Island In the Street: Analyzing the Function of Gang Violence from a Culture ...kshap24
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes gang violence from a cultural and conflict perspective. The paper examines the components of gang culture that are in conflict with broader society and how gangs, communities, and law enforcement view the gang problem differently. Through an analysis of news articles, the researcher found that gang violence stems more from issues of identity and values within gang culture rather than just environmental factors. Both gangs and law enforcement see the gang problem rigidly, while communities view it more flexibly. Understanding gang culture is important to address the root causes of violence rather than just the behaviors.
1Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitud.docxdrennanmicah
This document summarizes a study that examines how collective strain and moral/legal neutralization influence violent extremist attitudes in adolescents. The study uses data from Swiss adolescents to test predictions from General Strain Theory. Specifically, it hypothesizes that 1) exposure to collective strain is associated with higher support for violent extremism and 2) the effect of collective strain is amplified when individuals have higher moral disengagement and legal cynicism. The results found that collective strain alone did not predict extremist attitudes, but the interaction of strain and moral/legal neutralization did significantly predict more extremist views.
This document provides a summary of gang violence in the African American community and recommendations to prevent it. It defines the problem of gang violence and prevalence rates. African American gangs have high rates of violence despite lower membership. Factors that contribute to gang violence include poverty, lack of opportunities, and social disorganization. The document recommends that the mayor implement community outreach programs to reduce poverty and increase social and economic well-being, citing two specific programs as examples: Neighborhood Centers Inc. and Connecticut Association for Human Services. Both work to improve communities and move families out of poverty.
This document outlines a proposed program to prevent sexual violence on a college campus. It begins with introducing the problem of sexual violence on college campuses and defining key terms. It then discusses social and environmental determinants of sexual violence and presents data on prevalence of sexual assault among college students. The target population is identified as college-aged students, particularly women. A needs assessment was conducted through interviews with campus health experts and reviewing campus statistics. The document proposes using this information to develop goals, objectives, and strategies for a prevention program.
PO 450 Final Research Project - Alejandro LunaAlejandro Luna
This document summarizes research from several studies about adolescent suicide and criminal accountability for coercing suicide. It discusses how surveys and interviews were conducted to understand the psychological factors behind suicidal victims, especially among LGBT youth. The studies found that LGBT individuals reported higher rates of suicidal ideation and abuse. They were more likely to experience harassment, fear for their safety, and consider suicide. The document examines laws regarding bias intimidation and controversial debates around freedom of speech versus equal protection. It analyzes the external influences that can play a role in suicide, like bullying, isolation, desire for revenge. The goal is to better understand the roots and severity of coercing suicide.
Mass Shootings
JUST300-06
Leslie Garcia
December 3, 2018
STEP 1:
Cabrera, J. F., & Kwon, R. (2018). Income Inequality, Household Income, and Mass Shooting in the United States. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 294.
The authors hypothesized that there is a positive relationship between income inequality and mass shootings. Furthermore, these authors also hypothesize that mass shootings vary based on regional locations. The authors of these articles aimed at extending the previous research that finds stronger evidence regarding the positive relations between income inequality and mass shootings. Authors of the study employed previous research that finds a strong positive relationship between income inequality and mass shootings through examining the impact of the family's income and the association between inequality and income. In order to perform the analysis regarding the effects of the family’s income and the interaction between inequality and income, authors compiled data from 3,144 nations from 1990 to 2015. The outcome of this study indicates that even though the income inequality and income alone are the predictors of the mass shootings, the impacts of mass shootings are stronger when combining via interaction. The results also show the highest number of shootings are those that combine both high levels of inequality and high levels of income. To handle the epidemic issue of mass shootings, it is important to have a clear understanding of how to tackle the rise in inequality and unstable environments which leads to the existence of inequality.This study is important since it gives some of the reasons why there are high incidences of a mass shooting in some regions as compared to others. Therefore, it gives a direct solution to ensure that there is equal distribution of resources and equal employment opportunities to ensure that the issue of mass shootings is dealt with. This study also indicates that effective solutions to mass shootings need to involve the understanding of the main causes of mass shootings
Lowe, S. R., & Galea, S. (2017). The Mental Health Consequences of Mass Shootings. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 18 (1), 62-82.
The authors of this study hypothesized that mass shooting leads to adverse psychological outcomes among the survivors and the members of the community affected. Another hypothesis is that there is little knowledge regarding the adverse psychological impacts of mass shootings on the exposed individuals. A total of 49 peer-reviewed articles which consisted of 27 independent samples following 15 mass shooting cases were used. The author's employed peer-reviewed research methods to select samples. The key findings of the study are that mass shootings are associated with various adverse psychological impacts in the survivors as well as the members of the affected families. Risk factors for the negative psychological outcome include demographic and the pre-incident features related t.
This document summarizes a research paper examining the similarities faced by veterans and ex-offenders during the re-entry process. It begins by outlining the adjustment difficulties that veterans experience when returning home, such as PTSD, anxiety, and substance abuse. It then notes that ex-offenders face similar challenges with reintegration, though they lack resources like health insurance and savings that veterans receive. The literature review finds studies have examined these populations independently but not comparatively. The document reviews prevalence data on parolees and deployed veterans, environmental similarities between the military and prison systems, and adjustment difficulties commonly faced by both groups. The aim is to identify interventions that could benefit individuals from either population.
Island In the Street: Analyzing the Function of Gang Violence from a Culture ...kshap24
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes gang violence from a cultural and conflict perspective. The paper examines the components of gang culture that are in conflict with broader society and how gangs, communities, and law enforcement view the gang problem differently. Through an analysis of news articles, the researcher found that gang violence stems more from issues of identity and values within gang culture rather than just environmental factors. Both gangs and law enforcement see the gang problem rigidly, while communities view it more flexibly. Understanding gang culture is important to address the root causes of violence rather than just the behaviors.
1Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitud.docxdrennanmicah
This document summarizes a study that examines how collective strain and moral/legal neutralization influence violent extremist attitudes in adolescents. The study uses data from Swiss adolescents to test predictions from General Strain Theory. Specifically, it hypothesizes that 1) exposure to collective strain is associated with higher support for violent extremism and 2) the effect of collective strain is amplified when individuals have higher moral disengagement and legal cynicism. The results found that collective strain alone did not predict extremist attitudes, but the interaction of strain and moral/legal neutralization did significantly predict more extremist views.
This document provides a summary of gang violence in the African American community and recommendations to prevent it. It defines the problem of gang violence and prevalence rates. African American gangs have high rates of violence despite lower membership. Factors that contribute to gang violence include poverty, lack of opportunities, and social disorganization. The document recommends that the mayor implement community outreach programs to reduce poverty and increase social and economic well-being, citing two specific programs as examples: Neighborhood Centers Inc. and Connecticut Association for Human Services. Both work to improve communities and move families out of poverty.
This document outlines a proposed program to prevent sexual violence on a college campus. It begins with introducing the problem of sexual violence on college campuses and defining key terms. It then discusses social and environmental determinants of sexual violence and presents data on prevalence of sexual assault among college students. The target population is identified as college-aged students, particularly women. A needs assessment was conducted through interviews with campus health experts and reviewing campus statistics. The document proposes using this information to develop goals, objectives, and strategies for a prevention program.
PO 450 Final Research Project - Alejandro LunaAlejandro Luna
This document summarizes research from several studies about adolescent suicide and criminal accountability for coercing suicide. It discusses how surveys and interviews were conducted to understand the psychological factors behind suicidal victims, especially among LGBT youth. The studies found that LGBT individuals reported higher rates of suicidal ideation and abuse. They were more likely to experience harassment, fear for their safety, and consider suicide. The document examines laws regarding bias intimidation and controversial debates around freedom of speech versus equal protection. It analyzes the external influences that can play a role in suicide, like bullying, isolation, desire for revenge. The goal is to better understand the roots and severity of coercing suicide.
Mass Shootings
JUST300-06
Leslie Garcia
December 3, 2018
STEP 1:
Cabrera, J. F., & Kwon, R. (2018). Income Inequality, Household Income, and Mass Shooting in the United States. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 294.
The authors hypothesized that there is a positive relationship between income inequality and mass shootings. Furthermore, these authors also hypothesize that mass shootings vary based on regional locations. The authors of these articles aimed at extending the previous research that finds stronger evidence regarding the positive relations between income inequality and mass shootings. Authors of the study employed previous research that finds a strong positive relationship between income inequality and mass shootings through examining the impact of the family's income and the association between inequality and income. In order to perform the analysis regarding the effects of the family’s income and the interaction between inequality and income, authors compiled data from 3,144 nations from 1990 to 2015. The outcome of this study indicates that even though the income inequality and income alone are the predictors of the mass shootings, the impacts of mass shootings are stronger when combining via interaction. The results also show the highest number of shootings are those that combine both high levels of inequality and high levels of income. To handle the epidemic issue of mass shootings, it is important to have a clear understanding of how to tackle the rise in inequality and unstable environments which leads to the existence of inequality.This study is important since it gives some of the reasons why there are high incidences of a mass shooting in some regions as compared to others. Therefore, it gives a direct solution to ensure that there is equal distribution of resources and equal employment opportunities to ensure that the issue of mass shootings is dealt with. This study also indicates that effective solutions to mass shootings need to involve the understanding of the main causes of mass shootings
Lowe, S. R., & Galea, S. (2017). The Mental Health Consequences of Mass Shootings. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 18 (1), 62-82.
The authors of this study hypothesized that mass shooting leads to adverse psychological outcomes among the survivors and the members of the community affected. Another hypothesis is that there is little knowledge regarding the adverse psychological impacts of mass shootings on the exposed individuals. A total of 49 peer-reviewed articles which consisted of 27 independent samples following 15 mass shooting cases were used. The author's employed peer-reviewed research methods to select samples. The key findings of the study are that mass shootings are associated with various adverse psychological impacts in the survivors as well as the members of the affected families. Risk factors for the negative psychological outcome include demographic and the pre-incident features related t.
This document summarizes a research paper examining the similarities faced by veterans and ex-offenders during the re-entry process. It begins by outlining the adjustment difficulties that veterans experience when returning home, such as PTSD, anxiety, and substance abuse. It then notes that ex-offenders face similar challenges with reintegration, though they lack resources like health insurance and savings that veterans receive. The literature review finds studies have examined these populations independently but not comparatively. The document reviews prevalence data on parolees and deployed veterans, environmental similarities between the military and prison systems, and adjustment difficulties commonly faced by both groups. The aim is to identify interventions that could benefit individuals from either population.
This document provides an introduction and literature review for a research project examining factors that influence perceptions of victimization and fear of crime in Sydney. The introduction discusses fear of crime as an important issue and outlines the research questions. The literature review covers previous research finding demographic variables like age, sex, and race correlate with fear of crime. Studies also link perceptions of neighborhood safety and disorder to fear. The methodology section describes the sample, variables, and statistical analysis that will be used to analyze the relationships between demographics, environment, and fear of crime. Tables 1 and 2.1-2.3 provide sample characteristics and preliminary results for research questions 1-3 on correlations between age, race, sex and indicators of fear.
The General Aggression Model Theoretical Extensions to Violen.docxrtodd194
The General Aggression Model: Theoretical Extensions to Violence
C. Nathan DeWall
University of Kentucky
Craig A. Anderson
Iowa State University
Brad J. Bushman
The Ohio State University and VU University, Amsterdam
This article discusses the General Aggression Model (GAM), which provides a com-
prehensive and integrative social– cognitive framework for understanding aggression
and violence. After providing a brief description of the basic components of GAM, we
discuss how it can be used to better understand 4 topics related to phenomena that occur
primarily outside the laboratory and apply to a broad range of people. Specifically, we
apply GAM to better understand intimate partner violence, intergroup violence, global
climate change effects on violence, and suicide. We also explain how the tenets of
GAM can be used to inform interventions aimed at reducing these forms of violence.
