This document summarizes recent scenarios and technologies for producing biodiesel from non-edible oils. It discusses how using edible oils for biodiesel can cause food shortages and increase food prices. Non-edible oils are presented as a suitable alternative feedstock. Emerging technologies that can process non-edible feedstocks like algae and cellulosic materials into biodiesel are also reviewed, such as low-temperature conversion, hydrothermal liquefaction, and catalytic hydrodeoxygenation. The document concludes these technologies may help reduce issues around using food crops for fuel.
This document provides an overview of wind energy and wind turbines. It discusses the history of windmills and early wind power development. It then describes the key components of modern multi-megawatt wind turbines, including the rotor, drive train, generator, gearbox, nacelle, tower, and control systems. The document also discusses wind farm configurations, how wind turbines generate electricity, wind energy usage and production around the world, advantages and disadvantages of wind power, and emerging wind power technologies.
This document provides a detailed project report for a proposed 12 MW wind power project in Andhra Pradesh, India. It includes sections on project highlights, demand and supply analysis justifying wind power, the developing company's profile and experience, the identified site location and land details, construction plans, turbine technology details, a project implementation schedule, financial overview and cost analysis, CDM benefits, and a request for a tariff order from Indian regulatory agencies. The key points are that a site at Kondamithipalli has been selected, the project would involve installing 12 MW of wind turbines by 2022, and a tariff order is requested to make the project financially viable and allow it to help meet India's renewable energy targets
Modeling of co2 capture via chemical absorption processes an extensiveliterat...RENE QUISPE
This document provides an extensive literature review of models for CO2 capture via chemical absorption processes. It discusses the modeling requirements and approaches, including mass transfer, thermodynamic, kinetic, and dynamic models. The review examines both steady-state and dynamic models from literature. It aims to optimize CO2 absorption rates while minimizing energy requirements for solvent regeneration. The models could enable wider implementation of carbon capture and storage technologies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
A review of emerging technologies for food refrigeration applicationsYaniraCParedes
This document reviews emerging refrigeration technologies that have the potential to reduce environmental impacts in the food industry. It discusses several technologies including sorption refrigeration systems, ejector refrigeration, air cycle refrigeration, tri-generation, Stirling cycle refrigeration. For each technology, it describes the concept, current state of development, potential applications in food sectors, barriers to adoption, drivers for uptake, and needed research areas. The review aims to highlight promising low-carbon refrigeration technologies and research needs to facilitate their development and adoption in commercial food applications.
This document provides an introduction to the TimeWatch roleplaying game. It explains that TimeWatch uses the GUMSHOE investigative system where characters have investigative abilities that automatically succeed and general abilities that can succeed or fail. It describes how a typical TimeWatch agent is a skilled individual from history recruited by TimeWatch to protect the timeline from threats. It then discusses how time travel works in the game's fiction, focusing on the river metaphor where small changes create ripples but major changes are needed to fully alter history. It outlines the types of enemies agents may face and how a typical mission progresses from detection of a timeline disruption to investigation and restoration of the proper timeline.
Energy Systems Optimization of a Shopping Mall: The present study focuses on the development of software (general mathematical optimization model) which has the following characteristics:
• It will be able to find the optimal combination of installed equipment (power & heat generation etc) in a Shopping Mall (micro-grid)
• With multi-objective to maximize the cost at the same time as minimizing the environmental impacts (i.e. CO2 emissions).
• To date, this tool is scarce to the industry (similar to DER-CAM, Homer).
This DNV document outlines the technical standards, as developed by DNV, aimed at floating gas temrinals. Similar standards can be found in DNV.COM website, under "Resources".
This document provides an introduction to the new BMW X3, including its dimensions, body design and materials. It discusses the bodyshell, doors, panoramic sunroof, strength, vibration and acoustic properties. Crash testing details are also summarized, covering head-on, side, and rear-end collisions as well as pedestrian protection. Exterior trims and interior equipment dimensions are briefly outlined.
This document provides an overview of wind energy and wind turbines. It discusses the history of windmills and early wind power development. It then describes the key components of modern multi-megawatt wind turbines, including the rotor, drive train, generator, gearbox, nacelle, tower, and control systems. The document also discusses wind farm configurations, how wind turbines generate electricity, wind energy usage and production around the world, advantages and disadvantages of wind power, and emerging wind power technologies.
This document provides a detailed project report for a proposed 12 MW wind power project in Andhra Pradesh, India. It includes sections on project highlights, demand and supply analysis justifying wind power, the developing company's profile and experience, the identified site location and land details, construction plans, turbine technology details, a project implementation schedule, financial overview and cost analysis, CDM benefits, and a request for a tariff order from Indian regulatory agencies. The key points are that a site at Kondamithipalli has been selected, the project would involve installing 12 MW of wind turbines by 2022, and a tariff order is requested to make the project financially viable and allow it to help meet India's renewable energy targets
Modeling of co2 capture via chemical absorption processes an extensiveliterat...RENE QUISPE
This document provides an extensive literature review of models for CO2 capture via chemical absorption processes. It discusses the modeling requirements and approaches, including mass transfer, thermodynamic, kinetic, and dynamic models. The review examines both steady-state and dynamic models from literature. It aims to optimize CO2 absorption rates while minimizing energy requirements for solvent regeneration. The models could enable wider implementation of carbon capture and storage technologies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
A review of emerging technologies for food refrigeration applicationsYaniraCParedes
This document reviews emerging refrigeration technologies that have the potential to reduce environmental impacts in the food industry. It discusses several technologies including sorption refrigeration systems, ejector refrigeration, air cycle refrigeration, tri-generation, Stirling cycle refrigeration. For each technology, it describes the concept, current state of development, potential applications in food sectors, barriers to adoption, drivers for uptake, and needed research areas. The review aims to highlight promising low-carbon refrigeration technologies and research needs to facilitate their development and adoption in commercial food applications.
This document provides an introduction to the TimeWatch roleplaying game. It explains that TimeWatch uses the GUMSHOE investigative system where characters have investigative abilities that automatically succeed and general abilities that can succeed or fail. It describes how a typical TimeWatch agent is a skilled individual from history recruited by TimeWatch to protect the timeline from threats. It then discusses how time travel works in the game's fiction, focusing on the river metaphor where small changes create ripples but major changes are needed to fully alter history. It outlines the types of enemies agents may face and how a typical mission progresses from detection of a timeline disruption to investigation and restoration of the proper timeline.
Energy Systems Optimization of a Shopping Mall: The present study focuses on the development of software (general mathematical optimization model) which has the following characteristics:
• It will be able to find the optimal combination of installed equipment (power & heat generation etc) in a Shopping Mall (micro-grid)
• With multi-objective to maximize the cost at the same time as minimizing the environmental impacts (i.e. CO2 emissions).
• To date, this tool is scarce to the industry (similar to DER-CAM, Homer).
This DNV document outlines the technical standards, as developed by DNV, aimed at floating gas temrinals. Similar standards can be found in DNV.COM website, under "Resources".
This document provides an introduction to the new BMW X3, including its dimensions, body design and materials. It discusses the bodyshell, doors, panoramic sunroof, strength, vibration and acoustic properties. Crash testing details are also summarized, covering head-on, side, and rear-end collisions as well as pedestrian protection. Exterior trims and interior equipment dimensions are briefly outlined.
Handbook for vaccine and cold chain handlers 2015 (26.08.15)drdduttaM
India has one of the largest universal immunization programs in the world, providing vaccines to over 27 million infants and 30 million pregnant women annually through a vast health infrastructure and network of over 9 million immunization sessions per year. The immunization supply chain system is critical to ensure vaccines are delivered in the right quantity, quality, time, temperature, and place to beneficiaries and has established a wide cold chain network of stores from the national to sub-district levels to effectively store and distribute vaccines.
This document describes a case study that investigated using videos to teach rural communities in Nigeria about solar cooking. The researcher worked with two non-profits in Nigeria to create locally-made videos in local languages about building and using solar cookers. Nine solar cookers of different designs were built locally and tested. Workshops using the videos helped transfer knowledge about solar cooking. The videos and solar cookers helped build skills and capacity around solar cooking, which has benefits like reducing women's workloads, poverty, and environmental impacts. The study evaluated whether locally-made videos were effective for teaching people new to solar cooking.
The document contains a report from Piotr Blaut on his work placement at Kinsale Energy Limited. During his placement, he explored natural gas extraction, processing, storage and transportation. He participated in projects involving upgrading systems for gas dehydration, updating drawings and tagging of the fire and gas detection system, and adjusting flame detectors' fields of view. The report details the various stages of offshore gas production, processing and safety systems at the Kinsale facilities.
Optimising pollination of macadamia & avocado in australiaDuTuLe
This report summarizes research on optimizing pollination of macadamias and avocados in Australia. Key findings include:
1) Cross-pollination increased nut set in macadamia varieties, suggesting mixed varieties can boost yields. However, pollinating more racemes per tree saw declining nut set in some varieties.
2) Avocado and macadamia flower opening is affected by temperature, impacting pollination. A model linked avocado flowering in the Tri-State region to overnight temperatures.
3) Honey bees were the main macadamia flower visitors, but abundance varied greatly between orchards. More can be done to promote native pollinators.
4) The research aims
This document is a reference guide for the administration panel of CS-Cart Community version 2.2.4. It includes sections that provide information on how to manage orders, products, customers, websites, shipping and taxes, and administration settings through the administration panel. The guide covers topics such as viewing orders, managing product categories and promotions, customizing profiles, managing website content, configuring shipping methods and taxes, installing add-ons, and setting up payment and database options.
This E-Book was the idea of Eng. Hany Ismael, He is a Civil Engineer BSc, Project Management Professional
certified PMP, MSc student at Liverpool University, involved in construction projects since 11 years, and working
as a Planning Manager. He likes to share Project Management Information and follow the rabid update of Project
Management Tools such as Primavera and Excel.
To make it easier for you, our E-Book will illustrate the planning and the time frame for MEP installations
processes. So our book is divided in to 9 chapters which will cover the following topics:
1. Equipment
2. Conveying Systems
3. Fire Suppressions
4. Plumbing
5. Heating Ventilation and Air conditioning
6. Integrated Automation
7. Electrical
8. Electronic Safety and Security
9. Electronic Surveillance
This Document is created by PlanningEngineer.Net Website. PlanningEngineer.net is an online project management website, we are a PM Office online simulation aiming to share knowledge, books, several courses as well as online consultancy.
Logistics support is critical to immunization services to ensure the availability of appropriate equipment and an adequate supply of high-quality vaccines and immunization-related materials to all levels of the programme.
Via : https://www.itsu.org.in
National Cold Chain Plan (NCCP) should be prepared and implemented as a part of Multi Year Strategic Plan. This plan should be comprehensive enough to include cold chain assessment, forecasting, procurement and supply, replacement, program review, logistics and supply chain management.
This document provides standards and procedures for titling client and account information on CIF and AIF records. It describes account formats for various types of commercial, individual, organization, and other special purpose accounts. Descriptions are provided for accounts such as campaigns, churches, scouting troops, estates, trusts, and more. The purpose is to ensure standardization and prevent legal issues from incorrect account registration.
This internship report summarizes Muhammad Farhan Javed's internship at the National Bank of Pakistan. It provides an overview of the bank's history, nature of business, business volume, branch network, number of employees, product lines including deposits, advances, remittances, and miscellaneous services. It also describes the bank's organizational structure, including its board of directors and the 15 divisions that make up its senior management team. The report aims to provide a high-level understanding of NBP's business and operations.
This report provides a summary of Solyndra's operations from its founding through its bankruptcy filing in 2011. It discusses Solyndra's solar panel technology, its financing and construction of two manufacturing facilities, the impact of the economic downturn on the solar industry, and Solyndra's restructuring efforts and capital raising attempts in 2010. It also provides context on the solar industry and market conditions during this period. The report reviews Solyndra's $535 million loan guarantee from the Department of Energy that helped fund construction of its second factory.
The document provides an overview of spending patterns across different socio-economic classes (SECs) in urban and rural India. It includes data on average household incomes, asset ownership, expenditure allocation, demographics, priorities, and technology adoption across SECs in urban areas. For rural areas, it outlines metrics like education levels, media exposure, and product penetration. Various charts and tables present data on incomes, expenditures, assets, demographics, and consumer preferences for both urban and rural populations in India.
latest_ wasit rp data collection report_korrektur_arbsv-bup
This document discusses the ADEC and B.U.P. It outlines several sections including objectives, methodology, analysis, results, and conclusions. The objectives were to analyze the ADEC and B.U.P. programs and compare their performance. The methodology involved collecting data on key indicators from both programs. The analysis section examines the data in detail and compares the performance of ADEC and B.U.P. across several indicators. The results provide the findings of the comparative analysis and highlights where one program outperformed the other. The conclusion summarizes that while both programs had successes, ADEC showed better overall performance based on the indicators analyzed.
Send money module
Receive money module
Withdraw module
Balance enquiry
2.7 Specific Problem Analysis
The specific problem analysis was done to understand the existing system and to identify
the problems in the current system. The analysis was done by observing the existing
system, interacting with the users and taking their feedback. The key problems identified
were:
- Lack of mobility
- Dependency on computer systems
- Network connectivity issues
- Resource problems like electricity
- High transaction costs
- Delay in transaction processing
- Lack of security and privacy
- Limited coverage and reach
To address these problems, the following goals were defined for the new proposed system:
This document provides a summary of a 7th edition handbook on fuel cells published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2004. The handbook contains detailed information on fuel cell technologies including polymer electrolyte fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cells. It discusses fuel cell components, performance, applications, and systems-level designs. The handbook serves as a comprehensive technical resource for understanding fuel cell technology fundamentals and the current state of development.
This document is a thesis submitted by Aaron Outhwaite to Dalhousie University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Applied Sciences degree. The thesis characterizes the design and modeling of a building-integrated microalgae photobioreactor (BIMP) system. It discusses BIMP design fundamentals, including growth limiting factors like light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon. It also covers BIMP modeling fundamentals, growth rate expressions, and dynamics of light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon dioxide in the system. Several chapters then present mathematical models of light and temperature dynamics in a BIMP and results of the models.
