SlideShare a Scribd company logo
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Dynamic Drivers of Disease in Africa
Integrating our understandings of zoonoses, ecosystems and wellbeing
A unified framework for the infection
dynamics of zoonotic spillover and spread
Gianni Lo Iacono1,2
1
Department Veterinary Medicine University of Cambridge, UK
2
Departmen of Environmental Change, Public Health England, UK
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Andrew A. Cunningham 2
, Elisabeth Fichet-Calvet 3
, Robert F. Garry 4
,
Donald S. Grant 5
, Melissa Leach 6
, Lina M. Moses 4
, Gordon Nichols 7
John
S. Schieffelin 8
, Jeffrey G. Shaffer 9
, Collen Webb 10
, James L. N. Wood 1
1 Department of Veterinary Medicine, Disease Dynamics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United
Kingdom.
2 Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London. United Kingdom
3 Bernhard-Nocht Institute of Tropical Medicine. Hamburg, Germany
4 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
5 Lassa Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone
6 Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. Brighton, United Kingdom
7 Public Health England, United Kingdom
8 Sections of Infectious Disease, Departments of Pediatrics and Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Tulane
University, New Orleans, LA, USA
9 Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Tulane School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New
Orleans, LA, USA
10 Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Key Questions
Setting up traps in the mining area
in Sierra Leone
If we know the abundance of,
the reservoir,
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Key Questions
Setting up traps in the mining area
in Sierra Leone
Blood sampling in bats in Ghana
If we know the abundance of, the infection prevalence in,
the reservoir,
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Key Questions
Setting up traps in the mining area
in Sierra Leone
Blood sampling in bats in Ghana Participatory mapping in Sierra
Leone
If we know the abundance of, the infection prevalence in, and
exposure to the reservoir,
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Key Questions
Setting up traps in the mining area
in Sierra Leone
Blood sampling in bats in Ghana Participatory mapping in Sierra
Leone
If we know the abundance of, the infection prevalence in, and
exposure to the reservoir, can we estimate the likelihood of the
next spillover event?
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Key Questions
From: Lloyd-Smith, J et al. (2009). Epidemic dynamics at the
human-animal interface. Science, 326(5958).
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Key Questions
From: Lloyd-Smith, J et al. (2009). Epidemic dynamics at the
human-animal interface. Science, 326(5958).
A need for unification
How to compare different stages?
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Key Questions
From: Lloyd-Smith, J et al. (2009). Epidemic dynamics at the
human-animal interface. Science, 326(5958).
A need for unification
How to compare different stages?
How to disentangle the contribution of
human-to-human transmission from zoonotic
spillover?
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Dynamcs of Lassa Fever
Human-­‐to-­‐Human	
  Transmission	
  through	
  close	
  
contacts,	
  probably	
  via	
  body	
  fluids.	
  Previous	
  
es8mates	
  suggest	
  	
  ~	
  20%	
  of	
  cases	
  can	
  	
  be	
  
a?ributed	
  to	
  human-­‐to-­‐human	
  transmission	
  
Nosocomial	
  
Transmission.	
  
e.g.	
  exchange	
  of	
  	
  
infected	
  needles	
  
Rodent-­‐to-­‐Rodent	
  
Transmission.	
  	
  
Unclear	
  reasons	
  for	
  
maintenance.	
  
Transmission	
  pa?erns	
  
are	
  further	
  confounded	
  
due	
  to	
  	
  seasonality	
  in	
  	
  
Mastomys	
  natalensis.	
  
abundance	
  and	
  in	
  
infec8on	
  prevalence.	
  
These	
  factors	
  are	
  also	
  
affected	
  	
  by	
  the	
  habitat	
  
(rodents	
  living	
  near	
  
houses	
  vs	
  rodents	
  living	
  
in	
  the	
  proximity	
  of	
  
villages)	
  
Mastomys	
  natalensis	
  
Repor6ng	
  Bias.	
  Many	
  cases	
  are	
  not	
  reported	
  
despite	
  improvement	
  in	
  community	
  outreach	
  
and	
  surveillance	
  ac8vi8es.	
  Infrastructure	
  
quality	
  (roads	
  are	
  oJen	
  flooded	
  during	
  the	
  
rainy	
  season),	
  economic	
  and	
  social	
  factors	
  
(people	
  have	
  limited	
  economic	
  resources	
  in	
  
the	
  rainy	
  season)	
  might	
  introduce	
  seasonal	
  
bias	
  in	
  repor8ng.	
  	
  
Rodent-­‐to-­‐Human	
  
Transmission.	
  	
  
Transmission	
  through	
  domes8c/
agricultural	
  exposure.	
  