Finally, we show how GAM can explain why people do not behave violently, such as
in societies where violence is exceedingly rare. Applying GAM to violent behavior that
occurs outside the laboratory adds to its explanatory power and enhances the external
validity of its predictions. Because the 4 topics apply to such a broad range of people,
GAM may have broader influence in fostering understanding of aggression in these
domains. By increasing our understanding of the causes of violent behavior, GAM may
help reduce it.
Keywords: General Aggression Model, climate change, intergroup violence, intimate partner
violence, suicide
Nonviolence leads to the highest ethics, which is the
goal of all evolution. Until we stop harming all other
living beings, we are still savages.
—Thomas A. Edison, American inventor
In the distant past, aggression often was an
adaptive behavior for our ancient ancestors who
lived in small groups. Aggression and related
threat displays played an important role in mate
selection, protection of offspring and other kin,
and survival of the group. As humans became
more social and developed culture, however,
aggression became less adaptive, especially at
the group level. Although one can reasonably
argue that even today, minor forms of aggres-
sion play an adaptive role in socialization and
social control (e.g., Tedeschi & Felson, 1994),
more serious forms of aggression are more mal-
adaptive than adaptive. Aggression breeds ag-
gression, and it seems to cause more problems
than it solves. Even when it works in the short
run, aggression frequently fails in the long run.
So, why are people aggressive today? We could
blame it on our genes, but that is only part of the
story. The purpose of this is article is to explain
how an overarching framework for understanding
aggression and violence —the General Aggres-
sion Model, or GAM for short (see Figure 1)—
can be applied to violence outside the labora-
tory: intimate partner violence, aggression be-
tween groups, global warming effects on vio-
lence, and suicide. We also discuss how GAM
can be ap.
current trends in criminal justice systemPATRICK MAELO
The document discusses several topics related to criminal justice including:
1) The balance between public safety and individual privacy with new technologies, requiring transparency and accountability in their use.
2) How population growth and demographics can impact future crime rates, with some groups like black males facing higher risks of criminal involvement.
3) The roles of social science in public policy and law enforcement, through understanding human behavior but also requiring care to avoid bias.
4) Debates between trait theorists and social structure theorists around the influences of genetics versus environment on human behavior and crime. Both factors are seen as interacting to shape behavior.
The document is a public relations proposal prepared by Axiom Public Relations for the Bowling Green State University Community of Care Coalition. It includes an opportunity statement, situation analysis based on secondary and primary research, target audiences, goals and objectives, strategies and tactics, promotional materials and budget, and evaluation plan. The proposal aims to address issues of sexual assault on campus and establish communication where victims feel comfortable reporting, while promoting the Coalition and generating awareness of sexual assault as a community issue.
This research article investigates how young sexual minority women's (YSMW) perceptions of fit with lesbian community norms relate to their experiences of depression and anxiety. The study surveyed 504 YSMWs aged 18-35 on their identification with the lesbian community and how their own characteristics compared to standards of who they ideally want to be and ought to be, as well as lesbian community standards. Results found that discrepancies from both self and community ideal standards predicted higher depression, while discrepancies from both self and community ought standards related to greater anxiety. Identification with the lesbian community moderated these relationships, such that discrepancies were more strongly linked to negative affect for YSMWs with stronger community identification. The findings suggest strict lesbian community norms may
Abstract.docxAbstractWith scientific knowledge of youth deve.docxaryan532920
Abstract.docx
Abstract
With scientific knowledge of youth development programs that have grown dramatically over the last couple of decades, theoretical frameworks for translating research into more supportive environments for youth have lagged. Most articles proposes a risk/protective theoretical perspective grounded in ecological and developmental only in theories, but the principles taken from the theory are documented with little success. Most young adults involved in crime because of the environment where they have grown makes them more attracted to criminal activities from a young age. If the policy and procedures along with follow up was adhere to, there could be a higher success rate of these programs to deter adolescents from crime and promote positive youth development and prevent problem behaviors. Community crime prevention programs or strategies target changes in community infrastructure, culture, or the physical environment in order to reduce crime. The diversity of approaches include neighborhood watch, community policing, urban or physical design, and comprehensive or multi-disciplinary efforts. These strategies may seek to engage residents, community and faith-based organizations, and local government agencies in addressing the factors that contribute to the community’s crime, delinquency, and disorder.
REFERENCES
Bogenschneider, K. (1996). An Ecological Risk/Protective Theory for Building Prevention Programs, Policies, and Community Capacity to Support Youth. Family Relations,45(2), 127-138. doi:10.2307/585283
Chp 1 Intro.docx
Chapter 1: Introduction
With homicide as the second leading cause of death for young people between the ages of 10 and 24 (Centers for Disease Control, Prevention [CDC], 2009a). In 2009, 650,843 assault-related non-fatal injuries in youth age 10 to 24 were treated at emergency departments across the United States. The term youth violence is used to encompass many forms of violence among young people, including more serious forms (e.g., homicide) and behaviors that are less serious in nature (e.g., fighting). Youth violence is thus defined as “the intentional use of force–whether threatened or real–against a person, group, or community that results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm or deprivation by persons between the ages of 10 and 24 ( Dahlberg & Krug, 2002).
Many individuals, family members, peers, and community factors have been found to increase the likelihood of an individual's violent offending. Such risk factors have been empirically identified through multiple studies and predict violent behavior longitudinally (Hawkins et al., 2000; Murray & Farrington, 2010). A relatively new area of research in youth violence prevention involves examining protective factors (i.e., variables that have a moderating effect on risk factors) related to violence perpetration. This research can also inform prevention efforts, in tha.
This document discusses institutions of higher education and their response to sexual violence on campus. It begins with an introduction explaining that while access to higher education has increased, colleges still struggle to ensure safety and respect for all students. It then defines sexual violence and notes its high prevalence among college women. The document outlines various negative physical, mental, and academic outcomes for victims and discusses potential causes of sexual violence like gender inequality and the desire for power and control rather than sexual desire. It concludes by calling for continued efforts to prevent sexual violence and create safer learning environments.
ArticlePTSD Symptoms Mediate the RelationshipBetween Sex.docxrossskuddershamus
This document summarizes a study that examined whether PTSD symptoms mediate the relationship between sexual abuse and substance use in juvenile justice-involved youth. The study used data from 197 youth who completed psychological assessments. Results showed that PTSD symptoms significantly mediated the relationship between sexual abuse and both drug use and alcohol use. Specifically, higher PTSD symptoms were associated with increased substance use risk for youth who experienced sexual abuse. Gender did not significantly moderate these relationships. The findings suggest targeting PTSD symptoms through treatment may help reduce substance use problems for sexually abused youth in the juvenile justice system.
On Jan. 13, James C. (Buddy) Howell spoke at UCLA as part of "GANGS: Strategies to Break the Cycle of Violence," a 2010-2011 speaker series at the UCLA School of Public Affairs. The series addresses gang issues—both in Los Angeles and on a national scale—with special focus on current knowledge of gang operations, intervention strategies, effective support services and policy recommendations.
Howell worked at the federal Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) in the U.S. Department of Justice for 21 years, mostly as director of research and program development. He was also director, National Institute of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and deputy administrator of OJJDP. He currently is senior research associate with the National Youth Gang Center in Tallahassee, Florida, and special advisor to the Life History Research Program at the University of Pittsburgh. He is an associate editor of the journal Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, and author of the book Juvenile Justice and Youth Violence (Sage), and lead editor of A Sourcebook: Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders (Sage). Some of his more than 70 published works have appeared in Crime & Delinquency, Criminology, the Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, and Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. Dr. Howell is very active in helping States and localities reform their juvenile justice system and employ evidence-based programs, and in working with these entities in addressing youth gang problems in a balanced approach.
The document discusses prison gangs and their role in inmate victimization. It examines a study by Fox et al. (2012) that analyzed the relationship between gang membership, perceptions of social disorganization, and victimization among prison inmates. The study found that gang members were more likely to be victimized than non-gang members and that perceptions of social disorganization were associated with higher rates of victimization among inmates. Interviews with inmates in a Texas prison were used to assess gang involvement, experiences with crime and victimization, and perceptions of neighborhood conditions.
Contents lists available atScienceDirectAggression and Vio.docxdickonsondorris
This study analyzes 9 qualitative studies on how women label unwanted sexual experiences. It identifies 7 categories of factors that influence labeling: 1) Self-blame, 2) Normalization of violence, 3) Rejection of the term "sexual violence", 4) Understanding events based on rape scripts, 5) Ambivalence around labeling, 6) Labeling due to violence/impacts, 7) Labeling facilitated by social support/education. Results show labeling is complex, with women minimizing events, justifying perpetrators or avoiding labels due to rape myths and scripts. Seeking support or information can help with identification of sexual violence.
Contents lists available atScienceDirectAggression and Vio.docxbobbywlane695641
Contents lists available at
ScienceDirec
t
Aggression and Violent Behavior
journal homepage:
www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobe
h
Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 10139
5
A metasynthesis of qualitative studies on girls' and women's labeling of sexual violence
T
Catherine Rousseaua,⁎, Manon Bergerona, Sandrine Riccib
a Sexology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada b Sociology Department, Université de Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Sexual violence
Labeling
Victims
Metasynthesis
Qualitative
Many women do not label their unwanted sexual experiences as rape or sexual violence, but rather use various labels that suggest a different understanding of the events. This metasynthesis provides new insights and empirical evidence of how girls and women discuss their unwanted sexual experiences, and identifies factors that impede or promote such labeling. Qualitative data of 9 studies were synthetized using Noblit and Hare's (1988) framework. Results show that victims can frame sexual violence within rape scripts that may lead to minimization, normalization, self-blame or rationalization of the event. Some participants hold an ambivalent discourse, which suggests that labeling is a fluctuating process. Finally, seeking social support, or receiving educational information seem to facilitate the labeling of sexual violence. The implications for intervention and sexual violence prevention programs are discussed.
C. Rousseau, et al. Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101395
C. Rousseau, et al. Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101395
2
5Introduction
Sexual violence is a social problem, mainly affecting girls and women, that can lead to significant psychosocial consequences (Rhew, Stappenbeck, Bedard-Gilligan, Hughes, & Kaysen, 2017). In the United States, more than one-quarter of women experienced unwanted sexual contact in their lifetime, while one-third experienced some form of noncontact unwanted sexual experience in their lifetime (Basile, Smith, Breiding, Black, & Mahendra, 2014). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines sexual violence as “a sexual act that is committed or attempted by another person without freely given consent of the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse” (Basile et al., 2014, p. 11). Sexual violence includes rape, attempted rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, sexual coercion without physical force and unwanted sexual contact (Basile et al., 2014). This term is inclusive of the various forms of sexual victimization that are not necessarily criminalized, especially since legal frameworks vary from one country to another. This definition allows for the conception of sexual violence on a continuum, as many feminist researchers have suggested, since the pioneering work of Kelly (1987) and Hanmer
(1977).
While research confirms the high prevalence of sexual violence, few events .
- St. Louis has seen increasing rates of homicide over the past 5 years, with young people disproportionately responsible for crime and violence. Homicide offenders and victims are often male, African American, between 17-29 years old, and have a criminal history. These demographics match those of current or former gang members.
- While only 13-18% of homicides are committed by known gang members, gang involvement may be underreported due to definitional issues and the fact that many leave gangs before age 20 but continue criminal behavior.