PTPS Panipat Summer Training Project ReportAanand Kumar
This document is a project report submitted by Anand Kumar for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree. The report provides details of Anand Kumar's 6-week industrial training at Panipat Thermal Power Station under the supervision of Er. A.K. Miglani. The report includes an introduction to the power plant, descriptions of the key components like the boiler, turbine, generator, condenser, cooling tower, and ash handling systems. It also discusses the coal, water, and fuel systems and provides specifications for components like the steam turbine and electrostatic precipitator.
This document provides an overview and analysis of the city of Wuhan, China. It discusses Wuhan's infrastructure, regional strategy, economy, industries, population data, housing prices, government projects, foreign investment environment and policies. Key information includes details on Wuhan's transportation network, GDP, pillar industries like equipment manufacturing and biomedicine, population of over 10 million, and incentives available for foreign direct investment. Contact information is also provided for Wuhan government offices and service providers.
This document provides an overview of using the User Managed Access (UMA) protocol and Keycloak for authorization. It describes UMA concepts like request tokens, resources, and permissions. It then demonstrates a sample UMA photo sharing application implemented with Keycloak. The application allows users to create photo albums, share albums with other users, and request access that can be approved or revoked. It also shows how to interact with the UMA functionality through REST APIs to perform actions like requesting access tokens, viewing resources, and managing permissions.
This document provides the proceedings from an international workshop on biomass briquetting held in New Delhi, India in April 1995. It includes papers presented on various aspects of biomass briquetting technology and applications. The key topics covered include results from a biomass densification research project testing screw press briquetting technology, the status and potential of briquetting in India, the effects of feedstock preheating on briquetting different biomasses, perspectives on briquetting from India and other Asian countries, and recommendations to further biomass briquetting technologies and applications.
This document reviews the process of converting biomass to liquid transportation fuels via Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. It discusses the FT reaction mechanism and catalysts used, including iron and cobalt. Low and high temperature FT reactors are also described. The document examines factors that influence the FT product distribution and reviews the environmental impacts and economics of biomass-to-liquid (BTL) processes. Several commercial-scale BTL installations are also discussed. In conclusion, the review finds that producing liquid fuels from biomass-derived syngas using FT synthesis promises a sustainable energy source for transportation but that there are still relatively few large-scale BTL plants utilizing this technology.
This document reviews renewable energy research progress in Mexico. It finds that Mexico has significant potential for solar, wind, biomass, hydropower, and geothermal energy but has not fully exploited these resources. The Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico has led research on hydropower, wind, solar and biomass while Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas has led on geothermal. Mexico aims to generate 35% of its energy from renewables by 2024.
This document discusses integrated community energy systems (ICES) and tools for planning and analyzing them. It provides background on distribution system optimization, introducing distributed generation and microgrids, and defining ICES. The document surveys several modeling tools for ICES planning and analysis, including DER-CAM and MARKAL/TIMES. It finds that DER-CAM may be suitable for ICES design modeling due to its robust optimization algorithm and applications to microgrids. MARKAL/TIMES also enables long-term analysis of deploying ICES. Overall the document analyzes tools for optimally designing and evaluating sustainability-focused ICES deployment scenarios over long time horizons.
Handbook for vaccine and cold chain handlers 2015 (26.08.15)drdduttaM
India has one of the largest universal immunization programs in the world, providing vaccines to over 27 million infants and 30 million pregnant women annually through a vast health infrastructure and network of over 9 million immunization sessions per year. The immunization supply chain system is critical to ensure vaccines are delivered in the right quantity, quality, time, temperature, and place to beneficiaries and has established a wide cold chain network of stores from the national to sub-district levels to effectively store and distribute vaccines.
This document describes a case study that investigated using videos to teach rural communities in Nigeria about solar cooking. The researcher worked with two non-profits in Nigeria to create locally-made videos in local languages about building and using solar cookers. Nine solar cookers of different designs were built locally and tested. Workshops using the videos helped transfer knowledge about solar cooking. The videos and solar cookers helped build skills and capacity around solar cooking, which has benefits like reducing women's workloads, poverty, and environmental impacts. The study evaluated whether locally-made videos were effective for teaching people new to solar cooking.
The document contains a report from Piotr Blaut on his work placement at Kinsale Energy Limited. During his placement, he explored natural gas extraction, processing, storage and transportation. He participated in projects involving upgrading systems for gas dehydration, updating drawings and tagging of the fire and gas detection system, and adjusting flame detectors' fields of view. The report details the various stages of offshore gas production, processing and safety systems at the Kinsale facilities.
Optimising pollination of macadamia & avocado in australiaDuTuLe
This report summarizes research on optimizing pollination of macadamias and avocados in Australia. Key findings include:
1) Cross-pollination increased nut set in macadamia varieties, suggesting mixed varieties can boost yields. However, pollinating more racemes per tree saw declining nut set in some varieties.
2) Avocado and macadamia flower opening is affected by temperature, impacting pollination. A model linked avocado flowering in the Tri-State region to overnight temperatures.
3) Honey bees were the main macadamia flower visitors, but abundance varied greatly between orchards. More can be done to promote native pollinators.
4) The research aims
This document is a reference guide for the administration panel of CS-Cart Community version 2.2.4. It includes sections that provide information on how to manage orders, products, customers, websites, shipping and taxes, and administration settings through the administration panel. The guide covers topics such as viewing orders, managing product categories and promotions, customizing profiles, managing website content, configuring shipping methods and taxes, installing add-ons, and setting up payment and database options.
This E-Book was the idea of Eng. Hany Ismael, He is a Civil Engineer BSc, Project Management Professional
certified PMP, MSc student at Liverpool University, involved in construction projects since 11 years, and working
as a Planning Manager. He likes to share Project Management Information and follow the rabid update of Project
Management Tools such as Primavera and Excel.
To make it easier for you, our E-Book will illustrate the planning and the time frame for MEP installations
processes. So our book is divided in to 9 chapters which will cover the following topics:
1. Equipment
2. Conveying Systems
3. Fire Suppressions
4. Plumbing
5. Heating Ventilation and Air conditioning
6. Integrated Automation
7. Electrical
8. Electronic Safety and Security
9. Electronic Surveillance
This Document is created by PlanningEngineer.Net Website. PlanningEngineer.net is an online project management website, we are a PM Office online simulation aiming to share knowledge, books, several courses as well as online consultancy.
Logistics support is critical to immunization services to ensure the availability of appropriate equipment and an adequate supply of high-quality vaccines and immunization-related materials to all levels of the programme.
Via : https://www.itsu.org.in
National Cold Chain Plan (NCCP) should be prepared and implemented as a part of Multi Year Strategic Plan. This plan should be comprehensive enough to include cold chain assessment, forecasting, procurement and supply, replacement, program review, logistics and supply chain management.
This document provides standards and procedures for titling client and account information on CIF and AIF records. It describes account formats for various types of commercial, individual, organization, and other special purpose accounts. Descriptions are provided for accounts such as campaigns, churches, scouting troops, estates, trusts, and more. The purpose is to ensure standardization and prevent legal issues from incorrect account registration.
This internship report summarizes Muhammad Farhan Javed's internship at the National Bank of Pakistan. It provides an overview of the bank's history, nature of business, business volume, branch network, number of employees, product lines including deposits, advances, remittances, and miscellaneous services. It also describes the bank's organizational structure, including its board of directors and the 15 divisions that make up its senior management team. The report aims to provide a high-level understanding of NBP's business and operations.
This report provides a summary of Solyndra's operations from its founding through its bankruptcy filing in 2011. It discusses Solyndra's solar panel technology, its financing and construction of two manufacturing facilities, the impact of the economic downturn on the solar industry, and Solyndra's restructuring efforts and capital raising attempts in 2010. It also provides context on the solar industry and market conditions during this period. The report reviews Solyndra's $535 million loan guarantee from the Department of Energy that helped fund construction of its second factory.
The document provides an overview of spending patterns across different socio-economic classes (SECs) in urban and rural India. It includes data on average household incomes, asset ownership, expenditure allocation, demographics, priorities, and technology adoption across SECs in urban areas. For rural areas, it outlines metrics like education levels, media exposure, and product penetration. Various charts and tables present data on incomes, expenditures, assets, demographics, and consumer preferences for both urban and rural populations in India.
latest_ wasit rp data collection report_korrektur_arbsv-bup
This document discusses the ADEC and B.U.P. It outlines several sections including objectives, methodology, analysis, results, and conclusions. The objectives were to analyze the ADEC and B.U.P. programs and compare their performance. The methodology involved collecting data on key indicators from both programs. The analysis section examines the data in detail and compares the performance of ADEC and B.U.P. across several indicators. The results provide the findings of the comparative analysis and highlights where one program outperformed the other. The conclusion summarizes that while both programs had successes, ADEC showed better overall performance based on the indicators analyzed.
Send money module
Receive money module
Withdraw module
Balance enquiry
2.7 Specific Problem Analysis
The specific problem analysis was done to understand the existing system and to identify
the problems in the current system. The analysis was done by observing the existing
system, interacting with the users and taking their feedback. The key problems identified
were:
- Lack of mobility
- Dependency on computer systems
- Network connectivity issues
- Resource problems like electricity
- High transaction costs
- Delay in transaction processing
- Lack of security and privacy
- Limited coverage and reach
To address these problems, the following goals were defined for the new proposed system:
This document provides a summary of a 7th edition handbook on fuel cells published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2004. The handbook contains detailed information on fuel cell technologies including polymer electrolyte fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cells. It discusses fuel cell components, performance, applications, and systems-level designs. The handbook serves as a comprehensive technical resource for understanding fuel cell technology fundamentals and the current state of development.
This document is a thesis submitted by Aaron Outhwaite to Dalhousie University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Applied Sciences degree. The thesis characterizes the design and modeling of a building-integrated microalgae photobioreactor (BIMP) system. It discusses BIMP design fundamentals, including growth limiting factors like light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon. It also covers BIMP modeling fundamentals, growth rate expressions, and dynamics of light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon dioxide in the system. Several chapters then present mathematical models of light and temperature dynamics in a BIMP and results of the models.
PTPS Panipat Summer Training Project ReportAanand Kumar
This document is a project report submitted by Anand Kumar for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree. The report provides details of Anand Kumar's 6-week industrial training at Panipat Thermal Power Station under the supervision of Er. A.K. Miglani. The report includes an introduction to the power plant, descriptions of the key components like the boiler, turbine, generator, condenser, cooling tower, and ash handling systems. It also discusses the coal, water, and fuel systems and provides specifications for components like the steam turbine and electrostatic precipitator.
This document provides an overview and analysis of the city of Wuhan, China. It discusses Wuhan's infrastructure, regional strategy, economy, industries, population data, housing prices, government projects, foreign investment environment and policies. Key information includes details on Wuhan's transportation network, GDP, pillar industries like equipment manufacturing and biomedicine, population of over 10 million, and incentives available for foreign direct investment. Contact information is also provided for Wuhan government offices and service providers.
This document provides an overview of using the User Managed Access (UMA) protocol and Keycloak for authorization. It describes UMA concepts like request tokens, resources, and permissions. It then demonstrates a sample UMA photo sharing application implemented with Keycloak. The application allows users to create photo albums, share albums with other users, and request access that can be approved or revoked. It also shows how to interact with the UMA functionality through REST APIs to perform actions like requesting access tokens, viewing resources, and managing permissions.
This document provides the proceedings from an international workshop on biomass briquetting held in New Delhi, India in April 1995. It includes papers presented on various aspects of biomass briquetting technology and applications. The key topics covered include results from a biomass densification research project testing screw press briquetting technology, the status and potential of briquetting in India, the effects of feedstock preheating on briquetting different biomasses, perspectives on briquetting from India and other Asian countries, and recommendations to further biomass briquetting technologies and applications.
This document reviews the process of converting biomass to liquid transportation fuels via Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. It discusses the FT reaction mechanism and catalysts used, including iron and cobalt. Low and high temperature FT reactors are also described. The document examines factors that influence the FT product distribution and reviews the environmental impacts and economics of biomass-to-liquid (BTL) processes. Several commercial-scale BTL installations are also discussed. In conclusion, the review finds that producing liquid fuels from biomass-derived syngas using FT synthesis promises a sustainable energy source for transportation but that there are still relatively few large-scale BTL plants utilizing this technology.
This document reviews renewable energy research progress in Mexico. It finds that Mexico has significant potential for solar, wind, biomass, hydropower, and geothermal energy but has not fully exploited these resources. The Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico has led research on hydropower, wind, solar and biomass while Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas has led on geothermal. Mexico aims to generate 35% of its energy from renewables by 2024.
This document discusses integrated community energy systems (ICES) and tools for planning and analyzing them. It provides background on distribution system optimization, introducing distributed generation and microgrids, and defining ICES. The document surveys several modeling tools for ICES planning and analysis, including DER-CAM and MARKAL/TIMES. It finds that DER-CAM may be suitable for ICES design modeling due to its robust optimization algorithm and applications to microgrids. MARKAL/TIMES also enables long-term analysis of deploying ICES. Overall the document analyzes tools for optimally designing and evaluating sustainability-focused ICES deployment scenarios over long time horizons.
This document provides an overview of biomass briquetting technology and practices. It discusses various agro-residues that can be used for briquetting, including rice husk, coffee husk, and groundnut shells. It describes the fundamental aspects and mechanisms of briquetting using screw press and piston press technologies. Key aspects covered include feed processing equipment, material and energy balances, the process for setting up a briquetting plant, and an economic analysis of briquetting. The document aims to familiarize readers with biomass briquetting and its potential to provide a cleaner fuel alternative while making productive use of agricultural residues.
This document discusses biomass briquetting technology and practices. It provides an overview of potential agricultural residues for briquetting in Asia, fundamental aspects of briquetting including binding mechanisms and compaction characteristics. It also describes various briquetting technologies such as screw press and piston press. Key components of a briquetting plant and procedures for setting up a new plant are outlined. The document concludes with sections on economic analysis and applications of biomass briquettes.
ABE fermentation products recovery methods A review.pdfYolanda Ivey
This document reviews techniques for recovering acetone, butanol, and ethanol (ABE) from fermentation processes, including distillation, adsorption, gas stripping, liquid-liquid extraction, pertraction, membrane distillation, sweeping gas pervaporation, thermopervaporation, and vacuum pervaporation. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each method and provides examples of their applications. Global developments in commercial scale ABE fermentation facilities using Clostridium bacteria are also reviewed.
