular potassium and sodium
ACTH
Aldosterone
Its production is primarily controlled by the renin-
angiotensin system.
ACTH has a slight stimulatory effect on aldosterone synthesis,
but this is usually of no significance.
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18. (Aldosterone ) Con..
• Renin
Protein produced by the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the
kidney in response to decreased renal pressure and/or
decreased serum sodium levels.
Acts on angiotensinogen to produce angiotensin I which is
converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin converting
enzyme.
Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor and also
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19. Aldosterone control
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Plasma k+ level
Role of ACTH
Plasma Na+ level
Renin- angiotensin system
Aldosterone has negative feedback on the juxtaglomerular
apparatus of the kidney.
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21. Hyperaldosteronism
Primary hyperaldosteronism (conn’s syndrome)
It is overproduction of aldosterone due to the presence of an
aldosterone secreting adrenal adenoma.
These patients usually have elevated serum Na+ concentration,
lowered K+ and hypertension.
Secondary hyperaldosteronism
It result from abnormalliteis in the renin-angiotensin system
It result from
Excess production of renin→associated with increased
plasma renin
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22. Hypoaldosteronism
Aldosterone deficiency is most often due to destruction of the
adrenal glands.
If sodium intake is not adequate, the patient will develop
severe water and electrolyte abnormalities and may die from
vascular collapse and/or hyperkalemia.
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23. Laboratory diagnosis
Determination of aldosterone by RIA and FPIA
Determination of sodium and potasium in serum and urine
Two blood samples are often drawn for aldosterone evaluation,
one in the early morning and one mid-afternoon.
Because a 24-hour urine specimen reflects hormone
production over an entire day, it will usually provide a more
reliable aldosterone measurement.
Elevated blood levels should ideally be confirmed with a 24-
hour urine test.
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24. Cont…
Results will also vary between patients depending upon
average sodium intake, time of day, source of specimen, age,
sex, and posture.
Reference ranges for blood plasma levels: radioimmunoassay
Supine: 3-10 ng/dL.
Upright: Female: 5-30 ng/dL; Male: 6-22 ng/dL
Urine: 2-80 micrograms/24 hr.
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25. 3.Catecholamines
Catecholamines – epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine.
Epinephrine is the major adrenal catecholamine (80-90%)
Affects metabolism (mobilizes energy stores) and increases heart
rate and blood pressure in times of stress
Functions as a neurotransmitter
Norepinephrine (10-20%) and dopamine function solely as
neurotransmitters
Catecholamine adrenal release is stimulated by stressors such as fear and
pain.
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27. Mechanism of Action
Role of Cyclic AMP: Catecholamines on binding to β-receptors (β1
and β2) activate adenyl cyclase which increases cyclic AMP level in
the cells.
Increased cyclicAMP activates c-AMP-dependent protein kinases
which phosphorylates specific protein/or enzymes and
activate/inactivate them.
β-receptor action is mediated through increased intracellular c-AMP level.
Catecholamines on binding to α-receptors, inhibit adenyl cyclase,
thus decreasing the intracellular c-AMP level.
α-receptor action is mediated through decreasing intracellular c-AMP level.
Role of Ca++ and Phospho-inositides: Catecholamines on binding
with α1 receptors, effect the formation of “inositol-1,4,5-tri-PO4”
and diacylglycerol, and/or intracellular Ca++, these may act as
‘second messengers’ to produce tissue responses during α-effects.
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30. 4.Gonadal hormones(Sex steroids)
Predominately produced by the adult male testes and female
ovaries
Adrenal cortex also produces small amounts of sex steroids
Responsible for
manifestation of primary and secondary sex characteristics
Human reproduction
Characteristics – steroid, lipid-soluble, slow effects, bound to carrier
proteins (SHBG, albumin)
Their secretion is under hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis control
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31. Classes of female sex steroids
Androgens
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEAS, testosterone,
dihydrotestosterone (DHT), androstenedione
The predominate adrenal androgens are DHEA and
DHEAS
Estrogens
Estradiol, estrone
Progestin's
Progesterone
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32. Mechanism of Action:
Free testosterone enters the target cells by simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion.
In the cytoplasm of target cells, the testosterone is converted to ‘active’ form
dihydrotestosterone.
Dihydrotestosterone has greater affinity than testosterone for the specific receptor.
The hormone is tightly bound to the receptor and “hormone-receptor complex” then
binds to the ‘hormone-responsive element’ (HRE) present with specific nuclear
genes. This induces the transcription of those genes leading to increased synthesis
of respective proteins which produce cellular effects.
– 17-Ketosteroids
– (17-oxo-steroids)
The androgens excreted in urine are classed as 17- ketosteroids (17-oxo-steroids).
In the case of females, it gives an idea about the condition of the adrenal cortex and
its functions.
– In males: 17-ketosteroids arise from testes (1/3 of the total), while the major amount arises
from the adrenal cortex (2/3 of total).
– In females: The 17-ketosteroids are almost entirely from adrenal cortical origin.
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33. Female sex hormones
Two different chemical types of steroid hormones are produced and
secreted by the ovary in non pregnant women.
– Estrogen and progesterone
During pregnancy, the same hormones are produced by the ovary,
but in different proportion.
The placenta also makes the hormones that are necessary for the
maintenance of pregnancy.
– Estrogen, progesterone, HCG, lactogen
This production is under control of
– hypothalamus(GnRH)→Pituitary(FSH,LH)→ovary/placenta
(female sex steroids)
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34. Estrogen
Originate in the ovarian follicles and in the placenta during
pregnancy
Function
– Participate in the menstrual cycle
– development and maintenance of the reproductive organs and
secondary sex characteristics.