- The document examines different approaches to defining and understanding gangs and the role of moral panic in shaping anti-gang policies, finding that subjective law enforcement designations can
Effect of item order on self-reported psychological aggression: Exploring the...William Woods
There are a plethora of data indicating that intimate partner violence (IPV) occurs at high rates in college students (Shorey, Cornelius, & Bell, 2008). Although studies have repeatedly demonstrated these high rates of IPV, some researchers have criticized the reliability and validity of the self-report measures commonly used to assess these rates (Follingstad & Ryan, 2013; Ryan, 2013). There is some research to suggest that subtle factors, such as item order, can impact self-reports of violence victimization and perpetration (Ramirez & Straus, 2006). This phenomenon has been most widely studied in the context of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; Straus, et al., 1996), a widely used measure of IPV, which may not comprehensively assess psychological aggression. Thus, in the current study we examined differences in self-reports of psychological aggression victimization and perpetration using the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse (MMEA; Murphy & Hoover, 1999) when it was administered in either the standard format or in a format in which question order was randomized. Given that there may be gender differences in victimization and perpetration, we also examined the impact gender would have on item order effects.
Presented at ABCT, Nov. 2015.
This study investigates the relationship between gang membership and carrying firearms using data from a national survey of youth in the United States. The study finds that carrying firearms is associated with involvement in delinquency, having peers in gangs, and being in a gang oneself. However, the strength of the relationship between gang membership and carrying decreases with age. There are few significant differences found across gender and race, suggesting the relationship is consistent regardless of these factors. Understanding this relationship can help address the issue of gang violence and use of firearms.
This study examines how universal and culturally specific factors influence Latinas' experiences of sexual harassment. It integrates past research on sexual harassment and Latin culture to develop a model of the harassment-appraisal process for Latinas. A survey of 184 harassed Latinas assessed stimulus factors like harassment intensity and perpetrator characteristics, contextual factors like organizational tolerance, and individual factors like acculturation level. Path analyses suggested these factors relate to Latinas' phenomenological experiences of harassment severity and subsequent job dissatisfaction, withdrawal, health issues, and life dissatisfaction.
Journal of Sociology and Social Work June 2017, Vol. 5, No. TatianaMajor22
This document summarizes a journal article that uses critical race theory to explore differences between African American and Caucasian women who perpetrate intimate partner violence. The study found that African American women in the sample were more likely to score higher on measures of physical conflict and parenting attitudes. The document provides background on intimate partner violence among African American female perpetrators and the use of critical race theory as a framework. It discusses how critical race theory acknowledges the intersections of race, gender, and other factors that influence the experiences of African American women with intimate partner violence.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectAggression and Vi.docxbobbywlane695641
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Aggression and Violent Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobeh
A metasynthesis of qualitative studies on girls' and women's labeling of
sexual violence
Catherine Rousseaua,⁎, Manon Bergerona, Sandrine Riccib
a Sexology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
b Sociology Department, Université de Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Sexual violence
Labeling
Victims
Metasynthesis
Qualitative
A B S T R A C T
Many women do not label their unwanted sexual experiences as rape or sexual violence, but rather use various
labels that suggest a different understanding of the events. This metasynthesis provides new insights and em-
pirical evidence of how girls and women discuss their unwanted sexual experiences, and identifies factors that
impede or promote such labeling. Qualitative data of 9 studies were synthetized using Noblit and Hare's (1988)
framework. Results show that victims can frame sexual violence within rape scripts that may lead to mini-
mization, normalization, self-blame or rationalization of the event. Some participants hold an ambivalent dis-
course, which suggests that labeling is a fluctuating process. Finally, seeking social support, or receiving edu-
cational information seem to facilitate the labeling of sexual violence. The implications for intervention and
sexual violence prevention programs are discussed.
1. Introduction
Sexual violence is a social problem, mainly affecting girls and
women, that can lead to significant psychosocial consequences (Rhew,
Stappenbeck, Bedard-Gilligan, Hughes, & Kaysen, 2017). In the United
States, more than one-quarter of women experienced unwanted sexual
contact in their lifetime, while one-third experienced some form of non-
contact unwanted sexual experience in their lifetime (Basile, Smith,
Breiding, Black, & Mahendra, 2014). The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention defines sexual violence as “a sexual act that is com-
mitted or attempted by another person without freely given consent of
the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse”
(Basile et al., 2014, p. 11). Sexual violence includes rape, attempted
rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, sexual coercion without phy-
sical force and unwanted sexual contact (Basile et al., 2014). This term
is inclusive of the various forms of sexual victimization that are not
necessarily criminalized, especially since legal frameworks vary from
one country to another. This definition allows for the conception of
sexual violence on a continuum, as many feminist researchers have
suggested, since the pioneering work of Kelly (1987) and Hanmer
(1977).
While research confirms the high prevalence of sexual violence, few
events of sexual violence are reported to the authorities. According to
the Truman and Langton (2015), 34% of rape and sexual assault crimes
are reported to authorities in the Un.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectAggression and Vi.docxmelvinjrobinson2199
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Aggression and Violent Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobeh
A metasynthesis of qualitative studies on girls' and women's labeling of
sexual violence
Catherine Rousseaua,⁎, Manon Bergerona, Sandrine Riccib
a Sexology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
b Sociology Department, Université de Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Sexual violence
Labeling
Victims
Metasynthesis
Qualitative
A B S T R A C T
Many women do not label their unwanted sexual experiences as rape or sexual violence, but rather use various
labels that suggest a different understanding of the events. This metasynthesis provides new insights and em-
pirical evidence of how girls and women discuss their unwanted sexual experiences, and identifies factors that
impede or promote such labeling. Qualitative data of 9 studies were synthetized using Noblit and Hare's (1988)
framework. Results show that victims can frame sexual violence within rape scripts that may lead to mini-
mization, normalization, self-blame or rationalization of the event. Some participants hold an ambivalent dis-
course, which suggests that labeling is a fluctuating process. Finally, seeking social support, or receiving edu-
cational information seem to facilitate the labeling of sexual violence. The implications for intervention and
sexual violence prevention programs are discussed.
1. Introduction
Sexual violence is a social problem, mainly affecting girls and
women, that can lead to significant psychosocial consequences (Rhew,
Stappenbeck, Bedard-Gilligan, Hughes, & Kaysen, 2017). In the United
States, more than one-quarter of women experienced unwanted sexual
contact in their lifetime, while one-third experienced some form of non-
contact unwanted sexual experience in their lifetime (Basile, Smith,
Breiding, Black, & Mahendra, 2014). The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention defines sexual violence as “a sexual act that is com-
mitted or attempted by another person without freely given consent of
the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse”
(Basile et al., 2014, p. 11). Sexual violence includes rape, attempted
rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, sexual coercion without phy-
sical force and unwanted sexual contact (Basile et al., 2014). This term
is inclusive of the various forms of sexual victimization that are not
necessarily criminalized, especially since legal frameworks vary from
one country to another. This definition allows for the conception of
sexual violence on a continuum, as many feminist researchers have
suggested, since the pioneering work of Kelly (1987) and Hanmer
(1977).
While research confirms the high prevalence of sexual violence, few
events of sexual violence are reported to the authorities. According to
the Truman and Langton (2015), 34% of rape and sexual assault crimes
are reported to authorities in the Un.
· · · Must be a foreign film with subtitles· Provide you wit.docxLynellBull52
The document provides guidance for a management plan assignment. It discusses three best methods for management teams to use when problem solving: means-ends analysis, back up avoidance, and difference reduction. Means-ends analysis is recommended as it combines goal-driven and creative approaches. The role of judgment in problem solving processes and an example for the management plan are to be included. Problem solving involves breaking goals into sub-goals and applying appropriate methods. Management teams can acquire problem solving methods through discovery, instruction, or observing examples.
· Identify the stakeholders and how they were affected by Heene.docxLynellBull52
· Identify the stakeholders and how they were affected by Heene's actions?
· 2. What stage of moral reasoning is exhibited by Richard Heene's actions? Do you believe the punishment fit the crime? Why or why not?
· 3. Explain how the cognitive-developmental approach influences one's ability to make ethical judgments.
4. How do you assess at what stage of moral development in Kohlberg's model you reason at in making decisions? Are you satisfied with that stage? Do you believe there are factors or forces preventing you from reasoning at a higher level? If so, what are they?
.
This document provides an introduction and literature review for a research project examining factors that influence perceptions of victimization and fear of crime in Sydney. The introduction discusses fear of crime as an important issue and outlines the research questions. The literature review covers previous research finding demographic variables like age, sex, and race correlate with fear of crime. Studies also link perceptions of neighborhood safety and disorder to fear. The methodology section describes the sample, variables, and statistical analysis that will be used to analyze the relationships between demographics, environment, and fear of crime. Tables 1 and 2.1-2.3 provide sample characteristics and preliminary results for research questions 1-3 on correlations between age, race, sex and indicators of fear.
The General Aggression Model Theoretical Extensions to Violen.docxrtodd194
The General Aggression Model: Theoretical Extensions to Violence
C. Nathan DeWall
University of Kentucky
Craig A. Anderson
Iowa State University
Brad J. Bushman
The Ohio State University and VU University, Amsterdam
This article discusses the General Aggression Model (GAM), which provides a com-
prehensive and integrative social– cognitive framework for understanding aggression
and violence. After providing a brief description of the basic components of GAM, we
discuss how it can be used to better understand 4 topics related to phenomena that occur
primarily outside the laboratory and apply to a broad range of people. Specifically, we
apply GAM to better understand intimate partner violence, intergroup violence, global
climate change effects on violence, and suicide. We also explain how the tenets of
GAM can be used to inform interventions aimed at reducing these forms of violence.
Finally, we show how GAM can explain why people do not behave violently, such as
in societies where violence is exceedingly rare. Applying GAM to violent behavior that
occurs outside the laboratory adds to its explanatory power and enhances the external
validity of its predictions. Because the 4 topics apply to such a broad range of people,
GAM may have broader influence in fostering understanding of aggression in these
domains. By increasing our understanding of the causes of violent behavior, GAM may
help reduce it.
Keywords: General Aggression Model, climate change, intergroup violence, intimate partner
violence, suicide
Nonviolence leads to the highest ethics, which is the
goal of all evolution. Until we stop harming all other
living beings, we are still savages.
—Thomas A. Edison, American inventor
In the distant past, aggression often was an
adaptive behavior for our ancient ancestors who
lived in small groups. Aggression and related
threat displays played an important role in mate
selection, protection of offspring and other kin,
and survival of the group. As humans became
more social and developed culture, however,
aggression became less adaptive, especially at
the group level. Although one can reasonably
argue that even today, minor forms of aggres-
sion play an adaptive role in socialization and
social control (e.g., Tedeschi & Felson, 1994),
more serious forms of aggression are more mal-
adaptive than adaptive. Aggression breeds ag-
gression, and it seems to cause more problems
than it solves. Even when it works in the short
run, aggression frequently fails in the long run.
So, why are people aggressive today? We could
blame it on our genes, but that is only part of the
story. The purpose of this is article is to explain
how an overarching framework for understanding
aggression and violence —the General Aggres-
sion Model, or GAM for short (see Figure 1)—
can be applied to violence outside the labora-
tory: intimate partner violence, aggression be-
tween groups, global warming effects on vio-
lence, and suicide. We also discuss how GAM
can be ap.
current trends in criminal justice systemPATRICK MAELO
The document discusses several topics related to criminal justice including:
1) The balance between public safety and individual privacy with new technologies, requiring transparency and accountability in their use.
2) How population growth and demographics can impact future crime rates, with some groups like black males facing higher risks of criminal involvement.
3) The roles of social science in public policy and law enforcement, through understanding human behavior but also requiring care to avoid bias.