This presentation aims to review the literature concerning the choice of selectivity for hydrogels based on classification, application and processing. Super porous hydrogels (SPHs) and superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) represent an innovative category of recent generation highlighted as an ideal mould system for the study of solution- dependent phenomena. Hydrogels, also termed as smart and/or hungry networks, are currently subject of considerable scientific research due to their potential in hi-tech applications in the biomedical, pharmaceutical, biotechnology, bioseparation, biosensor, agriculture, oil recovery and cosmetics fields. Smart hydrogels display a significant physiochemical change in response to small changes in the surroundings. However, such changes are reversible; therefore, the hydrogels are capable of returning to its initial state after a reaction as soon as the trigger is removed.
This document reviews the use of microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications. It discusses how microalgae are a viable feedstock for biodiesel due to their high lipid content and growth rates. The document outlines the various stages of the microalgae to biodiesel process, including algae cultivation methods, harvesting, lipid extraction, and biodiesel production. It also describes other potential uses of microalgae, such as CO2 sequestration from flue gases, wastewater treatment, production of fine chemicals, and applications in human health and aquaculture.
Author S Personal Copy Peptide-Based Biopolymers In Biomedicine And Biotechno...Andrea Porter
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
This document provides an overview of pollution prevention opportunities in the dairy industry across Mediterranean countries. It describes the status of the dairy sector, main production processes and their environmental effects, and opportunities to reduce pollution. The objectives are to characterize the dairy industry in MAP regions, key processes, secondary operations, products, environmental impacts, and recommend pollution prevention approaches. Case studies from MAP countries are presented to illustrate best practices for reducing water usage, wastewater, energy use, and emissions in dairy production.
This document reviews recent progress in catalytically converting glycerol, a byproduct of biodiesel production, into value-added chemicals through carboxylation and acetylation reactions. Specifically, it discusses:
1) Catalytic routes for producing glycerol carbonate via transesterification of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate and factors that influence this reaction.
2) Pathways for acetylating glycerol into glycerol acetate esters through esterification with acetic acid and how reaction parameters impact this process.
3) Challenges with catalyst deactivation and the need for further studies on catalyst reusability and structure-performance relationships to enable more effective utilization of heterogeneous catalyst
The document provides an overview of the hydrogen fuel industry in India. It discusses the evolution of the industry and key organizations involved, including Indian Oil Corporation Limited. A PESTEL analysis identifies political support for hydrogen initiatives, the economic benefits but also costs challenges. Technologically, research is being done on production, storage and use in vehicles. Indian Oil plans to launch the first public hydrogen fueling station in India. The need for hydrogen fuel is discussed to reduce dependence on oil imports and meet energy demand in a sustainable way.
This document provides a review of solar photovoltaic water pumping system technology. It discusses the current state of the technology and its components, including PV generators and water pumps. It also reviews literature on performance analysis and optimization of PV water pumping systems. The study finds that solar water pumping is economically viable compared to diesel or electric pumps, with payback periods of 4-6 years for some systems. It identifies factors that affect PV pump performance and potential areas for further research.
This document surveys common MPPT (maximum power point tracking) methods used in photovoltaic systems, including conventional and advanced algorithms. It analyzes the Perturbation and Observation (P&O), Incremental Conductance (IncCond), and fuzzy logic-based MPPT controllers through MATLAB/Simulink simulations. The simulations show the fuzzy logic controller has better static and dynamic performance than the conventional P&O and IncCond techniques under varying weather conditions such as changes in solar radiation and temperature.
This master's thesis assesses the effect of production well design parameters on hydrate formation. It uses nodal analysis software to model different well systems and conduct sensitivity analyses on parameters like tubing diameter, separator pressure, insulation, and water cut. The analyses show how these parameters can impact hydrate stability and formation risk with and without thermodynamic inhibitors. The thesis concludes by comparing hydrate risks between different fluid and environmental conditions and proposing areas for further research.
This document summarizes recent advances in the cellular and molecular biology of brown adipose tissue (BAT). It discusses that BAT is composed mainly of brown adipocytes which contain many mitochondria and express uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). UCP1 allows BAT to generate heat by uncoupling ATP production from respiration. The sympathetic nervous system activates BAT through norepinephrine signaling on beta-3 adrenergic receptors, initiating pathways that can acutely or chronically activate thermogenesis. BAT plays an important role in non-shivering thermogenesis and energy expenditure, making it a potential target for obesity treatment.
This document provides an overview of the Maisotsenko Cycle (M-Cycle), a thermodynamic process that utilizes latent heat from water evaporation. It discusses the principle and features of the M-Cycle and reviews its applications in heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC) systems, cooling systems, and gas turbine power cycles. The M-Cycle enables more efficient evaporative cooling compared to conventional methods and can achieve air conditioning loads while reducing energy consumption. When applied to HVAC, cooling, and power generation systems, the M-Cycle has the potential to improve performance and reduce environmental impacts.
A Study Of Existing Solar Power Policy Framework In India For Viability Of Th...Linda Garcia
This study analyzes the existing solar power policy framework in India to assess the viability of solar projects. It discusses how government policies over the last 5-6 years, including feed-in tariffs, renewable purchase obligations, tax benefits, and competitive bidding/auctions have significantly reduced solar tariffs from $0.271/kWh to less than $0.092/kWh. However, this lowered tariff raises questions about project sustainability. Additionally, the multi-policy environment at central and state levels has created confusion for developers in selecting schemes. The paper evaluates various policy schemes and their impact on project viability factors like financing costs, technology choice, and location.
This document reviews energy efficient features found in traditional architecture that can improve indoor thermal comfort in modern buildings. It identifies several passive design strategies used in vernacular buildings, such as massing, orientation, shading, ventilation, and local materials like rammed earth. Case studies of traditional architecture in northern India, including Himachal Pradesh, are examined. The study finds that incorporating thermal mass, passive solar techniques, and natural ventilation from vernacular designs can help modern buildings use less energy while improving occupant comfort. Further research is needed to strengthen earth as a building material and better understand thermal performance of traditional structures.
Application of-chitosan-a-natural-aminopolysaccharide-for-dye-removal-from-aq...Linh Ve
This document reviews recent literature on the use of chitosan for dye removal from aqueous solutions via adsorption. It summarizes that chitosan and its derivatives have shown potential as adsorbents for dye removal in batch studies. The adsorption performance of chitosan can be controlled by modifying its characteristics, activation conditions, process variables, dye chemistry, and solution conditions. Equilibrium isotherm and kinetic models as well as thermodynamic studies have been used to understand and compare chitosan's adsorption behavior.
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
A high-Speed Communication System is based on the Design of a Bi-NoC Router, ...DharmaBanothu
The Network on Chip (NoC) has emerged as an effective
solution for intercommunication infrastructure within System on
Chip (SoC) designs, overcoming the limitations of traditional
methods that face significant bottlenecks. However, the complexity
of NoC design presents numerous challenges related to
performance metrics such as scalability, latency, power
consumption, and signal integrity. This project addresses the
issues within the router's memory unit and proposes an enhanced
memory structure. To achieve efficient data transfer, FIFO buffers
are implemented in distributed RAM and virtual channels for
FPGA-based NoC. The project introduces advanced FIFO-based
memory units within the NoC router, assessing their performance
in a Bi-directional NoC (Bi-NoC) configuration. The primary
objective is to reduce the router's workload while enhancing the
FIFO internal structure. To further improve data transfer speed,
a Bi-NoC with a self-configurable intercommunication channel is
suggested. Simulation and synthesis results demonstrate
guaranteed throughput, predictable latency, and equitable
network access, showing significant improvement over previous
designs
Accident detection system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
The Rapid growth of technology and infrastructure has made our lives easier. The
advent of technology has also increased the traffic hazards and the road accidents take place
frequently which causes huge loss of life and property because of the poor emergency facilities.
Many lives could have been saved if emergency service could get accident information and
reach in time. Our project will provide an optimum solution to this draw back. A piezo electric
sensor can be used as a crash or rollover detector of the vehicle during and after a crash. With
signals from a piezo electric sensor, a severe accident can be recognized. According to this
project when a vehicle meets with an accident immediately piezo electric sensor will detect the
signal or if a car rolls over. Then with the help of GSM module and GPS module, the location
will be sent to the emergency contact. Then after conforming the location necessary action will
be taken. If the person meets with a small accident or if there is no serious threat to anyone’s
life, then the alert message can be terminated by the driver by a switch provided in order to
avoid wasting the valuable time of the medical rescue team.
Impartiality as per ISO /IEC 17025:2017 StandardMuhammadJazib15
This document provides basic guidelines for imparitallity requirement of ISO 17025. It defines in detial how it is met and wiudhwdih jdhsjdhwudjwkdbjwkdddddddddddkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwioiiiiiiiiiiiii uwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwhe wiqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq gbbbbbbbbbbbbb owdjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj widhi owqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq uwdhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhwqiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw0pooooojjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj whhhhhhhhhhh wheeeeeeee wihieiiiiii wihe
e qqqqqqqqqqeuwiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiqw dddddddddd cccccccccccccccv s w c r
cdf cb bicbsad ishd d qwkbdwiur e wetwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww w
dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddfffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffw
uuuuhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhe qiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbu uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuum
m
m mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm m i
g i dijsd sjdnsjd ndjajsdnnsa adjdnawddddddddddddd uw
Supermarket Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Supermarket management is a stand-alone J2EE using Eclipse Juno program.
This project contains all the necessary required information about maintaining
the supermarket billing system.
The core idea of this project to minimize the paper work and centralize the
data. Here all the communication is taken in secure manner. That is, in this
application the information will be stored in client itself. For further security the
data base is stored in the back-end oracle and so no intruders can access it.
Prediction of Electrical Energy Efficiency Using Information on Consumer's Ac...PriyankaKilaniya
Energy efficiency has been important since the latter part of the last century. The main object of this survey is to determine the energy efficiency knowledge among consumers. Two separate districts in Bangladesh are selected to conduct the survey on households and showrooms about the energy and seller also. The survey uses the data to find some regression equations from which it is easy to predict energy efficiency knowledge. The data is analyzed and calculated based on five important criteria. The initial target was to find some factors that help predict a person's energy efficiency knowledge. From the survey, it is found that the energy efficiency awareness among the people of our country is very low. Relationships between household energy use behaviors are estimated using a unique dataset of about 40 households and 20 showrooms in Bangladesh's Chapainawabganj and Bagerhat districts. Knowledge of energy consumption and energy efficiency technology options is found to be associated with household use of energy conservation practices. Household characteristics also influence household energy use behavior. Younger household cohorts are more likely to adopt energy-efficient technologies and energy conservation practices and place primary importance on energy saving for environmental reasons. Education also influences attitudes toward energy conservation in Bangladesh. Low-education households indicate they primarily save electricity for the environment while high-education households indicate they are motivated by environmental concerns.
Open Channel Flow: fluid flow with a free surfaceIndrajeet sahu
Open Channel Flow: This topic focuses on fluid flow with a free surface, such as in rivers, canals, and drainage ditches. Key concepts include the classification of flow types (steady vs. unsteady, uniform vs. non-uniform), hydraulic radius, flow resistance, Manning's equation, critical flow conditions, and energy and momentum principles. It also covers flow measurement techniques, gradually varied flow analysis, and the design of open channels. Understanding these principles is vital for effective water resource management and engineering applications.
Digital Twins Computer Networking Paper Presentation.pptxaryanpankaj78
A Digital Twin in computer networking is a virtual representation of a physical network, used to simulate, analyze, and optimize network performance and reliability. It leverages real-time data to enhance network management, predict issues, and improve decision-making processes.
2. 6.5. Membrane biodiesel production and refining technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
1. Introduction
It is well known that a considerable amount of biodiesel is
produced from edible oils [1]. However, the extensive use of edible
oils might lead to some negative impacts such as starvation and
higher food prices in developing countries [2]. For instance, in
Malaysia the biodiesel refineries have created shortages in palm
oil. Therefore the price of palm oil for cooking has risen by 70% [3].
The rising food prices may be beneficial to the poor farm
producers but at the same time they are unlikely to benefit the
urban poor [4]. Some researchers have pointed out that developing
the technology to convert cellulosic materials into biofuels will
significantly reduce food shortage problems [5]. In addition to this,
the waste edible oil may be made primary feedstock and the fresh
edible and non-edible oils should be made supplement feedstocks.
This may reduce the food shortages significantly [6]. However,
many of the researchers agree that non-edible oils are the suitable
alternative to edible oils for biodiesel production. Hence, the
recent focus is to find non-edible oil feedstocks for biodiesel
production [7].
Many of the reviewing papers have tried to report the necessity
and feasibility of non-edible oils for biodiesel production. A lot of
work is being carried out on biodiesel production from Jatropha oil
in countries like India, Malaysia and Indonesia [8–12].
However, recent trends and technologies for the production of
biodiesel from non-edible oils and the impact of price rise of the
food commodities due to the consumption of edible oils for
biodiesel have not yet attracted the attention they deserve.
The aim of this paper is to emphasize the effects of food
shortages due to the consumption of edible oils and to present the
different potentials of non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel produc-
tion. Special attention has been paid to established processes and
considerations for emerging technologies of potential interests.
2. International trends in food demand and supply
There are concerns regarding whether a growing population
can be fed in a sustainable manner or not [13]. When dwarfism
was introduced in wheat and rice, yields were raised by 2–3% per
year during two to three decades [14]. The Malthusian prognosis
has been undermined by an exponential increase in world food
supply, mainly maize, rice and wheat since 1960 [15]. The devel-
opment of innovative technologies resulted in both improved
genetic traits and advanced crop management. Despite these
trends a decline of rice yields from 1985 onwards has been
reported for the Indo-Gangetic Plains in India [16]. In spite of
these variations in the yield of different crops, there is still a gap
between the growth of production and demand of supply. Addi-
tionally, there may be other factors but the demand of edible
feedstocks for biofuel cannot be ruled out.
3. Food for poor or fuel for rich – a debate
There are many factors which cause the increase in food
commodity prices [17]. It is difficult or impossible to separate
the reasons responsible for the increase of commodity price other
than biofuels. As far as biofuels are concerned, it is argued that one
must distinguish between biofuels driven by market forces and
biofuels driven by government policy [18]. However, it is accepted
globally that biofuels produced from edible feedstocks cannot
replace the petroleum fuels without impacting food supplies [19].