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Modelling the risk of spillover events
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Modelling the risk of spillover events
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 10 20 30
Occurrence
Density
From knowedge of mean and
variance of abundance, prevalence
etc. → Infer the risk of spillover in
humans
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Patterns in the cumulative number of cases
Straight line for pure zoonosis
Comparison with Agent Based Model
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0
1000
2000
3000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Day
CumulativeNumberofZoonoticInfections
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Depletion of susceptibles
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Patterns in the cumulative number of cases
Concave (downward) line when susceptibles are depleted
Comparison with Agent Based Model
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qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
Concave shape
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Day
CumulativeNumberofZoonoticInfections
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Inclusion of human-to-human transmission
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Patterns in the cumulative number of cases
Convex (upward) line when human-to-human transmission
Comparison with Agent Based Model
qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
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Convex shape
0
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Day
CumulativeNumberofHuman−to−HumanInfections
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Patterns in the cumulative number of cases
S-shape line when human-to-human transmission and
depletion of susceptibles
Comparison with Agent Based Model
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qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
Convex shape
Concave shape
250
500
750
1000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Day
CumulativeNumberofHuman−to−HumanInfections
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Contribution of human-to-human transmission
Comparison with Agent Based Model
a"
Parameter 1
Parameter 2
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.045
0.050
0.055
0.060
0.065
0 2500 5000 7500 10000
0 2500 5000 7500 10000
Iteration
value
b"
Parameter 1
Parameter 2
0
250
500
750
1000
0
250
500
750
1000
0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010
0.05 0.06
value
count
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0
200
400
600
0 25 50 75 100
Day
CumulativenumberofZoonoticandHuman−to−HumanInfections
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone
Constant zoonotic exposure
Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data
Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations
Black Line −: Average model predictions
Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone
Constant zoonotic exposure
Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic
exposure
Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data
Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations
Black Line −: Average model predictions
Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone
Constant zoonotic exposure
Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic
exposure
Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data
Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations
Black Line −: Average model predictions
Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations
A case of un-identifiability
Different assumptions are equally compatible with the empirical
data
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone
Constant zoonotic exposure
Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic
exposure
Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data
Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations
Black Line −: Average model predictions
Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations
A case of un-identifiability
Different assumptions are equally compatible with the empirical
data
Such un-identifiabilityis is expected to be removed as soon as
more accurate data on exposure rates and rodent infection
prevalence become available.
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone
Constant zoonotic exposure
Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic
exposure
Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data
Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations
Black Line −: Average model predictions
Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations
A case of un-identifiability
Different assumptions are equally compatible with the empirical
data
Such un-identifiabilityis is expected to be removed as soon as
more accurate data on exposure rates and rodent infection
prevalence become available.
Only a general knowledge of the time-dependency of these
quantities
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Conclusions and Future Work
A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Conclusions and Future Work
A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain
Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and
procedure to quantify it..
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Conclusions and Future Work
A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain
Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and
procedure to quantify it..
..but it is a signature that can be forged!
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Conclusions and Future Work
A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain
Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and
procedure to quantify it..
..but it is a signature that can be forged!
Future Work: Remove Un-identifiability
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Conclusions and Future Work
A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain
Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and
procedure to quantify it..
..but it is a signature that can be forged!
Future Work: Remove Un-identifiability
Future Work: Impact of super-spreaders
Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions
Acknowledgments
This work for the Dynamic Drivers of Disease in Africa Consortium was funded with
support from the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation (ESPA) programme. The
ESPA programme is funded by the Department for International Development (DFID),
the Economic and Social Research Council (alertESRC) and the Natural Environment
Research Council (alertNERC, Project NE-J001570-1 ). See more at:
http://www.espa.ac.uk/
Thanks also to my current employer, Public Health England and the National Institute
for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), for giving me the
opportunity to be here today

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A unified framework for the infection dynamics of zoonotic spillover and spread