4) Debates between trait theorists and social structure theorists around the influences of genetics versus environment on human behavior and crime. Both factors are seen as interacting to shape behavior.
The document is a public relations proposal prepared by Axiom Public Relations for the Bowling Green State University Community of Care Coalition. It includes an opportunity statement, situation analysis based on secondary and primary research, target audiences, goals and objectives, strategies and tactics, promotional materials and budget, and evaluation plan. The proposal aims to address issues of sexual assault on campus and establish communication where victims feel comfortable reporting, while promoting the Coalition and generating awareness of sexual assault as a community issue.
This research article investigates how young sexual minority women's (YSMW) perceptions of fit with lesbian community norms relate to their experiences of depression and anxiety. The study surveyed 504 YSMWs aged 18-35 on their identification with the lesbian community and how their own characteristics compared to standards of who they ideally want to be and ought to be, as well as lesbian community standards. Results found that discrepancies from both self and community ideal standards predicted higher depression, while discrepancies from both self and community ought standards related to greater anxiety. Identification with the lesbian community moderated these relationships, such that discrepancies were more strongly linked to negative affect for YSMWs with stronger community identification. The findings suggest strict lesbian community norms may
Abstract.docxAbstractWith scientific knowledge of youth deve.docxaryan532920
Abstract.docx
Abstract
With scientific knowledge of youth development programs that have grown dramatically over the last couple of decades, theoretical frameworks for translating research into more supportive environments for youth have lagged. Most articles proposes a risk/protective theoretical perspective grounded in ecological and developmental only in theories, but the principles taken from the theory are documented with little success. Most young adults involved in crime because of the environment where they have grown makes them more attracted to criminal activities from a young age. If the policy and procedures along with follow up was adhere to, there could be a higher success rate of these programs to deter adolescents from crime and promote positive youth development and prevent problem behaviors. Community crime prevention programs or strategies target changes in community infrastructure, culture, or the physical environment in order to reduce crime. The diversity of approaches include neighborhood watch, community policing, urban or physical design, and comprehensive or multi-disciplinary efforts. These strategies may seek to engage residents, community and faith-based organizations, and local government agencies in addressing the factors that contribute to the community’s crime, delinquency, and disorder.
REFERENCES
Bogenschneider, K. (1996). An Ecological Risk/Protective Theory for Building Prevention Programs, Policies, and Community Capacity to Support Youth. Family Relations,45(2), 127-138. doi:10.2307/585283
Chp 1 Intro.docx
Chapter 1: Introduction
With homicide as the second leading cause of death for young people between the ages of 10 and 24 (Centers for Disease Control, Prevention [CDC], 2009a). In 2009, 650,843 assault-related non-fatal injuries in youth age 10 to 24 were treated at emergency departments across the United States. The term youth violence is used to encompass many forms of violence among young people, including more serious forms (e.g., homicide) and behaviors that are less serious in nature (e.g., fighting). Youth violence is thus defined as “the intentional use of force–whether threatened or real–against a person, group, or community that results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm or deprivation by persons between the ages of 10 and 24 ( Dahlberg & Krug, 2002).
Many individuals, family members, peers, and community factors have been found to increase the likelihood of an individual's violent offending. Such risk factors have been empirically identified through multiple studies and predict violent behavior longitudinally (Hawkins et al., 2000; Murray & Farrington, 2010). A relatively new area of research in youth violence prevention involves examining protective factors (i.e., variables that have a moderating effect on risk factors) related to violence perpetration. This research can also inform prevention efforts, in tha.
This document discusses institutions of higher education and their response to sexual violence on campus. It begins with an introduction explaining that while access to higher education has increased, colleges still struggle to ensure safety and respect for all students. It then defines sexual violence and notes its high prevalence among college women. The document outlines various negative physical, mental, and academic outcomes for victims and discusses potential causes of sexual violence like gender inequality and the desire for power and control rather than sexual desire. It concludes by calling for continued efforts to prevent sexual violence and create safer learning environments.
ArticlePTSD Symptoms Mediate the RelationshipBetween Sex.docxrossskuddershamus
This document summarizes a study that examined whether PTSD symptoms mediate the relationship between sexual abuse and substance use in juvenile justice-involved youth. The study used data from 197 youth who completed psychological assessments. Results showed that PTSD symptoms significantly mediated the relationship between sexual abuse and both drug use and alcohol use. Specifically, higher PTSD symptoms were associated with increased substance use risk for youth who experienced sexual abuse. Gender did not significantly moderate these relationships. The findings suggest targeting PTSD symptoms through treatment may help reduce substance use problems for sexually abused youth in the juvenile justice system.
On Jan. 13, James C. (Buddy) Howell spoke at UCLA as part of "GANGS: Strategies to Break the Cycle of Violence," a 2010-2011 speaker series at the UCLA School of Public Affairs. The series addresses gang issues—both in Los Angeles and on a national scale—with special focus on current knowledge of gang operations, intervention strategies, effective support services and policy recommendations.
Howell worked at the federal Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) in the U.S. Department of Justice for 21 years, mostly as director of research and program development. He was also director, National Institute of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and deputy administrator of OJJDP. He currently is senior research associate with the National Youth Gang Center in Tallahassee, Florida, and special advisor to the Life History Research Program at the University of Pittsburgh. He is an associate editor of the journal Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, and author of the book Juvenile Justice and Youth Violence (Sage), and lead editor of A Sourcebook: Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders (Sage). Some of his more than 70 published works have appeared in Crime & Delinquency, Criminology, the Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, and Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. Dr. Howell is very active in helping States and localities reform their juvenile justice system and employ evidence-based programs, and in working with these entities in addressing youth gang problems in a balanced approach.
The document discusses prison gangs and their role in inmate victimization. It examines a study by Fox et al. (2012) that analyzed the relationship between gang membership, perceptions of social disorganization, and victimization among prison inmates. The study found that gang members were more likely to be victimized than non-gang members and that perceptions of social disorganization were associated with higher rates of victimization among inmates. Interviews with inmates in a Texas prison were used to assess gang involvement, experiences with crime and victimization, and perceptions of neighborhood conditions.
Contents lists available atScienceDirectAggression and Vio.docxdickonsondorris
This study analyzes 9 qualitative studies on how women label unwanted sexual experiences. It identifies 7 categories of factors that influence labeling: 1) Self-blame, 2) Normalization of violence, 3) Rejection of the term "sexual violence", 4) Understanding events based on rape scripts, 5) Ambivalence around labeling, 6) Labeling due to violence/impacts, 7) Labeling facilitated by social support/education. Results show labeling is complex, with women minimizing events, justifying perpetrators or avoiding labels due to rape myths and scripts. Seeking support or information can help with identification of sexual violence.
Contents lists available atScienceDirectAggression and Vio.docxbobbywlane695641
Contents lists available at
ScienceDirec
t
Aggression and Violent Behavior
journal homepage:
www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobe
h
Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 10139
5
A metasynthesis of qualitative studies on girls' and women's labeling of sexual violence
T
Catherine Rousseaua,⁎, Manon Bergerona, Sandrine Riccib
a Sexology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada b Sociology Department, Université de Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Sexual violence
Labeling
Victims
Metasynthesis
Qualitative
Many women do not label their unwanted sexual experiences as rape or sexual violence, but rather use various labels that suggest a different understanding of the events. This metasynthesis provides new insights and empirical evidence of how girls and women discuss their unwanted sexual experiences, and identifies factors that impede or promote such labeling. Qualitative data of 9 studies were synthetized using Noblit and Hare's (1988) framework. Results show that victims can frame sexual violence within rape scripts that may lead to minimization, normalization, self-blame or rationalization of the event. Some participants hold an ambivalent discourse, which suggests that labeling is a fluctuating process. Finally, seeking social support, or receiving educational information seem to facilitate the labeling of sexual violence. The implications for intervention and sexual violence prevention programs are discussed.
C. Rousseau, et al. Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101395
C. Rousseau, et al. Aggression and Violent Behavior 52 (2020) 101395
2
5Introduction
Sexual violence is a social problem, mainly affecting girls and women, that can lead to significant psychosocial consequences (Rhew, Stappenbeck, Bedard-Gilligan, Hughes, & Kaysen, 2017). In the United States, more than one-quarter of women experienced unwanted sexual contact in their lifetime, while one-third experienced some form of noncontact unwanted sexual experience in their lifetime (Basile, Smith, Breiding, Black, & Mahendra, 2014). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines sexual violence as “a sexual act that is committed or attempted by another person without freely given consent of the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse” (Basile et al., 2014, p. 11). Sexual violence includes rape, attempted rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, sexual coercion without physical force and unwanted sexual contact (Basile et al., 2014). This term is inclusive of the various forms of sexual victimization that are not necessarily criminalized, especially since legal frameworks vary from one country to another. This definition allows for the conception of sexual violence on a continuum, as many feminist researchers have suggested, since the pioneering work of Kelly (1987) and Hanmer
(1977).
While research confirms the high prevalence of sexual violence, few events .
- St. Louis has seen increasing rates of homicide over the past 5 years, with young people disproportionately responsible for crime and violence. Homicide offenders and victims are often male, African American, between 17-29 years old, and have a criminal history. These demographics match those of current or former gang members.
- While only 13-18% of homicides are committed by known gang members, gang involvement may be underreported due to definitional issues and the fact that many leave gangs before age 20 but continue criminal behavior.
- The document examines different approaches to defining and understanding gangs and the role of moral panic in shaping anti-gang policies, finding that subjective law enforcement designations can
Effect of item order on self-reported psychological aggression: Exploring the...William Woods
There are a plethora of data indicating that intimate partner violence (IPV) occurs at high rates in college students (Shorey, Cornelius, & Bell, 2008). Although studies have repeatedly demonstrated these high rates of IPV, some researchers have criticized the reliability and validity of the self-report measures commonly used to assess these rates (Follingstad & Ryan, 2013; Ryan, 2013). There is some research to suggest that subtle factors, such as item order, can impact self-reports of violence victimization and perpetration (Ramirez & Straus, 2006). This phenomenon has been most widely studied in the context of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; Straus, et al., 1996), a widely used measure of IPV, which may not comprehensively assess psychological aggression. Thus, in the current study we examined differences in self-reports of psychological aggression victimization and perpetration using the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse (MMEA; Murphy & Hoover, 1999) when it was administered in either the standard format or in a format in which question order was randomized. Given that there may be gender differences in victimization and perpetration, we also examined the impact gender would have on item order effects.
Presented at ABCT, Nov. 2015.
This study investigates the relationship between gang membership and carrying firearms using data from a national survey of youth in the United States. The study finds that carrying firearms is associated with involvement in delinquency, having peers in gangs, and being in a gang oneself. However, the strength of the relationship between gang membership and carrying decreases with age. There are few significant differences found across gender and race, suggesting the relationship is consistent regardless of these factors. Understanding this relationship can help address the issue of gang violence and use of firearms.
This study examines how universal and culturally specific factors influence Latinas' experiences of sexual harassment. It integrates past research on sexual harassment and Latin culture to develop a model of the harassment-appraisal process for Latinas. A survey of 184 harassed Latinas assessed stimulus factors like harassment intensity and perpetrator characteristics, contextual factors like organizational tolerance, and individual factors like acculturation level. Path analyses suggested these factors relate to Latinas' phenomenological experiences of harassment severity and subsequent job dissatisfaction, withdrawal, health issues, and life dissatisfaction.