4. Effects of elevated food prices on poverty
It has been reported by many researchers and non-governmental
organizations that higher food commodity prices adversely affect
the poor in general and urban poor in particular. The urban poor in
many countries spend a much higher percentage of their income on
food [20,21]. The reason for their argument is the production of
biofuels. Therefore, for the researchers and scientists the challenge
is to produce enough food and biofuel for people in an environ-
mentally sound manner.
5. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a renewable and clean burning combustible fuel for
diesel engines [22]. It is nontoxic, biodegradable, and virtually free
from aromatics and sulfur contents [23]. This is because its
primary components are domestic renewable resources such as
vegetable oil and animal fats consisting of long-chain alkyl
(methyl, ethyl, or propyl) esters [24]. Biodiesel is the mono-alkyl
esters of fatty acids that result from animal fats or vegetable oils
[25]. In other words, biodiesel (fatty acid ester) is the end result of
the chemical reaction caused by mixing vegetable oil or animal fat
with an alcohol such as methanol. Together these ingredients
produce a compound recognized as a fatty acid alkyl ester.
A catalyst such as sodium hydroxide is also necessary in order
for the biodiesel to be considered a finished product, and is added
with the new compounds to produce biodiesel.
Biodiesel offers many advantages as it is [26–30]
renewable and energy efficient;
usable in most diesel engines with no or only minor
modifications;
nontoxic, biodegradable and suitable for sensitive
environments and
a fuel with high flash point, positive energy balance and
reduced emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), total hydrocarbon
(THC) and particulate matter (PM).
Apart from the above advantages, following are the disadvan-
tages of biodiesel: [31,32]
Biodiesel has 12% lower energy content than diesel.
Due to the high oxygen content in biodiesel, it produces
relatively higher NOx.
Biodiesel can cause corrosion in vehicle material.
5.1. Production technologies
The high viscosity, low volatility and polyunsaturated charac-
teristics of vegetable oils make them unsuitable to be used in
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851 841
3. diesel engines. These problems could be solved to an extent by
methods like pyrolysis, dilution (direct blending), micro-emulsion,
and transesterification. Dilution and micro-emulsion processes are
not preferred due to higher viscosity and bad volatility though
they are simple [33]. Pyrolysis process is found to be simple and
environment friendly [34]. However, the transesterification pro-
cess is commonly used for the production of biodiesel. Transester-
ification is the reaction of a fat or oil with an alcohol commonly
methanol to form its methyl esters and glycerol. To improve the
reaction rate and yield, usually sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide is used as catalyst. Fig. 1 shows the different processes
employed for biodiesel production.
Generally, there are two types of transesterification processes.
They are catalytic and non-catalytic transesterification. Transester-
ification reaction can be catalyzed by both homogeneous (alkalis
and acids) and heterogeneous catalysts. Homogeneous catalysts
are better in performance when the free fatty acid content in the
crude oil is o1% [35]. The expensive separation of catalyst from
the mixture and formation of the unwanted by-product (soap) are
the limitations of the homogenous catalyst [36].
The performance of heterogeneous catalysts is found better for the
transesterification reaction of vegetable oils when their free fatty acid
(FFA) content is 41%. The separation of catalyst from the reaction
products is easier than the homogenous catalysts. However, for the
transesterification process for biodiesel production both types of
catalyst methods have been found to be suitable [24,37].
In general, the catalyst increases the reaction rate of the
transesterification and also enhances the solubility of alcohol as
well. Acid-catalyzed reaction is used to reduce the higher acid
value of the feedstocks, as a pretreatment step known as ester-
ification. However, the reaction rate is relatively slower than with
transesterification [38]. A higher conversion could be achieved by
increasing the reaction temperature and the reaction time [39,40].
Base-catalyzed reaction is faster than the acid-catalyzed reac-
tion but the yield of biodiesel is lowered due to the formation of
soap. In addition to this, the separation of biodiesel from glycerol
is quite difficult. However, it is observed that methoxide catalysts
give higher yields than hydroxide catalysts [41].
The other methods such as supercritical processes, microwave
and ultrasonic irradiation systems are also being used but to a
lesser extent. The conventional methods of transesterification with
yield and the reaction conditions employed for some non-edible
oils have been shown in Table 1.
5.2. Limitations of existing production technologies
Generally non-edible feedstocks including waste vegetable oils,
animal fats and non-food crops are produced by conventional
transesterification reaction. However, owing to the limitations of
the conventional methods new technologies are starting to be
developed. In the previous chapters it was pointed out that
biodiesel could be produced by different technological processes,
mainly transesterification using homogeneous catalysts as well as
heterogeneous catalysts. All these available methods are capable of
producing biodiesel from refined oil [66] which is the most
common source of raw material for its production. However, they
have their own advantages and disadvantages [67].
The acid-catalyzed homogeneous transesterification has not
been widely investigated and employed compared to the alkali-
catalyzed process due to its limitations such as slower reaction
rates, the need for tougher conditions (higher temperatures,
methanol-to-oil molar ratios and quantities of catalysts) and the
formation of undesired secondary products such as dialkyl or
glycerol ethers. Therefore it is less attractive to the industrial
purposes [68]. On the other hand, the main problem associated
with the heterogeneously catalyzed transesterification is the
deactivation due to the presence of water, which is normally
produced from the esterification reaction [67].
Enzymes are believed to be a good choice to produce biodiesel;
they can easily treat fatty acids as well as triglycerides to produce
biodiesel from non-edible oils with higher conversions [37].
However, their high production cost limits their employability
[69]. This may be overcome by using molecular technologies to
enable the production of enzymes in higher quantities as well as in
a virtually purified form [70].
The most common and simple non-catalyzed biodiesel produc-
tion process is by using supercritical methanol. Though the
procedure is claimed to be effective, it is highly expensive
[68,71]. Hence, there has been more research to explore new
technologies for the production of biodiesel considering the
economic viability for industrial attraction.
Feedstoks
Pyrolysis
Condensed liquid
Physical upgrading
Catalytic
upgrading
Transportation
fuel
Dilution Microemulsion Tranesterification
Non catalytic
BIOX-process
Super critical
methanol
catalytic
Homogeneous
Acidic catalyst
Base catalyst
Hetrogeneous
Earzymes
Titanium Silicate
MgO, CaO,SrO
Fig. 1. Methods for biodiesel production [42,43].
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851
842
4. Table 1
Conventional methods for biodiesel production.
Transesterification
method
Description (oil/acid/base catalyst) Biodiesel yield (%) Ref.
Homogeneous
catalyzed
(acids and base)
Jatropha oil [44,45]
Step 1: Esterification with 1% H2SO4 90.1% at 6 h reaction
Step 2: Transesterification by 1% NaOH
Karanja oil
Step 1: Esterification with 1.5% H2SO4 90–95% at 2 h reaction [46]
Step 2: Transesterification by 0.8% NaOH, 1% CH3ONa and 1% KOH
Step 1: Esterification with 0.5% H2SO4 80–85% at 1.25 h reaction [47]
Step 2: Transesterification by 2% KOH
Ceiba pentandra oil 99.5% at 1.75 h reaction [48]
Step 1: Esterification with 1.834% H2SO4
Step 2: Transesterification by 1% KOH
Heterogeneous
catalyzed
(alkalis and acids)
Moringa oleifera
3% Sulphated tin oxide (acid catalyst) at 150 1C 84% at 2.5 h reaction [49]
Jatropha oil
7.61% Sulfated zirconia loaded on alumina (acid catalyst) at 150 1C 90.32% at 4 h reaction [50]
Jatropha oil 95% at 80 min
2% CaO/Fe3O4 (base catalyst) at 70 1C 99% at 4 h reaction [51]
Jatropha oil
1% Mg–Al hydrotalcites (base catalyst) at 45 1C 95.2% at 1.5 h reaction [52]
Supercritical processes Jatropha oil
At temperature of 320 1C and pressure of 15 MPa 84.6% at 5 min reaction [53]
Krating oil
At temperature of 260 1C and pressure of 16 MPa 90.4% at 10 min reaction [53]
Jatropha curcas oil
Step 1: Sub-critical water treatment at temperature of 270 1C and pressure
of 27 MPa for 25 min
97% at 40 min reaction [54]
Step 2: Supercritical dimethyl carbonate treatment at temperature of 300 1C
and pressure 9 MPa for 15 min
Microwave-assisted
transesterification
Camelina sativa oil
1.5% BaO as catalyst with 9:1 methanol oil ratio 94% at 4 min reaction [55]
Rice barn oil
0.15–0.18% NaOH as catalyst at 80 1C reaction temperature 98.82% at 20 min
reaction
[56]
Pongamia pinnata
0.5% NaOH or 1.5% KOH as catalyst 60 1C reaction temperature 96% at 5 min reaction [57]
Yellow horn oil
1% Heteropolyacid (HPA) as catalyst at 60 1C reaction temperature 96.22% at 10 min
reaction
[58]
Castor oil 90% at 4 h reaction
15% Cesium phosphotungstate-derived catalyst at 70 1C reaction
temperature
[59]
Tung oil
Ultrasonic irradiation
systems
1% CH3OH and KOH as catalyst at 20–30 1C reaction temperature with
ultrasonic frequency of 25 kHz
91.15% at 30 min reaction [60]
Jatropha oil
Step 1: 4% H2SO4 catalyst used for esterification at 60 1C reaction
temperature and power of 210 W
96.4% at 1.5 h reaction [61]
Step 2: 1.4% NaOH catalyst used for transesterification at 60 1C reaction
temperature and power of 210 W
Enzyme-catalyzed Jatropha oil 94% at 24 h reaction [62]
7% Water, 10% immobilized lipase and temperature of 35 1C
Pistacia chinensis bge seed oil 94% at 60 h reaction [63]
20% Water, 7 IU/g of oil and temperature of 37 1C
Babassu oil (Orbinya sp.)
lipase PS with productivity (7 mg of biodiesel/g h) and
temperature of
90.93% at 72 h reaction [64]
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851 843
5. 5.3. Biodiesel from non-edible oils
It is estimated that about 84% of the biodiesel production is
obtained globally by rapeseed oil, which happens to be an edible
oil. Similarly other edible oils such as sunflower oil, palm oil and
soybean oil also contribute substantially [42,72]. Since more than
95% of biodiesel is produced from edible oils, many activists are
claiming that it is not only conversion of edible oil into biodiesel
but also conversion of food into fuel. Recently, non-governmental
organizations and social and environmental activists have started
to argue the harmful effects of biodiesel production, not only from
edible oils but from non-edible oils as well. They argue that usage
of edible oils would lead to food starvation and that of non-edible
oils would cause deforestation and destruction of the ecosystem
[73–75].
However, to overcome this devastating situation or at least to
minimize food shortages, researches have been focused toward
production of biodiesel from non-edible feedstocks. Several ever-
green trees producing non-edible oils can be cultivated in non-
arable land. In fact, many Indian states have decided to reserve a
total of 1.72 million hectares of land for the cultivation of Jatropha.
Furthermore, small quantities of Jatropha biodiesel are already
being used successfully by state public transport buses including
the railways.
5.3.1. Non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel production
The demand for biodiesel has increased sharply in recent years.
To meet the requirements, edible oils alone are not favorable due
to various reasons stated earlier. Under this situation only those
resources or feedstocks can be considered which are non-edible
and produce oil in appreciable quantity. Following are few non-
edible feedstocks.
5.3.1.1. Jatropha curcas L. (Jatropha oil). Jatropha curcas is a
draught-resistant tree mainly found in Central and South
America, South-east Asia, India and Africa [76]. It is a plant with
multipurpose uses and considerable potential for biodiesel
production [77]. The high free fatty acid contents of the jatropha
crude oil could be reduced by esterification. Transesterification of
the esterified oil gives yield of jatropha biodiesel above 99% [78].
The biodiesel produced from Jatropha curcas L. does have similar
properties to that of petroleum diesel [79].
5.3.1.2. Pongamia pinnata (karanja oil). Pongamia pinnata is a fast
growing leguminous tree with a high potential for oil and growth
on marginal land [80]. It is an underutilized plant which grows in
many parts of India. Applying dual-step transesterification would
result in a yield of 96.6–97% biodiesel [81]. The important fuel
properties lie within the limit set by ASTM standards and German
biodiesel standards [82]. The large-scale cultivation of the
Pongamia pinnata could make the non-edible feedstock cheaper
for biodiesel production [83].
5.3.1.3. Madhuca indica (mahua). Madhuca indica is a non-edible
oil with higher free fatty acid contents (19%) available largely in
central and northern plains and forests of India [84]. Madhuca has
two major species, indica and longifolia. The methyl esters of
Madhuca indica could be used as fuel for internal combustion
engines in place of diesel without any modifications on the
engines [85].
5.3.1.4. Michelia champaca. Michelia champaca is a tall evergreen tree
found in China, Burma and throughout India. It is also known as
svarna champa. The seeds of michelia are a rich source of oil (45%).
The flowers of the tree possess excellent fragrance and hence are used
in perfume industry also. The saponification value (SV), iodine value
(IV) and cetane number (CN) of the methyl esters Michelia champaca
indicate its suitability for biodiesel production [86].
5.3.1.5. Garcinia indica. It is a slender evergreen tree found in
many parts of India such as Western Ghats, konkana region,
north canara, south canara, Coorg etc. The seeds contain around
45.5% of the oil. The properties of methyl esters of Garcinia indica
have encouraged it to be used as a potential source for biodiesel
production [86].
5.3.1.6. Azadirachta indica (neem). Neem tree is found in many
parts of India and Bangladesh. Neem seeds contain around 30% of
oil [87]. The oil is light brown in color. It is found to be useful in
cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries as well [88]. The esters of
neem oil can be used as an alternative fuel for diesel engines to
avoid the food and fuel conflict [89].
5.3.1.7. Nicotiana tabacum L. (tobacco). Tobacco seed oil is a by-
product of tobacco leaf production. Tobacco cultivators can give an
oil yield of 33% to 40% of the mass of the seeds [90]. The fuel
properties of biodiesel obtained from tobacco oil were well within
the limit set by latest American (ASTM D 6751-02) and European
(DIN EN 14214) standards [91].