  • 1. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Dynamic Drivers of Disease in Africa Integrating our understandings of zoonoses, ecosystems and wellbeing A unified framework for the infection dynamics of zoonotic spillover and spread Gianni Lo Iacono1,2 1 Department Veterinary Medicine University of Cambridge, UK 2 Departmen of Environmental Change, Public Health England, UK
  • 2. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Acknowledgments Andrew A. Cunningham 2 , Elisabeth Fichet-Calvet 3 , Robert F. Garry 4 , Donald S. Grant 5 , Melissa Leach 6 , Lina M. Moses 4 , Gordon Nichols 7 John S. Schieffelin 8 , Jeffrey G. Shaffer 9 , Collen Webb 10 , James L. N. Wood 1 1 Department of Veterinary Medicine, Disease Dynamics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 2 Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London. United Kingdom 3 Bernhard-Nocht Institute of Tropical Medicine. Hamburg, Germany 4 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA 5 Lassa Fever Program, Kenema Government Hospital, Kenema, Sierra Leone 6 Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. Brighton, United Kingdom 7 Public Health England, United Kingdom 8 Sections of Infectious Disease, Departments of Pediatrics and Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA 9 Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Tulane School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA 10 Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
  • 3. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Key Questions Setting up traps in the mining area in Sierra Leone If we know the abundance of, the reservoir,
  • 4. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Key Questions Setting up traps in the mining area in Sierra Leone Blood sampling in bats in Ghana If we know the abundance of, the infection prevalence in, the reservoir,
  • 5. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Key Questions Setting up traps in the mining area in Sierra Leone Blood sampling in bats in Ghana Participatory mapping in Sierra Leone If we know the abundance of, the infection prevalence in, and exposure to the reservoir,
  • 6. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Key Questions Setting up traps in the mining area in Sierra Leone Blood sampling in bats in Ghana Participatory mapping in Sierra Leone If we know the abundance of, the infection prevalence in, and exposure to the reservoir, can we estimate the likelihood of the next spillover event?
  • 7. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Key Questions From: Lloyd-Smith, J et al. (2009). Epidemic dynamics at the human-animal interface. Science, 326(5958).
  • 8. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Key Questions From: Lloyd-Smith, J et al. (2009). Epidemic dynamics at the human-animal interface. Science, 326(5958). A need for unification How to compare different stages?
  • 9. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Key Questions From: Lloyd-Smith, J et al. (2009). Epidemic dynamics at the human-animal interface. Science, 326(5958). A need for unification How to compare different stages? How to disentangle the contribution of human-to-human transmission from zoonotic spillover?
  • 10. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Dynamcs of Lassa Fever Human-­‐to-­‐Human  Transmission  through  close   contacts,  probably  via  body  fluids.  Previous   es8mates  suggest    ~  20%  of  cases  can    be   a?ributed  to  human-­‐to-­‐human  transmission   Nosocomial   Transmission.   e.g.  exchange  of     infected  needles   Rodent-­‐to-­‐Rodent   Transmission.     Unclear  reasons  for   maintenance.   Transmission  pa?erns   are  further  confounded   due  to    seasonality  in     Mastomys  natalensis.   abundance  and  in   infec8on  prevalence.   These  factors  are  also   affected    by  the  habitat   (rodents  living  near   houses  vs  rodents  living   in  the  proximity  of   villages)   Mastomys  natalensis   Repor6ng  Bias.  Many  cases  are  not  reported   despite  improvement  in  community  outreach   and  surveillance  ac8vi8es.  Infrastructure   quality  (roads  are  oJen  flooded  during  the   rainy  season),  economic  and  social  factors   (people  have  limited  economic  resources  in   the  rainy  season)  might  introduce  seasonal   bias  in  repor8ng.     Rodent-­‐to-­‐Human   Transmission.     Transmission  through  domes8c/ agricultural  exposure.  
  • 11. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Modelling the risk of spillover events
  • 12. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Modelling the risk of spillover events 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 10 20 30 Occurrence Density From knowedge of mean and variance of abundance, prevalence etc. → Infer the risk of spillover in humans
  • 13. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Patterns in the cumulative number of cases Straight line for pure zoonosis Comparison with Agent Based Model qqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqq 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Day CumulativeNumberofZoonoticInfections
  • 14. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Depletion of susceptibles
  • 15. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Patterns in the cumulative number of cases Concave (downward) line when susceptibles are depleted Comparison with Agent Based Model qqqq q q q q q qqq q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q qq qq q q qq qq q q qq q q q qq qqq qq q q q q qqq q qqqq q qq q q q q q q qqq qqq qq q qq qq q q q q qq q q q q q qq q qq qqq q qq qq q qq q q qqqq q qq q q qqqqq qqqqqqqqq qq qq q q qq qqq qq qq q q q qqqqqqqq qqqqq qq qqqq qqqqq qq qqqqqqq qqqqqqqq qq qq q qqq qqq q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqq qqq qqqqqqqqq qqq qqqq qqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqq q q q q qq q qq qq q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q q qq qq qq q q qq q q q qqq q qqqq qq q q q q q qq qq qq qq q qq qq q q qq qq q q qq qq q q q q q qq q qqq qq q q q qq q q qq qq qq q qqqq qq qqqqq qq q q q qq qqq qqqq q qq q q qq qq q qq qqq q qqqqqq qq qqqqqqq q q q qqq qqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqq qqqqqqqq q qqq qqqqqqqqq qqq qqq qqqqqqq qqq qqqqqq qq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qq qqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qq qq q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq q qqqq qqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqq qq qq q qqq q q q q q q q q qqq q q q qqq q qqq q q q q q qqq q qq q q q q q qqq q q q qq qq q q q q q q q qqqq q qq q q qq q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q qq q q q qqq q qqqqq q qqq qq q q qqq qq q q qq qqqqq 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qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq Concave shape 250 500 750 1000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Day CumulativeNumberofZoonoticInfections