Journal of Sociology and Social Work June 2017, Vol. 5, No. TatianaMajor22
This document summarizes a journal article that uses critical race theory to explore differences between African American and Caucasian women who perpetrate intimate partner violence. The study found that African American women in the sample were more likely to score higher on measures of physical conflict and parenting attitudes. The document provides background on intimate partner violence among African American female perpetrators and the use of critical race theory as a framework. It discusses how critical race theory acknowledges the intersections of race, gender, and other factors that influence the experiences of African American women with intimate partner violence.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectAggression and Vi.docxbobbywlane695641
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Aggression and Violent Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobeh
A metasynthesis of qualitative studies on girls' and women's labeling of
sexual violence
Catherine Rousseaua,⁎, Manon Bergerona, Sandrine Riccib
a Sexology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
b Sociology Department, Université de Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Sexual violence
Labeling
Victims
Metasynthesis
Qualitative
A B S T R A C T
Many women do not label their unwanted sexual experiences as rape or sexual violence, but rather use various
labels that suggest a different understanding of the events. This metasynthesis provides new insights and em-
pirical evidence of how girls and women discuss their unwanted sexual experiences, and identifies factors that
impede or promote such labeling. Qualitative data of 9 studies were synthetized using Noblit and Hare's (1988)
framework. Results show that victims can frame sexual violence within rape scripts that may lead to mini-
mization, normalization, self-blame or rationalization of the event. Some participants hold an ambivalent dis-
course, which suggests that labeling is a fluctuating process. Finally, seeking social support, or receiving edu-
cational information seem to facilitate the labeling of sexual violence. The implications for intervention and
sexual violence prevention programs are discussed.
1. Introduction
Sexual violence is a social problem, mainly affecting girls and
women, that can lead to significant psychosocial consequences (Rhew,
Stappenbeck, Bedard-Gilligan, Hughes, & Kaysen, 2017). In the United
States, more than one-quarter of women experienced unwanted sexual
contact in their lifetime, while one-third experienced some form of non-
contact unwanted sexual experience in their lifetime (Basile, Smith,
Breiding, Black, & Mahendra, 2014). The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention defines sexual violence as “a sexual act that is com-
mitted or attempted by another person without freely given consent of
the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse”
(Basile et al., 2014, p. 11). Sexual violence includes rape, attempted
rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, sexual coercion without phy-
sical force and unwanted sexual contact (Basile et al., 2014). This term
is inclusive of the various forms of sexual victimization that are not
necessarily criminalized, especially since legal frameworks vary from
one country to another. This definition allows for the conception of
sexual violence on a continuum, as many feminist researchers have
suggested, since the pioneering work of Kelly (1987) and Hanmer
(1977).
While research confirms the high prevalence of sexual violence, few
events of sexual violence are reported to the authorities. According to
the Truman and Langton (2015), 34% of rape and sexual assault crimes
are reported to authorities in the Un.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectAggression and Vi.docxmelvinjrobinson2199
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Aggression and Violent Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobeh
A metasynthesis of qualitative studies on girls' and women's labeling of
sexual violence
Catherine Rousseaua,⁎, Manon Bergerona, Sandrine Riccib
a Sexology Department, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
b Sociology Department, Université de Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Sexual violence
Labeling
Victims
Metasynthesis
Qualitative
A B S T R A C T
Many women do not label their unwanted sexual experiences as rape or sexual violence, but rather use various
labels that suggest a different understanding of the events. This metasynthesis provides new insights and em-
pirical evidence of how girls and women discuss their unwanted sexual experiences, and identifies factors that
impede or promote such labeling. Qualitative data of 9 studies were synthetized using Noblit and Hare's (1988)
framework. Results show that victims can frame sexual violence within rape scripts that may lead to mini-
mization, normalization, self-blame or rationalization of the event. Some participants hold an ambivalent dis-
course, which suggests that labeling is a fluctuating process. Finally, seeking social support, or receiving edu-
cational information seem to facilitate the labeling of sexual violence. The implications for intervention and
sexual violence prevention programs are discussed.
1. Introduction
Sexual violence is a social problem, mainly affecting girls and
women, that can lead to significant psychosocial consequences (Rhew,
Stappenbeck, Bedard-Gilligan, Hughes, & Kaysen, 2017). In the United
States, more than one-quarter of women experienced unwanted sexual
contact in their lifetime, while one-third experienced some form of non-
contact unwanted sexual experience in their lifetime (Basile, Smith,
Breiding, Black, & Mahendra, 2014). The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention defines sexual violence as “a sexual act that is com-
mitted or attempted by another person without freely given consent of
the victim or against someone who is unable to consent or refuse”
(Basile et al., 2014, p. 11). Sexual violence includes rape, attempted
rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, sexual coercion without phy-
sical force and unwanted sexual contact (Basile et al., 2014). This term
is inclusive of the various forms of sexual victimization that are not
necessarily criminalized, especially since legal frameworks vary from
one country to another. This definition allows for the conception of
sexual violence on a continuum, as many feminist researchers have
suggested, since the pioneering work of Kelly (1987) and Hanmer
(1977).
While research confirms the high prevalence of sexual violence, few
events of sexual violence are reported to the authorities. According to
the Truman and Langton (2015), 34% of rape and sexual assault crimes
are reported to authorities in the Un.
· · · Must be a foreign film with subtitles· Provide you wit.docxLynellBull52
The document provides guidance for a management plan assignment. It discusses three best methods for management teams to use when problem solving: means-ends analysis, back up avoidance, and difference reduction. Means-ends analysis is recommended as it combines goal-driven and creative approaches. The role of judgment in problem solving processes and an example for the management plan are to be included. Problem solving involves breaking goals into sub-goals and applying appropriate methods. Management teams can acquire problem solving methods through discovery, instruction, or observing examples.
· Identify the stakeholders and how they were affected by Heene.docxLynellBull52
· Identify the stakeholders and how they were affected by Heene's actions?
· 2. What stage of moral reasoning is exhibited by Richard Heene's actions? Do you believe the punishment fit the crime? Why or why not?
· 3. Explain how the cognitive-developmental approach influences one's ability to make ethical judgments.
4. How do you assess at what stage of moral development in Kohlberg's model you reason at in making decisions? Are you satisfied with that stage? Do you believe there are factors or forces preventing you from reasoning at a higher level? If so, what are they?
.
· · Re WEEK ONE - DISCUSSION QUESTION # 2posted by DONALD DEN.docxLynellBull52
The document discusses financial statements and their importance for companies. It notes that the income statement shows a company's profitability over time by detailing revenue, gains, expenses, and losses. The balance sheet provides information on a company's assets, liabilities, and stockholders' equity at a point in time. It is used to make business decisions. Other comments add that the cash flow statement shows sources and uses of cash, and the owners' equity statement tracks changes in retained earnings. Unforeseen events like natural disasters, recessions, and changes in laws or regulations can impact businesses. There is a discussion around the importance of independent audits and maintaining separation between personal and business finances.
· Week 3 AssignmentGovernment and Not-For-Profit AccountingVal.docxLynellBull52
· Week 3 Assignment
Government and Not-For-Profit Accounting
Value of Donated Assets
Which is the proper value to be assigned to certain donated assets? (This is a question for which answers cannot be found in either GASB pronouncements or the text), research is necessary.
A city’s road maintenance department received “donations” of two type of assets:
1. From the county in which the city is located it received earthmoving equipment. The equipment had cost the county $800,000 when it was acquired five years earlier. Accounted for in a county proprietary fund, its book value, net of accumulated depreciation at the time of donation, was $500,000. Its fair market value was $530,000.
2. From the city’s own utility fund (a proprietary fund) it received motor vehicles that had cost the city $400,000 when acquired three years earlier. At the time of transfer, the vehicles were recorded on the utility’s books at $180,000, net of accumulated depreciation. Their fair market value was #225,000.
Write a 1000 word, APA you answer style paper where the following:
1. At what value should the city record in its government-wide financial statements for: (1) the earth-moving equipment, and (2) the motor vehicles?
1. Briefly justify your response, commenting on any apparent inconsistencies in the values assigned to each of the two types of assets.
1. Comment on the significance of the resultant book values for decisions or assessments to be made by statement users.
Myth Clash Paper #1
Zheng Hui
The present paper will discuss how different ancient poets describe the myths. It will compare and Contrast the two versions of the myth of the Cyclops Polyphemus in the Archaic Greek poet Homer’s Odyssey (EH 298-314) and in the Hellenistic poet Theocritus' poem (Idyll 11) (ACM 399-401). It will also elaborate how Roman poet Ovid combine elements from each of these earlier poets’ versions to make his own version of the myth in his poem, the Metamorphoses (OM 374-381). In general, the paper will discuss and analyze the differences and similarities among several versions from different aspects including characters, features, techniques and others.
According to ancient Greek myth, there were three separate tribes of the mythical, one eyed giants known as Cyclops, or Cyclopes. One of them is the Ouranian Cyclopes, who was the offspring of Gaea and Ouranos. Besides, there is also another Cyclops called the mason-Cyclopes, who represents workers in Hephaestus’s forge. The third one is the shepherd-like Cyclopes, who was neighbors of the island-dwelling Polyphemus, who was a son of Poseidon (Weinstock, 2013). Based on the description of the Cyclopes in the ancient Greek myth, one feature that is present in all these Cyclopes is that they had one unique anatomy. In addition, they all had a single round eye in the middle of their foreheads. In fact, the eye, according to the Greek poet Hesiod, is the source of their name.
In Greek, Cyclops means “circle-eye.” These giants .
· Week 10 Assignment 2 Submission
Students, please view the "Submit a Clickable Rubric Assignment" in the Student Center.
Instructors, training on how to grade is within the Instructor Center.
Click the link above to submit your assignment.
Assignment 2: Critical Thinking
Topic: "People have become overly dependent on technology"
Your paper should present a reasoned, convincing argument for a position on a selected topic.
Write a four to six (4-6) page paper in which you:
1. Follow the five (5) steps of persuasion: establishing credibility, acknowledging the audience’s position, constructing a rationale, transplanting root elements, and asking for a response.
2. Clearly define your position and supporting evidence.
3. Include all the necessary “evidence” for the reader to reach the expected conclusion in each argument in the paper (whether the overriding argument or one contained in an individual paragraph)
4. Ensure that each argument in the paper (whether the overriding argument or one contained in an individual paragraph) is valid and free from both formal and informal fallacies.
5. Include at least four (4) references (sources). At least one (1) of your sources must be obtained from the collection of databases accessible from the Learning Resources Center Web page.
The paper should follow guidelines for clear and effectively organized writing:
• The paper is well-organized, and every explanation is both complete and easy to understand.
• Include an introductory paragraph and concluding paragraph for the paper.
• Main ideas should be addressed in body paragraphs with a topic sentence and supporting sentences.
• Adhere to standard rules of English grammar, punctuation, and mechanics.
• The paper should be checked for spelling and grammatical errors.
Your assignment must:
• Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
• Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
• Create written work utilizing the concepts of critical thinking.
• Use technology and information resources to research issues in critical thinking skills and informal logic.
• Write clearly and concisely about issues in critical thinking using proper writing mechanics.
.
· Write in paragraph format (no lists, bullets, or numbers).· .docxLynellBull52
The document discusses California becoming the first state to pass a law in 1999 legalizing electronic contracts and signatures. The law aims to ensure electronic contracts and signatures have the same legal standing as paper contracts. However, the law only applies when parties agree in advance to electronic transactions and excludes some transactions like wills and certain consumer protection agreements. While the law will significantly impact contract law in California and nationwide, its full effects remain to be determined through future legal cases involving electronic contracts.
· WEEK 1 Databases and SecurityLesson· Databases and Security.docxLynellBull52
· WEEK 1: Databases and SecurityLesson
· Databases and Security
Databases are in just about everything we use today. When you are performing any task, think to yourself, Does this involve a database in some way?