5.3.1.8. Moringa oleifera (moringa). Moringa is most widely known
and utilized in sub-Himalayan regions of northwest India, Africa,
Arabia, and Southeast Asia. The cetane number and oxidative
stability of moringa are found to be higher than those of other
biodiesel fuels [92]. The methyl esters of Moringa oleifera could be
used in diesel engines, mainly as a mixture to petrodiesel [93].
5.3.1.9. Rubber seeds oil. Rubber seeds contain 40–50% of oil [94].
The maximum yield of oil obtained was 49% [95]. All fuel properties of
biodiesel from rubber seeds oil were within the range of standards
including the viscosity, flash point, calorific value etc. [96]. The highest
conversion efficiency (96.9%) was seen when a limestone-based
catalyst was used in the transesterification process to produce
biodiesel from high free fatty acid contents of rubber seeds oil [97].
Table 1 (continued )
Transesterification
method
Description (oil/acid/base catalyst) Biodiesel yield (%) Ref.
45 1C
Stillingia oil
15% Novozyme 435 with tert-butanol and temperature of 40 1C 89.5% at 10 h reaction [65]
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851
844
6. 5.3.1.10. Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Polanga). Calophyllum inophyllum
is available in coastal regions of India, Sri Lanka, East Africa, Australia
and Southern Asia [98]. The ester yield was found to be 98.92% and
the fuel properties of the blends of Calophyllum inophyllum were
within the limit set by ASTM standards [99]. It was reported as an
excellent feedstock for biodiesel production [98].
5.3.1.11. Sterculia feotida L.. Sterculia feotida is native to east Africa,
Australia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and to some extent India. The fuel
properties of Sterculia foetida methyl esters were within the range
of ASTM and EN specifications, except oxidative stability and pour
points [100].
5.3.1.12. Ceiba pentandra. Ceiba pentandra which is commonly known
as kapok is found mainly in Southeast Asia and some parts of India. Its
draught-resistant tree grows naturally in humid or semi-humid
regions. The blends of biodiesel from Ceiba pentandra and diesel
showed a remarkable improvement in all fuel properties in general
and oxidation stability in particular [101]. The production of biodiesel
from Ceiba pentandra could add value to this underutilized feedstock
[48]. It has also been reported that Ceiba pentandra could be used as a
feedstock for bioethanol production as well, apart from being used as
biodiesel feedstock [102].
5.3.1.13. Rice bran. Rice bran oil which is a potential source for
biodiesel production is a by-product of rice milling [103]. The
application of two-step transesterification resulted in a good
quality biodiesel with acceptable properties compared to the
ASTM D6751-02 and DIN V51606 standards [104]. However, high
yield could be obtained in shorter period with the application of
two-step in situ transesterification process [105].
There are some other non-edible feedstocks available, on which
extensive research is being carried out. They are Cerbera odollam (Sea
mango), Sapindus mukorossi (Soapnut), Thevettia peruviana (yellow
oleander), Crambe abyssinica (Hochst), Aleutites fordii (Tung), Sapium
sebiferum (Linn), Roxb (Chinese tallow), M. azedarach (syringe),
Putranjiva roxburghii (Lucky bean tree), Ricinus communis (Castor),
Pachira glabra, Euphorbia lathyris L., Simmondsia chinensis (Jojoba),
Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Roselle), Guizotia abyssinica, Argemone mexicana
L., Croton megalocarpus etc. [66,106].
5.4. Fuel properties of biodiesel from non-edible oils
The fuel properties of biodiesel produced from any feedstock
vary according to the fatty acid composition of that respective
feedstock. The fuel properties of biodiesel are generally expected
to be comparable to diesel fuel in order to run the engine
successfully without any expensive modifications. These proper-
ties include flash point, kinematic viscosity, higher calorific value,
oxidation stability, density and cold flow properties. Table 2
illustrates some of the main fuel properties of biodiesel produced
from different non-edible feedstocks along with the acceptable
limit set by ASTM standards. Among all the properties listed in
Table 2, cold flow properties (pour point, cloud point and cold flow
plug point CFPP), oxidation stability and kinematic viscosity are
among the most important properties which deserve the most
attention. Based on these properties it will be decided whether the
biodiesel produced could be used in an engine during cold climatic
conditions or not. This is because currently European countries are
larger consumers of biodiesel [107]. Similarly viscosity of any oil
indicates the resistance of a material to flow. It therefore affects
the operation of the entire fuel supply system mainly the fuel
injection and spray atomization, particularly at lower tempera-
tures [42,66,108]. Oxidation stability is one more important
property which describes the degradation tendency of biodiesel
and is of great importance in the smooth running of engine parts
[109].
5.5. Performance and emissions of biodiesel from non-edible oils
The demand for combustion engines is continuously growing.
On one side the customer wants more power and torque and on
the other side one cannot lose sight of fuel economy and increas-
ingly stringent emission laws. The main findings of previous
literature on the performance of biodiesel fueled internal combus-
tion engine showed that biodiesel has comparable power, brake-
specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency [119].
However, the formation of oxides of nitrogen is a matter of
concern [120]. Table 3 shows a summary of performance and
emission tests on engines fueled by biodiesel prepared from non-
edible oils.
6. Emerging technologies
Biodiesel is conventionally produced by homogeneous, hetero-
geneous, and enzymatic catalyzed processes as well as by super-
critical technology as described in the previous chapter. However,
all these processes have some limitations, such as waste water
generation [138] and high energy consumption [139]. In this
context, the following methods appear to be suitable candidates
to produce biodiesel in the future because of their ability to
overcome limitations encountered by conventional production
methods. The conclusions drawn by these methods are described
in Table 4. Selection of the production method depends on several
Table 2
Fuel properties of biodiesel from different non-edible oil resources [35,96,110–118].
Properties Non-edible oils
Jatropha
Curcas
Pongamia
Pinnata
Madhuca
Indica
Azadirachta
indica
Moringa
oleifera
Calophyllum
inophyllum
Sterculia
foetida
Rice
bran
Rubber
seed
ASTM D6751-08
standards
Viscosity at 40 1C
(mm2
/s)
4.723 4.2 5.10 5.213 5.0735 5.5377 6.3717 3.522 3.89 1.9–6.0
Density at 40 1C
(g/cm3
)
0.8642 0.860 0.850 0.8845 0.8597 0.8776 0.8776 – – –
Oxidation stability
(h at 110 1C)
3.02 2.54 – 7.1 12.64 6.12 1.46 1.70 8.54 Min. 3 h
CFPP (1C) – 7 6 11 18 11 2 0 0 –
Cloud point (1C) 3 1 4 14.4 21 12 1 10 3.2 –
Pour point (1C) 3 6 – 2 19 13 2 11 2 –
Flash point (1C) 182.5 180 129 76 176 162.2 130.5 169 152 Min. 130
Higher calorific value
(kJ/kg)
40,536 40,750 36,914 39,810 40,115 39,513 40,001 38,853 39,700 –
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851 845
7. points such as the quality of vegetable oil, type of process desired,
quality of raw material, availability and type of oil. However, some
of them might have some a promising future than the others based
on the outgoing research that is being done daily.
6.1. Low temperature conversion (LTC) process
The low temperature conversion (LTC) is basically a pyrolytic
process [140–143]. It has been applied to various biomasses of
urban, industrial and agricultural origin to transform them into
potential biofuel products [144–149]. LTC is a process that involves
only thermal decomposition and does not use any kind of solvent
or chemical reagents as utilized by other conventional methods for
the production of biodiesel. The other available methods for
producing alternative fuels are more sophisticated and compli-
cated relative to the instruments required and reaction conditions.
Figueiredo et al. [150] reported an additive produced from castor
oil using the LTC process that can be blended with diesel. They
concluded that castor seeds could be considered as useful and
renewable source of pyrolysis oil with high percentage of pyrolysis
oil fraction (50%). It is also important to note that no organic
solvents, no reagents and very simple assemblies were used in the
LTC process.
6.2. Hydrothermal conversion (HTC) process
Hydrothermal conversion (HTC) process is a very promising
method to convert biomass into biofuels [151]. It is a thermo-
chemical process in which biomass is depolymerized to gaseous,
aqueous, bio-oil (or bio-crude) and solid by-products in a heated,
pressurized and oxygen-free reactor in the presence of water for
5–15 min. This process is conducted at lower temperatures and
does not require feedstock drying. HTC bio-oil is found to be
suitable as a fuel in stationary diesel engines, burners, boilers and
turbines [152]. It could be upgraded further to liquids similar in
properties to those of diesel and jet fuels via hydrodeoxygenation
[43]. Furthermore, HTC oils typically have much lower oxygen and
moisture contents, higher hydrogen content, and consequently
higher calorific value than fast pyrolysis oils [153].
The optimum operating conditions for biofuel production from
corncobs HTC and the interaction effects between these factors
have been investigated by Gan et al. [154]. They concluded that
Table 3
Test results of biodiesel (non-edible oils) fueled engines.
Biodiesel Operating conditions Performance Emissions Ref.
Jatropha Curcas Full load-variable speed B10 gave reduced fuel consumption
with complete combustion compared
to other biodiesel blends
Reduced exhaust emissions
except NOx
[115,121]
Pongamia Pinnata Gradually variable load constant speed 3–5% Lower brake thermal efficiency
for different blends compared to diesel
Reduced unburned
hydrocarbon, CO, CO2 with
increased NOx than diesel
[122,123]
Madhuca Indica Gradually variable load constant speed B20 resulted slightly better in thermal
efficiency than diesel
Reduced hydrocarbon, CO with
increased NOx than diesel
[124]
However, 4% lesser NOx is
reported by Saravanan et al.
compared to diesel
[125]
Azadirachta indica Variable load Constant speed Brake-specific fuel consumption and
thermal efficiency was found to be
higher than mineral diesel
Reduced hydrocarbon, CO with
increased NOx than diesel
[126]
Moringa oleifera Variable speed and full load condition Reduced brake power with increased
fuel consumption for B10 and B20 than
diesel
Reduced hydrocarbon, CO with
slightly increased NOx than
diesel
[127,128]
Calophyllum inophyllum Variable speed and full load condition Higher thermal efficiency and lower
specific fuel consumption and exhaust
temperature than diesel for B10
Reduced CO and smoke with
slight increase in NOx
[99]
High idling conditions Negligible fuel consumption increment
compared to diesel
CO and HC were lower, with
higher NOx emissions
[129]
Sterculia foetida Variable load Constant speed Power output and fuel consumption
were almost same for low biodiesel
blend and diesel
Low smoke and CO for low
biodiesel concentrated blends.
However, 4% reduction in NOx
for B20 was seen
[130]
B40 blend showed 2.13% more thermal
efficiency than diesel at full load
11% Reduction in NOx for B20
7.4% increment for B40 at full
load. Reduction in HC and
smoke for B40.
[131]
Ceiba pentandra Variable speed and full throttle
condition
B10 resulted in the best engine torque,
brake power and fuel consumption
than diesel at 1900 rpm with full
throttle
CO, HC and smoke capacity
lower compared to diesel except
for CO2 and NOx
[132]
Constant speed variable load condition B25 claimed 4% increase in thermal
efficiency than conventional diesel
Comparable emissions of HC,
CO, NOx and smoke with diesel
[133]
Rice bran Constant speed variable load condition B20 exhibited marginal fuel
consumption difference compared to
diesel
Lower smoke and higher NOx
were reported
[134]
Castor oil Constant speed variable load condition Increased thermal efficiency with
lower fuel consumption for lower
biodiesel blends
NOx emissions were same as
that of diesel for low loads.
Slightly higher NOx for full load
condition
[135,136]
Cotton oil Variable speed and full throttle
condition
No significant differences in
performance of B5, B20 and diesel fuel
Lesser CO was reported for all
blends. NOx was found to be less
for all blends except B5
[137]
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851
846
8. based on RSM data and prediction models, higher bio-oil yield and
carbon recovery could be achieved at low temperature and short
retention time.
6.3. Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) process
Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a process in which biomass
is converted in hot compressed water to a liquid bio-crude. The
processing temperature and pressure are between 200 and 350 1C
and 15 and 20 MPa, respectively [155]. These conditions are
sufficient to break the complex molecules into desired oily
compounds.
Brown and Elliott [156] recently reviewed the early work in
hydrothermal processing of wet biomass for both liquid and gas
production. Recent reports in literature that have described HTL
and its application to algae have been primarily related to batch
reactor tests [157]. There have been reports of continuous flow
reactor tests for hydrothermal gasification of algae, both subcritical
liquid phase [158] and super-critical vapor phase [159]. Recently
algae biomass has received a very high level of interest among
many researchers as a renewable biomass resource for biofuels
production because of their rapid photosynthetic growth rates and
high lipid content [160]. The primary focus has been on the
recovery of the fatty acid triglycerides produced by the algae as
a feedstock for biodiesel production. Elliott et al. [161] reliably
processed the algae feedstocks with high slurry concentrations.
They achieved high yield of a bio-crude product from whole algae.
6.4. Catalytic hydrodeoxygenation (HDO)
In the HDO process, the main concern is to upgrade the
biomass-derived oil by removing the oxygen contents present in
the feedstock as water. In addition to this, it also removes sulfur
and nitrogen present in the fuel eliminating the chances of the
formation of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen [162]. The process
includes the treatment of oil at high pressures and moderate
temperatures over a heterogeneous catalyst. The use of vegetable
oils, mainly non-edible vegetable oils, as feedstocks is highly
favorable for this process because their hydrocarbon content is
in the same range as that of fossil fuels such as kerosene and
diesel. A study by Prasad et al. [163] tried to explain the catalytic
hydrodeoxygenation reaction along with the formation of by-
products. The chemistry of the reaction and the formation of
products purely depend on the catalyst being used in the reaction
[164]. The reaction takes place with simple hydrodeoxygenation
via an adsorbed enol intermediate and the product is a hydro-
carbon fuel with water and propane as the by-products.
The hydrocarbon fuel produced by this hydrodeoxygenation
method is characterized by its improved properties compared to
conventional petroleum-based fuels. This biofuel exhibits a higher
Table 4
Summary of emerging technologies.
Methods Biomass/feedstock Operating conditions Conclusions drawn Ref.