  • 16. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Inclusion of human-to-human transmission
  • 17. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Patterns in the cumulative number of cases Convex (upward) line when human-to-human transmission Comparison with Agent Based Model qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq q qq q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqq qq q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqq qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqq q q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq q qq qqqq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqq qq qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqq qqqqqq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qq q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q Convex shape 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 Day CumulativeNumberofHuman−to−HumanInfections
  • 18. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Patterns in the cumulative number of cases S-shape line when human-to-human transmission and depletion of susceptibles Comparison with Agent Based Model qq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqq q q q q q qq qqqqqqqqqqqqqq q q q q q q qq qq q qq qqqq q q q q q q q qqq q qq q q q qqq qqqqq q q q q q q qq q q qq q q qq qqq q q qq q q qq q q q q q qq q q qq qq q q q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q qqq q q q q qq q q q q q q q qqq q q q qq q qq q q q q q q qq q q qq q q qq q q q q qq q q qq q q q q q q q q q qqq q qqqqqqqq qq q qq qqqqq q qqqqqqq qq qqqqqqqq qq qqqqqqqq qqq qqqqqqqq qqqqqqq qqqqqq 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qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq q qq qq qq q q qqqqqqqq qq qq qqq q q q qqq qqq qq qqq q q qq qqq q q q qq qq q q q q q qq q q q qqq qq q q q q q qq qqq qqqq q q q q q q q q q qq qq qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q q q q q q qq q qqq q q q qq q q qq q q q q q q q q q q qqq q qqqqq q qq q q q q qqqqqqq q qqqqqq qq qq qqqqqqqqqq qqqq qqqq qqqqqq qqqq qqqq qq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq Convex shape Concave shape 250 500 750 1000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Day CumulativeNumberofHuman−to−HumanInfections
  • 19. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Contribution of human-to-human transmission Comparison with Agent Based Model a" Parameter 1 Parameter 2 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.045 0.050 0.055 0.060 0.065 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 Iteration value b" Parameter 1 Parameter 2 0 250 500 750 1000 0 250 500 750 1000 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.05 0.06 value count ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 0 200 400 600 0 25 50 75 100 Day CumulativenumberofZoonoticandHuman−to−HumanInfections
  • 20. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone Constant zoonotic exposure Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations Black Line −: Average model predictions Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations
  • 21. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone Constant zoonotic exposure Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic exposure Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations Black Line −: Average model predictions Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations
  • 22. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone Constant zoonotic exposure Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic exposure Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations Black Line −: Average model predictions Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations A case of un-identifiability Different assumptions are equally compatible with the empirical data
  • 23. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone Constant zoonotic exposure Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic exposure Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations Black Line −: Average model predictions Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations A case of un-identifiability Different assumptions are equally compatible with the empirical data Such un-identifiabilityis is expected to be removed as soon as more accurate data on exposure rates and rodent infection prevalence become available.
  • 24. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Comparison with real data from Sierra Leone Constant zoonotic exposure Piecewise, linearly variable zoonotic exposure Red Line − : Kenema Gov. Hospital data Blue Lines − : 5 individual stochastic model realizations Black Line −: Average model predictions Grey dots · · · : 100 stochastic model realizations A case of un-identifiability Different assumptions are equally compatible with the empirical data Such un-identifiabilityis is expected to be removed as soon as more accurate data on exposure rates and rodent infection prevalence become available. Only a general knowledge of the time-dependency of these quantities
  • 25. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Conclusions and Future Work A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain
  • 26. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Conclusions and Future Work A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and procedure to quantify it..
  • 27. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Conclusions and Future Work A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and procedure to quantify it.. ..but it is a signature that can be forged!
  • 28. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Conclusions and Future Work A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and procedure to quantify it.. ..but it is a signature that can be forged! Future Work: Remove Un-identifiability
  • 29. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Conclusions and Future Work A unified framework for spillover and stuttering chain Signature for identify human-to-human transmission, and procedure to quantify it.. ..but it is a signature that can be forged! Future Work: Remove Un-identifiability Future Work: Impact of super-spreaders
  • 30. Introduction Methods and Results Conclusions Acknowledgments This work for the Dynamic Drivers of Disease in Africa Consortium was funded with support from the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation (ESPA) programme. The ESPA programme is funded by the Department for International Development (DFID), the Economic and Social Research Council (alertESRC) and the Natural Environment Research Council (alertNERC, Project NE-J001570-1 ). See more at: http://www.espa.ac.uk/ Thanks also to my current employer, Public Health England and the National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit (NIHR HPRU), for giving me the opportunity to be here today