As a daily process, communication occurs between people by many mediums, but there is no other medium more utilized than the large internetwork of computer systems we know as the Internet. When we look at some of the transactions that are performed on a daily basis, it is highly likely that there is a database involved. For example, if you open a web page to www.google.com and type a keyword in the textbox to search for, this process starts a series of searches through multiple databases. Another example is when searching for a book in the APUS library, this search is conducted using a database of books known as a catalog. so databases play an integral part in our daily lives; they store millions of pieces of data and more is collected each day (Basta, 2012).
In recent years, we find that technology has expanded to the reaches of utilities and production environments. Many of the utilities we come to rely on so heavily, such as gas, oil and electric, have been tied into the networks we use today. This interconnection allows for many new innovations in keeping everything in working order, but at the same time it also presents some very real threats to security. In reality, an intruder could take down an entire electrical grid which would remove power to millions of customers. An article in CIO Insight gives a great perspective on this and other issues in security where databases play such an important role (CIOInsight, 2011).
With the importance of securing the database infrastructure, we need to look at a multilayered approach to security. As can be seen in many security programs, multiple layers allow for strong security because it adds another roadblock that an intruder has to bypass to get to these systems. This same approach leads us to begin with the foundation of security; the CIA Triad. It all begins with the most basic approach, computer security and moves forward from that point on. Below is a detailed description of the components of the CIA Triad from (Basta, 2012):
· Confidentiality: For a system to provide confidentiality, it needs to do two things: ensure that information maintains its privacy by limiting authorized access to resources; block unauthorized access to resources.
· Integrity: This refers to the efforts taken through policy, procedure, and design in order to create and maintain reliable, consistent, and complete information and systems.
· Availability: This refers to the efforts taken through policy, procedures, and design to maintain the accessibility of resources on a network or within a database. These resources include, but are not limited to, data, applications, other databases, computers, servers, applications, files, drives, shares, and network access.
Database Structure, Models and Management
A databa.
· Unit 4 Citizen RightsINTRODUCTIONIn George Orwells Animal.docxLynellBull52
· Unit 4 Citizen Rights
INTRODUCTION
In George Orwell's Animal Farm, the assertion that "all animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others" signals the breakdown of any semblance of a fair society. We have probably all experienced it: a situation where someone who was better connected, more influential, or in a position of power could advance far beyond the position or actions of the common person. On a typical day, this happens in travel, restaurant seating, the selection of a church pew, and the line at the grocery store.
It should not, however, happen in our public services. As citizens, we all have rights, and we all have the same rights. That is the beauty of the United States's democratic government structure, and perhaps one of the most cherished aspects of it. Economic and social diversity aside, when we interact with the government, we expect to receive the same treatment, whether we are a Rockefeller or a plumber. The reality is that this balance of citizen rights is difficult to achieve, because in many cases, those wielding power and influence attempt to trump equity.
TOGGLE DRAWERHIDE FULL INTRODUCTION
Inherent in the concept of citizenship is the exchange wherein citizens give allegiance to a nation and receive protection offered by that nation. Citizens therefore have certain privileges in the eyes of the nation, such as the right to vote, to pay taxes, and to refuse certain actions, such as reciting the Pledge of Allegiance because it refers to God. There are benefits and entitlements that the citizen can demand from the government. These rights are balanced by responsibilities, such as upholding the law, participating in government, and engaging in the same privileges previously mentioned.
In this unit, issues of the middle class, the welfare state, and what constitutes citizenship will be examined based on the concept of citizen rights.
Reference
Orwell, G. (1945). Animal Farm. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace & Company.
SANDRA CISNEROS
Woman Hollering Creek
The day Don Serafín gave Juan Pedro Martínez Sánchez permission to take CleófilasEnriquetaDeLeón Hernández as his bride, across her father’s threshold, over several miles of dirt road and several miles of paved, over one border and beyond to a town en el otrolado—on the other side—already did he divine the morning his daughter would raise her hand over her eyes, look south, and dream of returning to the chores that never ended, six good-for-nothing brothers, and one old man’s complaints.
He had said, after all, in the hubbub of parting: I am your father, I will never abandon you. He had said that, hadn’t he, when he hugged and then let her go. But at the moment Cleófilas was busy looking for Chela, her maid of honor, to fulfill their bouquet conspiracy. She would not remember her father’s parting words until later. I am your father, I will never abandon you.
Only now as a mother did she remember. Now, when she and Juan Pedrito sat by the creek’s edge..
· Unit Interface-User Interaction· Assignment Objectives Em.docxLynellBull52
· Unit: Interface-User Interaction
· Assignment Objectives: Employ appropriate tools and methods for simple, functional, and effective interfaces.
· Deliverable Length: Screenshot or functional application, and a Word document of 1-2 pages
Building on your initial user interface (UI) design mock-up of the organization’s program UI, the interface now needs to present more information to the user. Complete the following for this assignment:
· The interface should present information visually with icons or graphics and text regarding critical issues related to the system, such as the following:
· New orders
· Change in employee status
· Updated pictures
· New products or services offered
· You must add at least 5 critical issue UI design items to your interface. Remember to ensure that these are easily understood by users.
· Submit a screenshot in Word or another functional application.
· Describe the items that you added to your interface design. Be specific with your descriptions, and identify the particular design features along with an explanation of why they are added in the way that they were.
.
· The Victims’ Rights MovementWrite a 2 page paper. Address the.docxLynellBull52
· The Victims’ Rights Movement
Write a 2 page paper. Address the following in your paper:
· Explain how has the victims’ rights movement has affected the criminal justice system and the rights of offenders?
Include a title page and 3-5 references. Only one reference may be from the internet (not Wikipedia).
Paper 2
· Victim Selection
Write a 2 page paper. Address the following in your paper:
· Is the victim selection process different between team serial killers and those who work alone?
· Discuss any differences and or similarities as it relates to motives, methods, and offender history.
· Support your argument. Be sure to cite your resource(s), use APA style formatting.
Include a title page and 3-5 references. Only one reference may be from the internet (not Wikipedia
Paper 3
· Credit Card Crime
In a two to three page paper, please discuss the following: Assume a person accidentally picks up a credit card that is not theirs and uses the card in several instances.
Can the person be charged with multiple violations of a state statute that makes it a crime to "knowingly obtain, possess, use, or transfer a means of identification or financial information of another?" Why or why not? See State vs. Leyda, 138 P.3d 610 (Wash. 2006).
Make sure you format your paper and cite all sources used in this paper appropriately according to APA style guidelines.
.
· Question 1· · How does internal environmental analy.docxLynellBull52
· Question 1
·
·
How does internal environmental analysis help health care organizations sustain competitive advantage? As a health care leader, what are some of the key aspects that you will assess in conducting your own internal environmental analysis?
Question 2
· How does the “value chain” relate to health care organizations? What is the role of the value chain in the strategic planning process?
Question 3
· How can the value chain be used to identify organizational strengths and weaknesses in health care organizations?
· Question 4
·
Read the Perspective 4-3–LEAN Six Sigma on page 140 in your textbook Discuss the Ottawa Ankle Rules as an example of Six Sigma utilization. How was Six Sigma beneficial in this case example? Think about your own health care organization or one which you hope to lead. How might Six Sigma be utilized in your own facility, as our colleagues in Ottawa did a few years ago?
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Clarence_Eder_Biography_(Jan_2015) (1).pdf
BIOGRAPHY: CLARENCE L. EDER (January 2015)
Clarence Eder is a retired United States Air Force officer and is currently working as Principal Acquisition
Associate and Senior Systems Engineer for Quantech Services, Inc. in El Segundo, California. He leads a team
of systems engineers and acquisition professionals in the development of strategies and documents to start the
new Air Force Weather Systems Follow-On (WSF) program. Clarence has over 18 years of acquisitions,
engineering, and operational experience in space, intelligence, missile defense, and aircraft programs.
Clarence was raised in Honolulu, Hawaii. He graduated with a Mechanical Engineering degree from the
University of Hawaii and was commissioned into the Air Force in 1996. As a second lieutenant, he was
assigned to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. He worked to improve Air Force flying training
systems, and then became a project manager to improve T-37 aircraft engines and A-10 aircraft engines.
In 1999, he was assigned to Space and Missiles Systems Center in Los Angeles, California. He worked as an
Acquisition Support manager to implement Department of Defense (DoD) processes and policies to major space
programs. As a captain, he became a Mission Integration Manager for launch vehicles. He led teams to
integrate Global Positioning System (GPS), weather, and intelligence satellites into the newly acquired $18.8B
Air Force rockets. He also worked Ground systems integration issues.
In 2003, he was assigned to the National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA) in Reston, Virginia to be Chief
of Tactical Imagery Dissemination. He led a team to develop, test, and deploy a $17M imagery system. He
trained Navy Seals and Special Forces deployed worldwide to use the system. As a major, he became a
Contacting Officer Technical Representative (COTR) for the $2B Geoscout program, NG.
· Question 1Question 192 out of 2 pointsWhat file in the.docxLynellBull52
· Question 1Question 19
2 out of 2 points
What file in the etc/ directory contains user’s hashed password?
Selected Answer:
etc/shadow file
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
[None Given]
· Question 20
1 out of 2 points
What file and file-field are read by the finger command?
Selected Answer:
Passwd file, it reads user id info like user name phone number and so on
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
gecos field
· Question 21
0 out of 2 points
When a parent process dies, what happens to any child processes that are still running?
Selected Answer:
They Child Processes keep running
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
process becomes child of init
· Question 22
1 out of 2 points
What is the effect of the command: $ killall root (Where root is the root account of the system)
Selected Answer:
It canceles all the Processes that the user
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
shutdown
· Question 23
2 out of 2 points
List 4 shortcomings of root accounts.
Selected Answer:
1- Single Point of failure if compromised
2-The security model is not strong enough for a network
3-High security environments enforce rules that cannot be implemented with traditional UNIX
4- Since some rules are implemented in command code, modification requires rewrite and recompilation
5- Minimal support for auditing
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
[None Given]
· Question 24
1 out of 2 points
Write a BASH command that would force the OS into single-user mode.
Selected Answer:
Root should run the init command to change the run level using the letter s or the number 1 for example
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
telinit 1
· Question 25
0 out of 2 points
Explain when it would be necessary to use the non-rewinding interface file of any backup device.
Selected Answer:
To implement permanent changes to the backup device
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
Only if multiple dumps were being made to the same tape drive. Failure to use the non-rewind would cause successive dumps to overwrite each other.
· Question 26
2 out of 2 points
What BASH shell command can send any signal level to a running process?
Selected Answer:
Kill Command
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
[None Given]
· Question 27
2 out of 2 points
Which two inter-process signals cannot be caught or blocked?
Selected Answer:
Kill process
Stop Process
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
[None Given]
· Question 28
2 out of 2 points
What BASH shell utility allows you to monitor CPU and memory usage?
Selected Answer:
Network Monitoring: Netstat, nethogs, iptraf, iftop
Disk I/O: iotop
CPU/ memory: top, Ps, htop, atop
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
[None Given]
· Question 29
0 out of 2 points
In the file permission listing drwxr-xr-x, what is the file type?
Selected Answer:
.sh
Correct Answer:
[None]
Response Feedback:
directory
· .
· Question 15 out of 5 pointsWhen psychologists discuss .docxLynellBull52
· Question 1
5 out of 5 points
When psychologists discuss fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust, and contempt, they are usually describing the:
Answer
Selected Answer:
b.
primary emotions
· Question 2
5 out of 5 points
Studies on sex differences in emotion have found that men are more likely to ruminate about _____________ thoughts whereas women are more likely to ruminate about ____________.
Answer
Selected Answer:
a.
anger; depression
· Question 3
5 out of 5 points
Positive emotions evoke more electrical activity in the __________, and negative emotions evoke more activity in the __________.