Low temperature
conversion (LTC)
process
Rice straw Pyrolysis temperature of 693 K Maximum yield of 10% with higher calorific value
42.79 MJ/kg with viscosity and density lower than
other biofuels
[178]
Castor seeds Pyrolysis temperature of 653 K Maximum yield of 50% with higher calorific value
35.656 MJ/kg
[150]
Sugarcane bagasse Pyrolysis temperature of 623 K Maximum yield of 18%. Bio yield could be upgraded
by acid hydrolysis
[179]
Hydrothermal
conversion (HTC)
process
Soybean oil, jatropha oil,
and tung oil
Temperature range of 450–475 1C and pressure of
210 bar
Yield ranging from 40% to 52% were reported. [180]
Big bluestem Temperature of 280 1C and pressure of 100 psi Maximum yield of 27.2% was reported [181]
Corncobs Temperature of 280 1C and pressure of 100 psi Maximum yield of 41.38% was predicted [154]
Hydrothermal
liquefaction (HTL)
process
Cornelian cherry stones Temperature of 200–300 1C The highest yield of 28% at both 250 and 300 1C.
The higher calorific values for light and heavy bio-
oil are 23.86 and 28.35 MJ/kg
[182]
Woody eucalyptus Temperature of 150–300 1C The highest yield of oil obtained with paper
regeneration wastewater as solvent
[183]
Rice straw Temperature of 300 1C The highest heavy oil yield of 21.62% for 30 min of
hydrothermal liquefaction
[184]
Catalytic
hydrodeoxygenation
(HDO)
Switchgrass, Eucalyptus
benthamii
At a temperature of 320 1C under 2100 psi H2
atmosphere for 4 h of reaction
Switchgrass bio-oil exhibited in terms of H2
consumption, deoxygenation efficiency
[185]
pyrolized oil Pine sawdust
pyrolized oil
At a temperature of 100 1C under 3 MPa H2
atmosphere for 2 h of reaction
The calorific value of raw bio-oil increased from
13.96 MJ/kg to 14.09 MJ/kg with higher contents of
carbon and hydrogen
[186]
Pine sawdust pyrolized oil Step 1: To overcome coke formation by Ru/C as
catalyst at 300 1C, 10 MPa
Oxygen content decreased from 48% to 0.5% and
calorific value increased from 17 MJ/kg to 46 MJ/kg
[187]
Step 2: Conventional hydrogenation setup at 400 1C,
13 MPa by NiMo/Al2O3 as catalyst
Membrane biodiesel
production and
refining technology
Soybean oil 80 1C of reaction temperature, 0.27 g/mL of catalyst
amount and 4.15 mL/min velocity at membrane
pressure of 80 kPa
Highest yield of 84.1% with many fuel properties
within EN14214 standard
[188]
Soybean oil, canola, palm
oil, yellow grease, brown
grease
80 1C of reaction temperature, pressure range of 37.9–
43.1 kPa
Esters form each feedstock including the low-grade
lipids met the ASTM D6751 standard
[189]
Soybean oil 70 1C of reaction temperature, 0.531 g/cm3
of catalyst
amount and 3.16 mL/min velocity at membrane
pressure of 50 kPa
The highest biodiesel yielding rate of 0.1820 g/min
was reported
[190]
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851 847
9. cetane number. However, the n-paraffinic fuel has poor cold flow
properties. To improve these low-temperature properties, the n-
paraffin is isomerized to isoparaffin. During the isomerization, the
normal paraffin with its high freezing point and outstanding
cetane number can be converted to isoparaffin, which has a far
lower freezing point but retains a high cetane number [165,166].
Mohammad et al. [167] concluded that hydrodeoxygenation of
vegetable oil is a promising route to the production of future fuels
from the non-edible feedstocks.
6.5. Membrane biodiesel production and refining technology
Membrane processes for the production and refining of biodiesel
are being increasingly reported. Membrane technology has attracted
the interest of researchers for its ability to provide high-quality
biodiesel and its remarkable yield as well [168–170]. Conventionally
biodiesel has been produced by employing batch reactors, continuous
stirred tank reactors (CSTR) and plug flow reactors. However, mem-
brane reactor is found to be suitable for biodiesel production due to its
ability to restrict the passage of impurities into final biodiesel product
[171]. This restriction of impurities helps in obtaining quality biodiesel
from the feedstocks. The impurities, mainly the unreacted triglycerides
should be removed after the completion of transesterification reaction
[172,173]. Biodiesel produced using membrane reactors contains
impurities such as glycerol, residual catalyst and excess alcohol, which
need removal. The removal of these impurities is generally done by
conventional separation and purification techniques which consume a
large amount of water, high-energy consumption, time wasting and
treatment of wastewater [174,175]. However, this problem could be
solved by employing organic/inorganic separative membranes for
cleaning the crude biodiesel. Furthermore, organic/inorganic separa-
tive membranes have many advantages as they consume low energy,
are safer and simple in operation, eliminate wastewater treatment,
have easy change of scale, higher mechanical, thermal and chemical
stability, and resistance to corrosion [176].
Atadashi et al. [177] concluded that membrane technology could
produce a high-quality biodiesel. Furthermore, they reported that
properties of biodiesel from the membrane technology process were
in agreement with the ASTM standard specification.
7. Conclusion
Most of the biodiesel fuels are produced from edible oils,
whose large-scale consumption is leading to price rise and short-
age of food supplies. Hence, the focus is on looking into different
non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel production. Moreover, non-
edible feedstocks could be potential resources due to their favor-
able fuel properties, performance and emission characteristics.
There are several reported methods for biodiesel production.
However, still conventional technologies are being implemented
on large-scale production. Emerging technologies can make the
energy resources more efficient and eco-friendly. Therefore, the
concepts of membrane biodiesel production and thermal conver-
sion processes could be extended to non-edible feedstocks. There
is a scope to improve fuel properties of biodiesel from non-edible
feedstocks by methods such as catalytic hydrodeoxygenation.
Though the discussed technologies are applied to selected feed-
stocks, nevertheless the same could be tried for other feedstocks
and could be investigated for further upgradation.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the University of Malaya for
funding the research under UMRG Grant number RP006A-13AET.
References
[1] Brown LR. Food or fuel: new competition for the world's cropland.
Washington: Worldwatch Institute; 1980.
[2] Balat M. Potential alternatives to edible oils for biodiesel production–A
review of current work. Energy Convers Manag 2011;52(2):1479–92.
[3] Tenenbaum DJ. Food vs. fuel: diversion of crops could cause more hunger.
Environ Health Perspect 2008;116(6):A254.
[4] Thompson PB. The agricultural ethics of biofuels: the food vs. fuel debate.
Agriculture 2012;2(4):339–58.
[5] Ugarte DDLT, He L. Is the expansion of biofuels at odds with the food security
of developing countries? Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin 2007;1(2):92–102.
[6] Gui MM, Lee KT, Bhatia S. Feasibility of edible oil vs. non-edible oil vs. waste
edible oil as biodiesel feedstock. Energy 2008;33(11):1646–53.
[7] Chhetri AB, Tango MS, Budge SM, Watts KC, Islam MR. Non-edible plant oils
as new sources for biodiesel production. Int J Mol Sci 2008;9(2):169–80.
[8] Juan JC, Kartika DA, Wu TY, Hin TY. Biodiesel production from jatropha oil by
catalytic and non-catalytic approaches: an overview. Bioresour Technol
2011;102(2):452–60.
[9] Koh MY, Mohd Ghazi TI. A review of biodiesel production from Jatropha
curcas L oil. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(5):2240–51.
[10] Jain S, Sharma MP. Prospects of biodiesel from Jatropha in India: a review.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14(2):763–71.
[11] Silitonga AS, Atabani AE, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Badruddin IA, Mekhilef SA.
Review on prospect of Jatropha curcas for biodiesel in Indonesia. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(8):3733–56.
[12] Kumar S, Chaube A, Jain SK. Sustainability issues for promotion of Jatropha
biodiesel in Indian scenario: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16
(2):1089–98.
[13] Chen J. Rapid urbanization in China: a real challenge to soil protection and
food security. Catena 2007;69(1):1–15.
[14] Tilman D, Cassman KG, Matson PA, Naylor R, Polasky S. Agricultural sustainability
and intensive production practices. Nature 2002;418(6898):671–7.
[15] Evans LT. Adapting and improving crops: the endless task. Philos Trans R Soc
Lond Ser B 1997;352(1356):901–6.
[16] Pathak H, Ladha JK, Aggarwal PK, Peng S, Das S, Singh Y, et al. Trends of
climatic potential and on-farm yields of rice and wheat in the Indo-Gangetic
plains. Field Crop Res 2003;80(3):223–34.
[17] Tyner WE. Biofuels and food prices: Separating wheat from chaff. Glob Food
Secur 2013;2(2):126–30.
[18] Tyner WE. The integration of energy and agricultural markets. Agric Econ
2010;41(1):193–201.
[19] Srinivasan S. The food v. fuel debate: a nuanced view of incentive structures.
Renew Energy 2009;34(4):950–4.
[20] Chakravorty U., Hubert M.H., Nostbakken L. Fuel versus food. Annu Rev
Resour Econ 2009; 1: 645-663.
[21] Ivanic M, Martin W. Implications of higher global food prices for poverty in
low‐income countries1. Agric Econ 2008;39(S1):S405–16.
[22] Yusuf NNAN, Kamarudin SK, Yaakub Z. Overview on the current trends in
biodiesel production. Energy Convers Manag 2011;52(7):2741–51.
[23] Demirbas A. Progress and recent trends in biodiesel fuels. Energy Convers
Manag 2009;50(1):14–34.
[24] Ma F, Hanna MA. Biodiesel production: a review. Bioresour Technol 1999;70
(1):1–15.
[25] Krawczyk T. Biodiesel-alternative fuel makes inroads but hurdles remain.
Inform 1996;7(8):800–15.
[26] Mekhilef S, Siga S, Saidur R. A review on palm oil biodiesel as a source of
renewable fuel. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(4):1937–49.
[27] Borges ME, Diaz L. Recent developments on heterogeneous catalysts for
biodiesel production by oil esterification and transesterification reactions:
a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16(5):2839–49.
[28] Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Hazrat MA, Liaquat AM, Shahabuddin M,
et al. Prospects of biodiesel from Jatropha in Malaysia. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2012;16(7):5007–20.
[29] Basha SA, Raja GK. A review of the effects of catalyst and additive on
biodiesel production, performance, combustion and emission characteristics.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16(1):711–7.
[30] Fazal MA, Haseeb ASMA, Masjuki HH. Biodiesel feasibility study: an evalua-
tion of material compatibility; performance; emission and engine durability.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(2):1314–24.
[31] Shahid EM, Jamal Y. Production of biodiesel: a technical review. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(9):4732–45.
[32] Murugesan A, Umarani C, Chinnusamy TR, Krishnan M, Subramanian R,
Neduzchezhain N. Production and analysis of bio-diesel from non-edible oils
—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13(4):825–34.
[33] Lin L, Cunshan Z, Vittayapadung S, Xiangqian S, Mingdong D. Opportunities
and challenges for biodiesel fuel. Appl Energy 2011;88(4):1020–31.
[34] Singh S, Singh D. Biodiesel production through the use of different sources
and characterization of oils and their esters as the substitute of diesel:
a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14(1):200–16.
[35] Karmakar A, Karmakar S, Mukherjee S. Properties of various plants and
animals feedstocks for biodiesel production. Bioresour Technol 2010;101
(19):7201–10.
[36] Sharma YC, Singh B. Development of biodiesel: current scenario. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13(6):1646–51.
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851
848
10. [37] Ranganathan SV, Narasimhan SL, Muthukumar K. An overview of enzymatic
production of biodiesel. Bioresour Technol 2008;99(10):3975–81.
[38] Gerpen JV. Biodiesel processing and production. Fuel Process Technol
2005;86(10):1097–107.
[39] Canakci M, Van Gerpen J. Biodiesel production via acid catalysis. Trans ASAE
1999;42(5):1203–10.
[40] Meher LC, Kulkarni MG, Dalai AK, Naik SN. Transesterification of karanja
(Pongamia pinnata) oil by solid basic catalysts. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol
2006;108(5):389–97.
[41] Shahid EM, Jamal Y. A review of biodiesel as vehicular fuel. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2008;12(9):2484–94.
[42] Atabani AE, Silitonga AS, Badruddin IA, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Mekhilef S.
A comprehensive review on biodiesel as an alternative energy resource and
its characteristics. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16(4):2070–93.
[43] Demirbas A. Competitive liquid biofuels from biomass. Appl Energy 2011;88
(1):17–28.
[44] Jain S, Sharma MP. Kinetics of acid base catalyzed transesterification of
Jatropha curcas oil. Bioresour Technol 2010;101(20):7701–6.
[45] Jayed M, Masjuki HH, Saidur R, Kalam MA, Jahirul MI. Environmental aspects
and challenges of oilseed produced biodiesel in Southeast Asia. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13(9):2452–62.
[46] Sharma YC, Singh B, Korstad J. High yield and conversion of biodiesel from a
nonedible feedstock (Pongamia pinnata). J Agric Food Chem 2009;58
(1):242–7.
[47] Patil PD, Deng S. Optimization of biodiesel production from edible and non-
edible vegetable oils. Fuel 2009;88(7):1302–6.
[48] Sivakumar P, Sindhanaiselvan S, Gandhi NN, Devi SS, Renganathan S.
Optimization and kinetic studies on biodiesel production from underutilized
Ceiba Pentandra oil. Fuel 2013;103(0):693–8.
[49] Kafuku G, Lam MK, Kansedo J, Lee KT, Mbarawa Makame. Heterogeneous
catalyzed biodiesel production from Moringa oleifera oil. Fuel Process
Technol 2010;91(11):1525–9.
[50] Yee KF, Lee KT, Ceccato R, Abdullah AZ. Production of biodiesel from Jatropha
curcas L. oil catalyzed by SO4
2
=ZrO2 catalyst: effect of interaction between
process variables. Bioresour Technol 2011;102(5):4285–9.
[51] Liu C, Pengmei L, Yuan Z, Yan F, Luo W. The nanometer magnetic solid base
catalyst for production of biodiesel. Renew Energy 2010;35(7):1531–6.