Three clinically important estrogens: C18 steroid
– Estradiol(E2): major hormone in non-pregnant
– Estrone(E1)
– Estriol(E3): major hormone in pregnant
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35. Mechanism of Action
• (Similar to Androgens): After entering the
target cells, it binds to a specific ‘receptor’
present in cytosol, “receptor-steroid complex”
then binds to hormone-responsive element
(HRE) associated with specific nuclear genes,
which translates for synthesis of specific
proteins and enzymes.
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36. Estradiol
The principal and most potent estrogen
It exists in a reversible state with estrone (with weaker biologic
action), but it must be converted into E1 before it is degraded.
– Estradiol (E2) ↔ Estrone (E1) → Estriol(E3) → degradation
Plasma E2 levels
– Useful for the investigation of women with menstrual difficulties
To ascertain weather a problem is of pituitary or ovarian origin.
– Measurement of pituitary tropic hormones, FSH and LH
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37. Estriol(E3)
• It has no hormonal activity
• Produced in relatively large quantity during the last trimester of
pregnancy by the placental conversion of fetal adrenal steroids.
• Its concentration in urine or plasma of pregnant women
provides indication of fetal well being (fetoplacental viability)
– Sudden drop in estriol concentration or output is a danger
signal of fetoplacental dysfunction.
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38. Progesterone
It is a C21 compound and chemically more closely related to the
adrenal steroids.
It is an intermediate in the production of adrenal steroids.
Formed in the corpus luteum, the body that develops from the
ruptured ovarian follicle.
Function
– Stimulates the uterus to undergo changes that prepare it for
implantation of the fertilized ovum,
– Suppresses ovulation and secretion of pituitary LH.
– If pregnancy occurs, the secretion of progesterone by the corpus
luteum and by the placenta suppresses menstruation for the
duration of the pregnancy.
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39. Placental hormones
Function of placenta: providing nutrients to the developing embryo and
removing its waste products
Additionally in the pregnant women it serves as an endocrine organ
– Produce
• Estrogen
• Progesterone
• chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
• lactogen.
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40. Mechanism of Action:
The hormone binds to “specific receptor” on the cell
membrane of target tissues like ovaries and testes, activates
adenyl cyclase, which in turn increases cyclic AMP level ↑ .
Cyclic AMP acts as “second messenger” to produce the
biological effects.
Metabolic role; Luteotrophic effect: The hormone
produces enlargement of corpus luteum and stimulates its
secretion. It maintains a secretory corpus luteum in first
three months of pregnancy.
Testosterone secretion: Like LH, the hormone stimulates the
growth of interstitial cells (Leydig cells) of embryonic
testes and produces testosterone. This helps in virilisation of
the reproductive system of male embryo.
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41. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
It is a glycoprotein composed of 2 chains, alpha and beta.
Alpha polypeptide chain is identical to the alpha chain on many
other hormones including TSH, LH and FSH.
The beta chain is unique in hCG so is the specificity for
immunoassay techniques.
The action of hCG is similar to that of LH
– It stimulate the corpus luteum to produce progesterone.
• Progesterone helps to maintain the pregnancy by preventing
menstruation.
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42. Clinical significance of hCG
For diagnosis of pregnancy
– The detection of hCG in urine or serum is the basis of
current tests for pregnancy.
– The most sensitive can detect pregnancy with in 5 to 7 days
after conception.
– The antibody used for quantitation of serum hCG should be
specific to β-hCG in order to avoid cross reactions,
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43. Human placental lactogen
It is a protein hormone that is structurally, immunologically and
functionally very similar to growth hormone and prolactin
HPL appears to act in concert with HCG to stimulate estrogen and
progesterone synthesis by the corpus luteum.
It stimulates development of the mammary gland (similar to prolactin)
Has somatotropin actions similar to those of growth hormone.
it increases maternal plasma glucose levels and mobilization of free
fatty acids and promotes positive nitrogen balance.
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44. Male sex hormones
The male gonads are the testes.
They have a double function:
– To produce and secrete the male hormone, testosterone
– To produce the spermatozoa
• Essential for fertilization of the ovum in the reproductive process.
The testes are part of a hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
– FSH stimulate spermatogenesis,
– LH stimulate the production of testosterone by interstitial (Leydig’s)
cells.
– Both LH and FSH suppressed by high levels of testosterone
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45. Testosterone
The most potent naturally occurring androgen.
Function
– Promote growth of secondary sex organs
• It causes growth and development of the male reproductive
system, prostate, and external genitalia.
– Promotes muscular and skeletal growth and is protein anabolic.
Transport
• 80% by plasma globulin
• 17% by albumin
• < 3% unbound, active hormone.
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46. Testosterone cont’d
All of the testosterone in males is derived from the testes; the
contribution of the adrenal cortex is negligible.
Plasma testosterone levels are much lower in women, usually only
5% of those found in men.
Testosterone in women arise from the tissue conversion of
androgens.
Plasma testosterone concentration is a good way of studying
hypogonadism and hypergonadism.
The role of the pituitary has to be assessed to determine whether an
abnormality is primary to testes or secondary to an LH deficiency or
excess.
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47. Testosterone cont’d
Increased concentration of testosterone
– Testicular carcinomas
– Abnormalities of pituitary gonadotropin of males
– In female
• Virilism: development of male physical characteristics(depending
of voice, breast atrophy, increased hair growth)
• Hirsutism: growth of body hair in male like pattern
Decreased plasma testosterone can be due to:
– Defects associated with testis
– Defects associated in pituitary
– Chromosomal abnormalities of sex hormones.
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48. Methods of Sex Steroid Analysis
Estrogens and testosterol
RIA
Reference Ranges vary with method and timing of female
cycle
More useful if tested along with FSH and LH
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