Answer
Selected Answer:
c.
left hemisphere; right hemisphere
· Question 4
5 out of 5 points
What limbic structure is a center for fear responses?
Answer
Selected Answer:
b.
amygdala
· Question 5
5 out of 5 points
Imagine that you have just discovered a space craft that landed in a remote field near your home. Fortunately, the aliens aboard the space craft share your language, but they do not know anything about how to interact appropriately within the cultural norms of North America. Using your knowledge of emotions and emotional expression, create a list of 5 important points to remember when expressing emotion in this culture.
Answer
Selected Answer:
Smiling Frequently is ok
Dont kiss other male friends if male (european countries)
shake hands before hugging
Arms length of space between people, it can be seen as hostile or uncomfortable otherwise
Public displays of affection are often more acceptable then in other cultures
· Question 6
0 out of 5 points
Cindy used to study with her friend Amanda but found that she had to quit studying with her because Amanda was always so hyper and anxious before taking tests. Cindy often felt anxious after the study sessions and was worried that this might have a negative influence on her test performance. Cindy was probably experiencing:
Answer
Selected Answer:
c.
catharsis.
· Question 7
5 out of 5 points
Social and cultural rules that regulate when, how, and where a person may express emotions are referred to as:
Answer
Selected Answer:
c.
display rules
· Question 8
5 out of 5 points
Why are polygraph tests considered invalid or unreliable?
Answer
Selected Answer:
d.
There is no pattern of physical arousal that is specific to lying and distinct from other types of arousal
· Question 9
5 out of 5 points
This term is the process by which the facial muscles send messages to the brain about the basic emotion being expressed.
Answer
Selected Answer:
c.
facial feedback
· Question 10
5 out of 5 points
___________, or how we explain events or behavior, affect our emotional responses.
Answer
Selected Answer:
a.
Attributions
· Question 11
0 out of 5 points
In one study, infants were put on a modified version of a visual cliff that is only moderately frightening because the cliff did not dr.
· Question 1 2 out of 2 pointsWhich of the following i.docxLynellBull52
· Question 1
2 out of 2 points
Which of the following is not considered a union unfair labor practice?
Answer
Selected Answer:
under a valid union-shop agreement, demanding the discharge of an employee who fails to pay union dues
· Question 2
2 out of 2 points
In recent years,
Answer
Selected Answer:
all of the above
· Question 3
0 out of 2 points
The first U.S. President ever to grant official recognition to federal government employees to bargain collectively was President
Answer
Selected Answer:
Nixon
· Question 4
0 out of 2 points
Recent media campaign ads by the Automobile Workers have contained the message
Answer
Selected Answer:
"America works best when we say, 'Union, Yes!' "
· Question 5
0 out of 2 points
Most of the local union's time is devoted to
Answer
Selected Answer:
negotiating labor agreements.
· Question 6
0 out of 2 points
Most members of the National Education Association
Answer
Selected Answer:
support right-to-work laws
· Question 7
0 out of 2 points
About 85 percent of the UAW's spending goes to
Answer
Selected Answer:
strike funds.
· Question 8
0 out of 2 points
As compared to the Teachers, many of the building trades are much
Answer
Selected Answer:
less active in research efforts.
· Question 9
0 out of 2 points
In 1970, an unprecedented federal sector eight-day strile was carried on by the employees of the
Answer
Selected Answer:
State Department
· Question 10
2 out of 2 points
The American Federation of Labor was originally entitled the
Answer
Selected Answer:
Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions
· Question 11
0 out of 2 points
Under Taft-Hartley, if management or labor wishes to terminate or modify an existing labor contract, it must give a
Answer
Selected Answer:
thrity-day notice to the other party.
· Question 12
0 out of 2 points
At present, the unionized percentage of all United States workers is approximately
Answer
Selected Answer:
33.4
· Question 13
0 out of 2 points
In 1993, the Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union merged with the
Answer
Selected Answer:
Service Employees International Union.
· Question 14
0 out of 2 points
By 1917 some thrity states had introduced
Answer
Selected Answer:
antitrust laws for unions.
· Question 15
0 out of 2 points
Investigation of union misconduct under the Landrum-Griffin is the responsibility of the
Answer
Selected Answer:
Senate Subcommittee on Ethics.
· Question 16
0 out of 2 points
COPE is a part of the
Answer
Selected Answer:
Furriers.
· Question 17
0 out of 2 points
When it has found that employees have been unlawfully discharged for union activities, the NLRB has most frequently required
Answer
Selected Answer:
automatic union certification.
· Question 18
2 out of 2 points
Employ.
· Processed on 09-Dec-2014 901 PM CST · ID 488406360 · Word .docxLynellBull52
· Processed on 09-Dec-2014 9:01 PM CST
· ID: 488406360
· Word Count: 1969
Similarity Index
47%
Similarity by Source
Internet Sources:
46%
Publications:
2%
Student Papers:
N/A
sources:
1
30% match (Internet from 27-Mar-2009)
http://www.isaca.org/Content/ContentGroups/Journal1/20023/The_IS_Audit_Process.htm
2
13% match (Internet from 29-Mar-2011)
http://www.scribd.com/doc/36655995/Chapter-1-the-Information-System-Audit-Process
3
2% match (publications)
Athula Ginige. "Web site auditing", Proceedings of the 14th international conference on Software engineering and knowledge engineering - SEKE 02 SEKE 02, 2002
4
1% match (Internet from 26-Feb-2012)
http://www.dc.fi.udc.es/~parapar/files/ai/The_IS_Audit_Process_isaca_sayana.pdf
5
1% match (Internet from 01-Apr-2009)
http://www.idkk.gov.tr/web/guest/it_audit_manual_isaca
paper text:
Running head: AUDITING INFORMATION SYSTEMS PROCESS Auditing information systems process Student’s Name University Affiliation Auditing information systems 2process Information systems are the livelihood of any huge business. As in past years, computer systems do not simply record transactions of business, but essentially drive the main business procedures of the enterprise. In such a situation, superior management and business managers do have worries concerning information systems. Auditing is a methodical process by which a proficient, independent person impartially obtains and assesses evidence concerning assertions about a financial entity or occasion for the reason of outlining an outlook about and reporting on the extent to which the contention matches to an acknowledged set of standards. Auditing of information systems is the administration controls assessment inside the communications of Information Technology. The obtained proof valuation is used to decide if systems of information are defensive assets, maintenance reliability of data, and also if they are efficiently operating in order to attain organization’s goals or objectives (Hoelzer, 2009). Auditing of Information Systems has become an essential part of business organization in both large and small business environments. This paper examines the preliminary points for carrying out and Information system audit and some of the, techniques, tools, guidelines and standards that can be employed to build, manage, and examine the review function. The Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) qualifications is recognized worldwide as a standard of accomplishment for those who assess, monitor, control and audit the information technology of an organization and business systems. Information Systems experts with a concern in information systems security, control and audit. At least five years of specialized information systems security, auditing and control work practice is necessary for certification. An audit contract should be present to evidently state the responsibility of the management, 2objectives for, and designation of authority to Information .
· Strengths Public Recognition of OrganizationOverall Positive P.docxLynellBull52
· Strengths Public Recognition of Organization
Overall Positive Perception of Organization
Established Integrity and Longevity of the Organizations
Continued success in saving lives and always willing to lend a helping hand
Weaknesses
Lack of Congruency of public and internal views
Commitment to service to the public overlooks the work environment of the employees that make these endeavors possible daily
Opportunities
Disaster relief is always a turning point for anyone’s perception of the organization especially when it hits close to home
Threats
Possibility of not being able to help someone due to lack in financial or physical resources
Understanding that it’s impossible to please everyone, there could be some bad experiences that are communicated to many tarnishing the positive perception of the brand
Strengths with Opportunities
Increasing amount of volunteers and assistance of employees on a continual basis in order to secure definite support in the face of a disaster
Weaknesses with Threats
Increase and expand awareness of employees concerns through surveys and group discussions in order to increase the morale of the organization.
Strengths with Threats
With understanding the necessity of all aspects of the organization needing to be congruent, implementing and ensuring that public and employees all hold the same values to be true simultaneously through continued efforts of the organization increasing the involvement of the employees in minor decision making abilities in order to feel as if the organization is less of a dictatorship and slightly reflective of a democracy
Weaknesses with Opportunities
Increasing awareness of the severity of a need for this organization in the country due to the lack of ability by the country alone
.
· Part I Key Case SummaryThis case discusses the Union Carbid.docxLynellBull52
· Part I: Key
Case Summary
This case discusses the Union Carbide gas leak that occurred in Bhopal, India in 1984. Over five thousand people were killed and hundreds of thousands were injured after water inadvertently mixed with methyl isocyanate (MIC) causing the release of a deadly gas. The plant in Bhopal was a pesticide production facility that served the increasing demand of India’s thriving farming industry. However, uncontrolled zoning allowed the plant to be built within close proximity to a densely populated region. While the plant was initially profitable, market changes negatively impacted revenue forcing budget cuts that led to the decay of maintenance and safety practices. There are several theories as to why the incident occurred such as a disgruntled employee’s maliciousness or an accidental contamination. Over several years, Union Carbide paid out hundreds of millions of dollars to the survivors and ultimately ceased to exist, while the community continues to struggle with the aftermath of the disaster.
Main Critical Issues (the list):
· India’s officials adopted careless zoning practices and allowed the construction of the plant near dense population.
· The proper safety procedures were not followed and the equipment was not being properly utilized as designed. UCIL managers placed a higher weight on cost cutting than on safety, resulting in the reduction of maintenance and safety practices.
· Union Carbide Corp. did not require frequent reporting from its subsidiary in India (UCIL), which allowed malpractices and unsafe systems in the Bhopal plant to go unnoticed.
· Union Carbide Corporation and UCIL had an ethical obligation to warn the surrounding community of potential dangers of living close to the pesticide plant
· If the case, the disgruntled employees action to sabotage the plant to take vengeance
· Employees and supervisors in the Bhopal plant did not follow numerous policies and routines that could have prevented the tragedy (e.g. acting upon the alarming increase in the tank pressure, instead of postponing it to after the tea break).
· The residents were not informed of what actions to take in the event of a toxic leak or accident.
· The employees did not use the emergency buses to evacuate surrounding residents.
·
Part II: Key
Stakeholders:
The following are the stakeholders in the case: The Union Carbide’s Corporation Stockholders, The Bhopal’s population, The Indian Government, The Bombay Stock Exchange, The Union Carbide’s workers from de Indian subsidiary “UCIL”. The workers from Union Carbide headquarter in Connecticut, The Board of Directors of Union Carbide Headquarter, and The Board of Directors from Union Carbide’s Indian subsidiary. The American and Indian lawyers. UCIL’s Executives. Carbides’ Scientifics. Indian Scientists and engineers. Indian Court Systems. Insurance company. Indian Public. Corrupts Physicians. Corrupts Court Officials. Bhopal Congress. Chemical Industry. Dow Chemical. The Activis.
· Perceptual process is a process through manager receive organize.docxLynellBull52
· Perceptual process is a process through manager receive organize and interpret information. According to this case, after Andrea decided quit this job, Sam chose Grant for the manager position from three candidates, even he is not very suitable for this position, because Sam strongly believes the manager have to be a full time based on previous customer experience(He believed that you can’t be a part time manager and that his customers would think Vibe was not a serious company if he appointed a part time manager for marketing and public relations-Sam Nguyen) Moreover Sam thought Grant could Increase himself-awareness to achieve demonstrate good relationship with customer.