[52] Deng X, Fang Z, Liu Y, Yu C-Liu. Production of biodiesel from Jatropha oil
catalyzed by nanosized solid basic catalyst. Energy 2011;36(2):777–84.
[53] Samniang A, Tipachan C, Kajorncheappunngam S. Comparison of biodiesel
production from crude Jatropha oil and Krating oil by supercritical methanol
transesterification. Renew Energy 2014;68:351–5.
[54] Ilham Z, Saka S. Two-step supercritical dimethyl carbonate method for
biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas oil. Bioresour Technol 2010;101
(8):2735–40.
[55] Patil P, Gude VG, Pinappu S, Deng S. Transesterification kinetics of Camelina
sativa oil on metal oxide catalysts under conventional and microwave
heating conditions. Chem Eng J 2011;168(3):1296–300.
[56] Kanitkar A, Balasubramanian S, Lima M, Boldor D. A critical comparison of
methyl and ethyl esters production from soybean and rice bran oil in the
presence of microwaves. Bioresour Technol 2011;102(17):7896–902.
[57] Kumar R, Ravi KG, Chandrashekar N. Microwave assisted alkali-catalyzed
transesterification of Pongamia pinnata seed oil for biodiesel production.
Bioresour Technol 2011;102(11):6617–20.
[58] Zhang S, Zu YG, Fu YJ, Luo M, Zhang DY, Efferth T. Rapid microwave-assisted
transesterification of yellow horn oil to biodiesel using a heteropolyacid solid
catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2010;101(3):931–6.
[59] Yuan H, Shu Q. Synthesis of biodiesel from castor oil catalyzed by cesium
phosphotungstate with the assistance of microwave. Appl Mech Mater
2013;291:300–6.
[60] Van Manh D, Chen YH, Chang CC, Chang MC, Chang CY. Biodiesel production
from Tung oil and blended oil via ultrasonic transesterification process. J
Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2011;42(4):640–4.
[61] Deng X, Fang Z, Liu YH, Yu CL. Ultrasonic transesterification of Jatropha curcas
L. oil to biodiesel by a two-step process. Energy Convers Manag 2010;51
(12):2802–7.
[62] You Q, Yin X, Zhao Y, Zhang Y. Biodiesel production from jatropha oil
catalyzed by immobilized Burkholderia cepacia lipase on modified attapul-
gite. Bioresour Technol 2013;148:202–7.
[63] Li X, He XY, Li ZL, Wang YD, Wang CY, Shi H, Wang F. Enzymatic production
of biodiesel from Pistacia chinensis bge seed oil using immobilized lipase.
Fuel 2012;92(1):89–93.
[64] Freitas L, Da R, Patricia CM, Santos JC, de Castro HF. An integrated approach
to produce biodiesel and monoglycerides by enzymatic interestification of
babassu oil (Orbinya sp). Process Biochem 2009;44(10):1068–74.
[65] Liu Y, Xin H, Yan Y. Physicochemical properties of stillingia oil: feasibility for
biodiesel production by enzyme transesterification. Ind Crops Prod 2009;30
(3):431–6.
[66] Atabani AE, Silitonga AS, Ong HC, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Badruddin IA,
et al. Non-edible vegetable oils: a critical evaluation of oil extraction, fatty
acid compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine performance
and emissions production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;18:211–45.
[67] Marchetti JM. A summary of the available technologies for biodiesel
production based on a comparison of different feedstock's properties.
Process Saf Environ Prot 2012;90(3):157–63.
[68] Luque R, Herrero DL, Campelo JM, Clark JH, Hidalgo JM, Luna D, et al.
Biofuels: a technological perspective. Energy Environ Sci 2008;1(5):542–64.
[69] Bajaj A, Lohan P, Jha PN, Mehrotra R. Biodiesel production through lipase
catalyzed transesterification: an overview. J Mol Catal B: Enzym 2010;62
(1):9–14.
[70] Houde A, Kademi A, Leblanc D. Lipases and their industrial applications: an
overview. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2004;118(1–3):155–70.
[71] Marchetti JM, Errazu AF. Technoeconomic study of supercritical biodiesel
production plant. Energy Convers Manag 2008;49(8):2160–4.
[72] Thoenes P. Biofuels and commodity markets–palm oil focus. Rome: FAO,
Commodities and Trade Division; 2006.
[73] Gasparatos A, Stromberg P, Takeuchi K. Biofuels, ecosystem services and
human wellbeing: putting biofuels in the ecosystem services narrative. Agric
Ecosyst Environ 2011;142(3):111–28.
[74] Altieri M, Bravo E. The ecological and social tragedy of crop-based biofuel
production in the Americas. Food First/Institute for Food Development
Policy. 2007; 6.
[75] Mahapatra AK, Mitchell CP. Biofuel consumption, deforestation, and farm
level tree growing in rural India. Biomass Bioenergy 1999;17(4):291–303.
[76] Gübitz GM, Mittelbach M, Trabi M. Exploitation of the tropical oil seed plant
Jatropha curcas L. Bioresour Technol 1999;67(1):73–82.
[77] Openshaw K. A review of Jatropha curcas: an oil plant of unfulfilled promise.
Biomass Bioenergy 2000;19(1):1–15.
[78] Kumar TA, Kumar A, Raheman H. Biodiesel production from jatropha oil
(Jatropha curcas) with high free fatty acids: an optimized process. Biomass
Bioenergy 2007;31(8):569–75.
[79] Koh MY, Mohd Ghazi TI. A review of biodiesel production from Jatropha
curcas L. oil. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(5):2240–51.
[80] Scott PT, Pregelj LC, Ning H, Johanna SD, Michael AG, Peter M. Pongamia
pinnata: an untapped resource for the biofuels industry of the future.
Bioenergy Res 2008;1(1):2–11.
[81] Naik M, Meher LC, Naik SN, Das LM. Production of biodiesel from high free
fatty acid Karanja ( Pongamia pinnata) oil. Biomass Bioenergy 2008;32
(4):354–7.
[82] Karmee SK, Chadha A. Preparation of biodiesel from crude oil of Pongamia
pinnata. Bioresour Technol 2005;96(13):1425–9.
[83] Khayoon MS, Olutoye MA, Hameed BH. Utilization of crude karanj (Pongamia
pinnata) oil as a potential feedstock for the synthesis of fatty acid methyl
esters. Bioresour Technol 2012;111(0):175–9.
[84] Ghadge SV, Raheman Hifjur. Biodiesel production from mahua (Madhuca
indica) oil having high free fatty acids. Biomass Bioenergy 2005;28(6):601–5.
[85] Puhan SV, Ram N, Boppana VB, Sankarnarayanan G, Jeychandran K. Mahua
oil (Madhuca Indica seed oil) methyl ester as biodiesel-preparation and
emission characterstics. Biomass Bioenergy 2005;28(1):87–93.
[86] Hosamani KM, Hiremath VB, Keri RS. Renewable energy sources from
Michelia champaca and Garcinia indica seed oils: a rich source of oil. Biomass
Bioenergy 2009;33(2):267–70.
[87] Muthu H, SathyaSelvabala V, Varathachary TK, Kirupha SD, Nandagopal J,
Subramanian S. Synthesis of biodiesel from Neem oil using sulfated zirconia
via tranesterification. Braz J Chem Eng 2010;27(4):601–8.
[88] Kumar A, Sharma S. Potential non-edible oil resources as biodiesel feedstock:
an Indian perspective. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15(4):1791–800.
[89] Nabi MN, Akhter MS, Zaglul SMM. Improvement of engine emissions with
conventional diesel fuel and diesel–biodiesel blends. Bioresour Technol
2006;97(3):372–8.
[90] Stanisavljevic IT, Lazic ML, Veljkovic VB. Ultrasonic extraction of oil from
tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) seeds. Ultrason Sonochem 2007;14
(5):646–52.
[91] Veljkovic VB, Lakicevic SH, Stamenkovic OS, Todorovic ZB, Lazic ML. Biodiesel
production from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) seed oil with a high content
of free fatty acids. Fuel 2006;85(17–18):2671–5.
[92] Rashid U, Anwar F, Moser BR, Knothe G. Moringa oleifera oil: a possible
source of biodiesel. Bioresour Technol 2008;99(17):8175–9.
[93] da Silva JPV, Serra TM, Gossmann M, Wolf CR, Meneghetti MR, Meneghetti
SMP. Moringa oleifera oil: studies of characterization and biodiesel produc-
tion. Biomass Bioenergy 2010;34(10):1527–30.
[94] Ramadhas AS, Jayaraj S, Muraleedharan C. Biodiesel production from high
FFA rubber seed oil. Fuel 2005;84(4):335–40.
[95] Morshed M, Ferdous Kaniz, Khan MR, Mazumder MSI, Islam MA, Uddin Md
T. Rubber seed oil as a potential source for biodiesel production in
Bangladesh. Fuel 2011;90(10):2981–6.
[96] Ahmad J, Yusup S, Bokhari A, Kamil RNM. Study of fuel properties of rubber
seed oil based biodiesel. Energy Convers Manag 2014;78(0):266–75.
[97] Gimbun J, Ali S, Kanwal CCSC, Shah LA, Ghazali NHM, Cheng CK, et al.
Biodiesel production from rubber seed oil using activated cement clinker as
catalyst. Proc Eng 2013;53(0):13–9.
[98] Arumugam A, Ponnusami V. Biodiesel production from Calophyllum inophyl-
lum oil using lipase producing Rhizopus oryzae cells immobilized within
reticulated foams. Renew Energy 2014;64(0):276–82.
[99] Ong HC, Masjuki HH, Mahlia TMI, Silitonga AS, Chong WT, Leong KY.
Optimization of biodiesel production and engine performance from high
free fatty acid Calophyllum inophyllum oil in CI diesel engine. Energy Convers
Manag 2014;81(0):30–40.
[100] Bindhu C, Reddy JRC, Rao BVSK, Ravinder T, Chakrabarti PP, Karuna MSL,
et al. Preparation and evaluation of biodiesel from Sterculia foetida seed oil. J
Am Oil Chem Soc 2012;89(5):891–6.
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851 849
11. [101] Silitonga AS, Ong HC, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Chong WT. Characterization
and production of Ceiba pentandra biodiesel and its blends. Fuel 2013;108
(0):855–8.
[102] Tye YY, Lee KT, Abdullah WNW, Leh CP. Potential of Ceiba pentandra (L.)
Gaertn. (kapok fiber) as a resource for second generation bioethanol: effect of
various simple pretreatment methods on sugar production. Bioresour Tech-
nol 2012;116(0):536–9.
[103] Zullaikah S, Lai CC, Vali SR, Ju YH. A two-step acid-catalyzed process for the
production of biodiesel from rice bran oil. Bioresour Technol 2005;96
(17):1889–96.
[104] Lin L, Ying D, Chaitep S, Vittayapadung S. Biodiesel production from crude
rice bran oil and properties as fuel. Appl Energy 2009;86(5):681–8.
[105] Shiu PJ, Gunawan S, Hsieh WH, Kasim NS, Ju YH. Biodiesel production from
rice bran by a two-step in-situ process. Bioresour Technol 2010;101
(3):984–9.
[106] Wang R, Hanna MA, Bhadury PS, Chen Q, Bao-An Song, Yang S. Production
and selected fuel properties of biodiesel from promising non-edible oils:
Euphorbia lathyris L., Sapium sebiferum L. and Jatropha curcas L. Bioresource
Technology 2011;102(2):1194–9.
[107] Bozbas K. Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel: production and policies in
the European Union. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2008;12(2):542–52.
[108] Atabani AE, Mahlia TMI, Badruddin IA, Masjuki HH, Chong WT, Lee KT.
Investigation of physical and chemical properties of potential edible and
non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel production, a comparative analysis.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;21:749–55.
[109] Karavalakis G, Stournas S, Karonis D. Evaluation of the oxidation stability of
diesel/biodiesel blends. Fuel 2010;89(9):2483–9.
[110] Atabani AE, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Badruddin IA, Yussof HW, Chong WT,
Lee KT. A comparative evaluation of physical and chemical properties of
biodiesel synthesized from edible and non-edible oils and study on the effect
of biodiesel blending. Energy 2013;58:296–304.
[111] Sarin A, Arora R, Singh NP, Sarin R, Malhotra RK, Kundu K. Effect of blends of
Palm–Jatropha–Pongamia biodiesels on cloud point and pour point. Energy
2009;34(11):2016–21.
[112] Nabi MN, Hoque SMN, Akhter MS. Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) biodiesel
production in Bangladesh, characterization of karanja biodiesel and its effect
on diesel emissions. Fuel Process Technol 2009;90(9):1080–6.
[113] Kapilan N, Reddy RP. Evaluation of methyl esters of mahua oil (Madhuca
indica) as diesel fuel. J Am Oil Chem Soc 2008;85(2):185–8.
[114] Ragit SS, Mohapatra SK, Kundu K, Gill P. Optimization of neem methyl ester
from transesterification process and fuel characterization as a diesel sub-
stitute. Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35(3):1138–44.
[115] Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Atabani AE. Evaluation of biodiesel
blending, engine performance and emissions characteristics of Jatropha
curcas methyl ester: Malaysian perspective. Energy 2013;55(0):879–87.
[116] Saravanan S, Nagarajan G, Sampath S. Combined effect of injection timing,
EGR and injection pressure in NOx control of a stationary diesel engine
fuelled with crude rice bran oil methyl ester. Fuel 2013;104(0):409–16.
[117] El Boulifi N, Bouaid A, Martinez M, Aracil J. Optimization and oxidative
stability of biodiesel production from rice bran oil. Renew Energy 2013;53
(0):141–7.
[118] Ahmad M, Samuel S, Zafar M, Khan MA, Tariq M, Ali S, Sultana S.
Physicochemical characterization of eco-friendly rice bran oil biodiesel.
Energy Sources Part A 2011;33(14):1386–97.
[119] Tesfa B, Mishra R, Zhang C, Gu F, Ball AD. Combustion and performance
characteristics of CI (compression ignition) engine running with biodiesel.
Energy 2013;51(0):101–15.
[120] Subramanian K, Lahane S. Comparative evaluations of injection and spray
characteristics of a diesel engine using karanja biodiesel–diesel blends. Int J
Energy Res 2013;37:582–97.
[121] Ong HC, Masjuki HH, Mahlia TMI, Silitonga AS, Chong WT, Yusaf T. Engine
performance and emissions using Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and
Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel in a CI diesel engine. Energy 2014;69
(0):427–45.
[122] Chauhan BS, Kumar N, Cho HM, Lim HC. A study on the performance and
emission of a diesel engine fueled with Karanja biodiesel and its blends.
Energy 2013;56(0):1–7.
[123] Sureshkumar K, Velraj R, Ganesan R. Performance and exhaust emission
characteristics of a CI engine fueled with Pongamia pinnata methyl ester
(PPME) and its blends with diesel. Renew Energy 2008;33(10):2294–302.
[124] Godiganur S, Suryanarayana M, Reddy CH, Rana P. 6BTA 5.9 G2-1 Cummins
engine performance and emission tests using methyl ester mahua (Madhuca
indica) oil/diesel blends. Renew Energy 2009;34(10):2172–7.
[125] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G, Puhan S. Experimental investigation on a DI diesel
engine fuelled with Madhuca Indica ester and diesel blend. Biomass Bioe-
nergy 2010;34(6):838–43.
[126] Dhar A, Kevin R, Agarwal AK. Production of biodiesel from high-FFA neem oil
and its performance, emission and combustion characterization in a single
cylinder DICI engine. Fuel Process Technol 2012;97(0):118–29.
[127] Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Atabani AE, Arbab MI, Cheng SF,
Gouk SW. Properties and use of Moringa oleifera biodiesel and diesel fuel
blends in a multi-cylinder diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag 2014;82
(0):169–76.
[128] Rahman MM, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Atabani AE, Memon LA, Rahman SMA.
Performance and emission analysis of Jatropha curcas and Moringa oleifera
methyl ester fuel blends in a multi-cylinder diesel engine. J Clean Prod
2014;65(0):304–10.
[129] Rahman SMA, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Abedin MJ, Sanjid A, Sajjad H.
Production of palm and Calophyllum inophyllum based biodiesel and inves-
tigation of blend performance and exhaust emission in an unmodified diesel
engine at high idling conditions. Energy Convers Manag 2013;76(0):362–7.
[130] Devan PK, Mahalakshmi NV. Performance, emission and combustion char-
acteristics of poon oil and its diesel blends in a DI diesel engine. Fuel 2009;88
(5):861–7.
[131] Devan PK, Mahalakshmi NV. Study of the performance, emission and
combustion characteristics of a diesel engine using poon oil-based fuels.
Fuel Process Technol 2009;90(4):513–9.
[132] Silitonga AS, Masjuki HH, Mahlia TMI, Ong HC, Chong WT. Experimental
study on performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine fuelled with
Ceiba pentandra biodiesel blends. Energy Convers Manag 2013;76(0):828–36.
[133] Vedharaj S, Vallinayagam R, Yang WM, Chou SK, Chua KJE, Lee PS. Experi-
mental investigation of kapok (Ceiba pentandra) oil biodiesel as an alternate
fuel for diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag 2013;75(0):773–9.
[134] Saravanan S, Nagarajan G, Lakshmi NRG, Sampath S. Combustion character-
istics of a stationary diesel engine fuelled with a blend of crude rice bran oil
methyl ester and diesel. Energy 2010;35(1):94–100.
[135] Panwar NL, Shrirame HY, Rathore NS, Jindal S, Kurchania AK. Performance
evaluation of a diesel engine fueled with methyl ester of castor seed oil. Appl
Therm Eng 2010;30(2–3):245–9.
[136] Kulkarni M, Kore SS. Performance characterization of single cylinder DI diesel
engine blended with castor oil and analysis of exhaust gases. Int J Eng 2013;2(2)
ISSN: 2278-0181.
[137] Aydin H, Bayindir H. Performance and emission analysis of cottonseed oil
methyl ester in a diesel engine. Renew Energy 2010;35(3):588–92.
[138] Xie W, Li H. Alumina-supported potassium iodide as a heterogeneous
catalyst for biodiesel production from soybean oil. J Mol Catal A: Chem
2006;255(1–2):1–9.
[139] Yin JZ, Xiao M, Song JB. Biodiesel from soybean oil in supercritical methanol
with co-solvent. Energy Convers Manag 2008;49(5):908–12.
[140] Demirbas A, Arin G. An overview of biomass pyrolysis. Energy Sources
2002;24(5):471–82.
[141] Yaman S. Pyrolysis of biomass to produce fuels and chemical feedstocks.
Energy Convers Manag 2004;45(5):651–71.
[142] Huber GW, Iborra S, Corma A. Synthesis of transportation fuels from
biomass: chemistry, catalysts, and engineering. Chem rev 2006;106
(9):4044–98.
[143] Mohan D, Pittman CU, Steele PH. Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil:
a critical review. Energy Fuels 2006;20(3):848–89.
[144] Lutz H, Romeiro GA, Damasceno RN, Kutubuddin M, Bayer E. Low tempera-
ture conversion of some Brazilian municipal and industrial sludges. Bioresour
Technol 2000;74(2):103–7.
[145] Bayer E, Maurer A, Becker G, Kutubuddin M. Recovery of activated carbon
from wastes via low temperature conversion part I: preparation and
determination of pore structure. Fresenius Environ Bull 1995;4(9):533–8.
[146] Lutz H, Esuoso K, Kutubuddin M, Bayer E. Low temperature conversion of
sugar-cane by-products. Biomass Bioenergy 1998;15(2):155–62.
[147] Lima DG, Soares VCD, Ribeiro EB, Carvalho DA, Cardoso ECV, Rassi FC, et al.
Diesel-like fuel obtained by pyrolysis of vegetable oils. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis
2004;71(2):987–96.
[148] Campbell HW, Bridle TR. Sludge management by thermal conversion to fuels.
Can J Civ Eng 1986;13(5):569–74.
[149] Ostin A, Bergstrom T, Fredriksson SA, Nilsson C. Solvent-assisted trypsin
digestion of ricin for forensic identification by LC-ESI MS/MS. Anal Chem
2007;79(16):6271–8.
[150] Figueiredo MKK, Romeiro GA, Davila LA, Damasceno RN, Franco AP. The
isolation of pyrolysis oil from castor seeds via a Low Temperature Conversion
(LTC) process and its use in a pyrolysis oil-diesel blend. Fuel 2009;88
(11):2193–8.
[151] Goudriaan F, Peferoen DGR. Liquid fuels from biomass via a hydrothermal
process. Chem Eng Sci 1990;45(8):2729–34.
[152] Czernik S, Bridgwater AV. Overview of applications of biomass fast pyrolysis
oil. Energy Fuels 2004;18(2):590–8.
[153] Huber GW, Dumesic JA. An overview of aqueous-phase catalytic processes for
production of hydrogen and alkanes in a biorefinery. Catal Today 2006;111
(1):119–32.
[154] Gan J, Yuan W. Operating condition optimization of corncob hydrothermal
conversion for bio-oil production. Appl Energy 2012;103:350–7.
[155] Biller P, Ross AB, Skill SC, Lea LA, Balasundaram B, Hall C, et al. Nutrient
recycling of aqueous phase for microalgae cultivation from the hydrothermal
liquefaction process. Algal Res 2012;1(1):70–6.
[156] Brown RC, Elliott DC. Hydrothermal processing. Thermochemical processing
of biomass: conversion into fuels, chemicals and power. Chichester, UK: John
Wiley Sons, Ltd; 2011.
[157] Chow MC, Jackson WR, Chaffee AL, Marshall M. Thermal treatment of algae
for production of biofuel. Energy Fuels 2013;27(4):1926–50.
[158] Elliott DC, Hart TR, Neuenschwander GG, Rotness LJ, Olarte MV, Zacher AH.
Chemical processing in high-pressure aqueous environments. 9. Process
development for catalytic gasification of algae feedstocks. Ind Eng Chem
Res 2012;51(33):10768–77.
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851
850
12. [159] Stucki S, Vogel F, Ludwig C, Haiduc AG, Brandenberger M. Catalytic gasifica-
tion of algae in supercritical water for biofuel production and carbon capture.
Energy Environ Sci 2009;2(5):535–41.
[160] Sayre R. Microalgae: the potential for carbon capture. Bioscience 2010;60
(9):722–7.
[161] Elliott D.C., Hart T.R., Schmidt A.J., Neuenschwander G.G., Rotness L.J., Olarte
M.V., et al. Process development for hydrothermal liquefaction of algae
feedstocks in a continuous-flow reactor. Algal Res 2 (0),2013,445-454.
[162] Furimsky E. Catalytic hydrodeoxygenation. Appl Catal A 2000;199(2):147–90.
[163] Prasad YS, Bakhshi NN. Effect of pretreatment of HZSM-5 catalyst on its
performance in canola oil upgrading. Appl Catal 1985;18(1):71–85.
[164] Palanisamy S, Gevert BS. Thermal treatment of rapeseed oil in bioenergy
technology. In: Proceedings of World renewable energy congress; 2011.
[165] Krar M, Kasza T, Kovacs S, Kallo D, Hancsok J. Bio gas oils with improved low
temperature properties. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92(5):886–92.
[166] Scherzer J, Gruia AJ. Hydrocracking science and technology (Chemical
industries). CRC Press; 1996.
[167] Mohammad M, Hari TK, Zahira Y, Sharma YS, Sopian K. Overview on the
production of paraffin based-biofuels via catalytic hydrodeoxygenation.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;22:121–32.
[168] Wang Y, Xingguo W, Yuanfa L, Shiyi O, Yanlai T, Shuze T. Refining of biodiesel
by ceramic membrane separation. Fuel Process Technol 2009;90:422–7.
[169] He HY, Guo X, Zhu SL. Comparison of membrane extraction with traditional
extraction methods for biodiesel production. J Am Oil Chem Soc 2006;83
(5):457–60.
[170] Saleh J, Tremblay AY, Dube MA. Glycerol removal from biodiesel using
membrane separation technology. Fuel 2010;89(9):2260–6.
[171] Caro J. Catalysis in Micro-structured membrane reactors with nano-designed
membranes. Chin J Catal 2008;29:1169–77.
[172] Baroutian S, Aroua MK, Raman AAA, Sulaiman NMN. A packed bed mem-
brane reactor for production of biodiesel using activated carbon supported
catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2011;102(2):1095–102.
[173] Cao P, Dube MA, Tremblay AY. Methanol recycling in the production of
biodiesel in a membrane reactor. Fuel Process Technol 2008;87(6):825–33.
[174] Jaruwat P, Kongjao S, Hunsom M. Management of biodiesel wastewater by
the combined processes of chemical recovery and electrochemical treatment.
Energy Convers Manag 2010;51(3):531–7.
[175] Ferella F, Di Celso GM, De Michelis I, Stanisci V, Veglio F. Optimization of the
transesterification reaction in biodiesel production. Fuel 2010;89(1):36–42.
[176] Carlson LHC, Machado RAF, Petrus JCC, Spricigo CB, Sarmento LAV. Perfor-
mance of reverse osmosis membranes in the separation of supercritical CO
and essential oils. J Membr Sci 2004;237(1):71–6.
[177] Atadashi IM, Aroua MK, Abdul AAR, Sulaiman NMN. Membrane biodiesel
production and refining technology: a critical review. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2011;15(9):5051–62.
[178] Wang C, Du Zhankui Pan, Li J, Yang J. Z. Direct conversion of biomass to bio-
petroleum at low temperature. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 2007;78(2):438–44.
[179] Cunha JA, Pereira MM, Valente LMM, de la Piscina, Pilar R, Homs N, et al.
Waste biomass to liquids: low temperature conversion of sugarcane bagasse
to bio-oil. The effect of combined hydrolysis treatments. Biomass Bioenergy
2011;35(5):2106–16.
[180] Li L, Coppola E, Rine J, Miller JL, Walker D. Catalytic hydrothermal conversion
of triglycerides to non-ester biofuels. Energy Fuels 2010;24(2):1305–15.
[181] Gan J, Yuan W, Johnson L, Wang D, Nelson R, Zhang K. Hydrothermal
conversion of big bluestem for bio-oil production: the effect of ecotype and
planting location. Bioresour Technol 2012;116(0):413–20.
[182] Akalın MK, Tekin K, Karagoz S. Hydrothermal liquefaction of cornelian cherry
stones for bio-oil production. Bioresour Technol 2012;110(0):682–7.
[183] Sugano M, Takagi H, Hirano K, Mashimo K. Hydrothermal liquefaction of
plantation biomass with two kinds of wastewater from paper industry. J
Mater Sci 2008;43(7):2476–86.
[184] Gao Y, Chen H, Wang J, Shi T, Yang H, Wang X. Characterization of products
from hydrothermal liquefaction and carbonation of biomass model com-
pounds and real biomass. J Fuel Chem Technol 2011;39(12):893–900.
[185] Elkasabi Y, Mullen CA, Pighinelli ALMT, Boateng AA. Hydrodeoxygenation of
fast-pyrolysis bio-oils from various feedstocks using carbon-supported cat-
alysts. Fuel Process Technol 2014;123(0):11–8.
[186] Ying X, Tiejun W, Longlong M, Guanyi C. Upgrading of fast pyrolysis liquid
fuel from biomass over Ru/γ-Al2O3 catalyst. Energy Convers Manag 2012;55
(0):172–7.
[187] Xu X, Zhang C, Liu Y, Zhai Y, Zhang R. Two-step catalytic hydrodeoxygenation
of fast pyrolysis oil to hydrocarbon liquid fuels. Chemosphere 2013;93
(4):652–60.
[188] Xu W, Gao L, Wang S, Xiao G. Biodiesel production in a membrane reactor
using MCM-41 supported solid acid catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2014;159
(0):286–91.
[189] Cao P, Dube MA, Tremblay AY. High-purity fatty acid methyl ester production
from canola, soybean, palm, and yellow grease lipids by means of a
membrane reactor. Biomass Bioenergy 2008;32(11):1028–36.
[190] Xu W, Gao L, So Wang, Xiao G. Biodiesel production from soybean oil in a
membrane reactor over hydrotalcite based catalyst: an optimization study.
Energy Fuels 2013;27(11):6738–42.
T.M.Y. khan et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 840–851 851