· Job satisfaction is a collection of positive or negative felling that an individual holds toward their job. In this case, Andrea is a good example of having a negative felling of her job. ( Sam’s only criticism of her was that she seemed to live to work). Because Sam does not care about the employee satisfaction, Andrea can not get more spiritual benefit even get good salary. People may have different level of the job satisfaction. In this case, Andrea work long hours, she may feel very stressful, she is happy with cognitive job satisfaction, but not with the affective job satisfaction.
LIBRARY USE
lllillllllllllllll LA TROBE UNIVERSITY
3 2934 02374381 0
SEMESTER TWO EXAMINATION PERIOD
2010
student ID: Seat Number:
Unit Code: LST2LBA
Unit Name:
Paper Name:
Reading Time:
Writing Time:
Paper No: 1
Law of Business Association
Final
30 minutes
3 hours
No. of Pages (including cover sheet): 9
OFFICE USE ONLY (FACULTY/SCHOOL STAFF):
CAMPUS AW BE BU MI SH
Number
102
92
ALLOWABLE MATERIALS
Description
Open book, including electronic dictionary
Students may make notes during reading time (not on script books or multiple
choice answer sheets)
INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
1. This examination Is in three parts:
i. Part A: This Is a set of 20 multiple choice questions, worth 1 mark each. You may tear off the
answer sheet at the back of the examination paper. Write your student number on the answer
sheet. Circle the appropriate letter for each question.
li. Part B: This comprises three questions worth 10 marks each. Answer all questions.
III. Part C: Answer ONE of the two questions In Part C. It Is worth 20 marks.
2. This examination is worth 70 marks, being 70% of the marks for the course.
This paper MUST NOT BE REMOVED from the examination venue
Part A
This Part of the examination consists of twenty (20) multiple choice questions, each worth
one (1) marlc. The suggested time for completion is fifty minutes; that is, two minutes and
thirty seconds for each question. Be very careftal not to spend too much time on this section.
Students should circle the most appropriate answer to each question in Part A on the Part A
answer sheet provided at the end of this examination paper. Y o u may tear the answer shee.
· Performance Critique Assignment· During the first month of.docxLynellBull52
This document outlines an assignment to write a performance critique of a theatrical production attended during the first month of class. Students are instructed to develop an argument about how the production choices reflected or failed to reflect the play's central message. They should explore specific scenic choices and argue whether they furthered audience understanding or made sense within the world created. The critique should be 4 pages, describe the production, develop a clear thesis, and provide specific examples to back up the argument.
· Please read the following article excerpt, and view the video cl.docxLynellBull52
· Please read the following article excerpt, and view the video clips below. Listen carefully in order to understand as much of the Spanish as you can, using the images and contextual clues to help you get a sense of the gist of the video content.
· Next, write a 200-word response in English to the issues raised. Make sure to address the following questions:
1. What is syncretism and how does it differ from the concept of the melting pot?
2. How is Latin America’s (specifically Brazil and Cuba) experience with racial and cultural mixture different from that of the U.S.?
3. Can you give a couple of examples of syncretism in your own culture or in the U.S.?
Article
SYNCRETISM AND ITS SYNONYMS: REFLECTIONS ON CULTURAL MIXTURE by CHARLES STEWART
(If you would like to read the article from which this excerpt was taken, you can find it in Doc Sharing.)
The subject matter of anthropology has gradually changed over the last twenty years. Nowadays ethnographers rarely search for a stable or original form of cultures; they are usually more concerned with revealing how local communities respond to historical change and global influences. The burgeoning literature on transnational flows of ideas, global institutions, and cultural mixture reflects this shift of attention. This increased awareness of cultural penetration has, furthermore, been instrumental in the critique of earlier conceptions of “culture” that cast it as too stable: bounded, and homogeneous to be useful in a world characterized by migrations (voluntary or forced), cheap travel, international marketing, and telecommunications… In this body of literature the word syncretism has begun to reappear alongside such related concepts as hybridization and creolization as a means of portraying the dynamics of global social developments.
My purpose in considering the history of syncretism up to the present is not to enforce a standard usage conformed to the domain of religion; nor is it my goal to promote syncretism to a position of primus inter pares in the company of all other terms for mixture. I see my approach instead as an attempt to illustrate historically that syncretism has an objectionable but nevertheless instructive past…
Current Discussions of Mixture
Cultures, if we still wish to retain this term (and I do), are porous; they are open to intermixture with other, different cultures and they are subject to historical change precisely on account of these influences. This has no doubt always been the case…
Cultural borrowing and interpenetration are today seen as part of the very nature of cultures… To phrase it more accurately, syncretism describes the process by which cultures constitute themselves at any given point in time. Today's hybridization will simply give way to tomorrow's hybridization, the form of which will be dictated by historical-political events and contingencies… As [Edward] Said expresses it: all cultures are involved in one another, none is simple and pure, all.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
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2. O
ur understanding of the victimization of gang members pales in
comparison
to the vast body of literature establishing a relationship between
violence
commission and gang membership (Esbensen & Huizinga, 1993;
Hagedorn,
1988; Klein, 1971; W. B. Miller, 1966; Thrasher, 1927).
Although research on the
gang-victimization link is limited, leading gang scholars agree
this is an important
area of empirical research (Decker, Katz, & Webb, 2008;
Melde, Taylor, & Esbensen,
2009; J. Miller, 1998, 2001; Taylor, 2008). In fact,
understanding the victimization of
gang members is considered “just as important” as studying
their criminal behavior
(Decker, Melde, & Pyrooz, 2013, p. 3). From a public health
and safety perspec-
tive, understanding the gang-victimization link has practical
implications for reduc-
ing gang membership and gang crime. For example, most gang
members admit that
seeking protection influenced their decision to join a gang
(Decker & Van Winkle,
1996). However, gangs do not actually shield members from
victimization (Melde et
al., 2009). Instead, when people are victimized or afraid, they
may join a gang, and
this leads to more victimization of other gang members and
sometimes the public. If
victimization of gang members can be reduced, it may lead to
fewer future offenses
against both gang members and the public by preventing ripple
effects that arise from
3. the initial situations.
Policymakers may not yet be concerned about the victimization
of gang members
because offenders are rarely characterized as victims. However,
recent political concern
about the sexual victimization of inmates (e.g., the Prison Rape
Elimination Act of 2003)
may signal a willingness on the part of legislators to make
policy to prevent the victim-
ization of offenders. One promising avenue for addressing the
gang-victimization link
1016 Fox
may be to expand the Gang Resistance Education and Training
(G.R.E.A.T.) curriculum
(for an overview of G.R.E.A.T., see Esbensen, Peterson, Taylor,
& Osgood, 2012). It may
be particularly helpful to use programs, including G.R.E.A.T.,
to teach youth that gangs
increase the risk of victimization rather than offer protection
from harm. In addition, the
G.R.E.A.T. program and others could incorporate general
coping strategies to teach youth
prosocial ways of dealing with gang- and non-gang-related
victimization from family,
peers, or within their communities. However, before policies
and programs can be effec-
tively implemented to address the gang-victimization link,
research must fine-tune our
understanding of if, how, and why gang members are victimized
at higher rates than their
non-gang counterparts.
4. Although the gang-violence relationship may be a more intuitive
connection, gang
members also experience victimization in several ways. Gang
members may be victim-
ized within their family of origin (Joe & Chesney-Lind, 1995),
by their own gang and rival
gangs (Taylor, 2008), and as a result of their involvement with
risky behaviors (Taylor,
Freng, Esbensen, & Peterson, 2008). More specifically, some
gang members are raised in
violent or abusive homes during their childhood (J. Miller,
2001). Within their own gang,
members often experience victimization during the initiation
process, which may require
enduring physical assault (being “jumped in”) or sexual assault
(being “sexed in”), or they
may be victimized by fellow gang members as a result of
violating gang rules (Decker
& Van Winkle, 1996). Rivalries with other gangs present
additional victimization risks,
which may occur during fights over claims to specific territory
(i.e., “turf wars”) or drive-
by shootings (Taylor, 2008). In addition, criminal gang activity
(e.g., buying/selling drugs,
extortion, fighting) may enhance the risk of victimization
among gang members (Taylor
et al., 2008). Grounded in the more general literature on the
overlap between offending
and victimization (Lauritsen & Laub, 2007; Lauritsen, Laub, &
Sampson, 1992; Lauritsen,
Sampson, & Laub, 1991), there is reason to suspect that gang
members not only commit
crime but are also victimized by crime.
This underdeveloped line of inquiry will necessarily broaden
5. our understanding of the
lives and experiences of gang members. If gang members are
victimized significantly
more than non-gang members, there are important practical and
theoretical questions
that have received little or no scholarly attention to date. For
example, does this rela-
tionship hold among various types of property and violent
crimes (Fox, Lane, & Akers,
2010, 2013)? Are gang members victimized significantly more
before, during, or after
gang membership (Gibson, Miller, Swatt, Jennings, & Gover,
2009; Peterson, Taylor, &
Esbensen, 2004)? Are there gender differences (Gover,
Jennings, & Tewksbury, 2009) or
race differences (Savitz, Rosen, & Lalli, 1980) among the ways
gang members are victim-
ized? Does exposure to victimization prior to gang membership
contribute to the decision
to join a gang (Peterson et al., 2004)? Does victimization during
gang membership lead
to the decision to leave the gang? Are gang members afraid of
the risk of victimization
(Lane & Fox, 2012; Melde et al., 2009; Savitz et al., 1980)? If
so, how does their fear of
victimization shape their behavior? Can existing theories help
explain the increased risk
of victimization among gang members? Can antigang programs
reduce the risk of victim-
ization, in addition to reducing gang membership (e.g.,
G.R.E.A.T.)? Few studies have
attempted to answer some of these questions, and although it is
beyond the scope of this
study to do so, it is hoped that future research will advance the
field by addressing these
and related research questions.
6. The purpose of this study is to bring the current state of the
literature on the gang-
victimization link to the forefront. Following a discussion of the
general trends within this
The Gang-Victimization Link 1017
literature, this study reflects on the methodological and
theoretical advances and limitations
in the field. For scholars interested in moving this field
forward, specific recommendations
for future research are also presented.
EVIDENCE FOR AND AGAINST THE GANG-
VICTIMIZATION LINK
Qualitative research has been instrumental for sparking an
interest in the connection
between gang membership and victimization. Prior to
quantitative empirical tests, a
small number of gang studies initially hinted at the gang-
victimization relationship.
For example, Decker and Van Winkle (1996) noted a high level
of family and neigh-
borhood violence among their sample of active male gang
members. Furthermore,
interviews with youth gang members revealed that 55% of the
boys and 75% of the
girls reported being physically assaulted and 62% of the girls
had been sexually
assaulted (Joe & Chesney-Lind, 1995). Similarly, J. Miller’s
(2001) work indicates
that girl gang members experienced and witnessed more
7. violence in the home com-
pared to non-gang girls.
A limited body of qualitative research has focused more
specifically on the gang-
victimization link. Molidor (1996) notes that young female gang
members admit being
threatened with weapons, physically abused, and sexually
assaulted by members from
their own gang, in addition to exposure to violence from rival
gangs (e.g., being shot,
stabbed, assaulted). Isolating the differences between violence
within the gang versus
from rival gangs through survey and semistructured interviews,
J. Miller (1998) found
that female gang members can exploit their gender to decrease
their victimization risk
from rival gangs, although increasing their risk of victimization
within their gang.
J. Miller and Decker’s (2001) interviews with female gang
members in St. Louis (supple-
mented with official St. Louis homicide data) revealed that most
had witnessed guns fired
(96%) and had seen someone being murdered (74%). In terms of
experiencing victimiza-
tion, many of the female gang members reported being attacked
(48%), sexually assaulted
(44%), threatened with a weapon (59%), and stabbed (41%).
However, young women
gang members were less likely than young men to be victims or
targets of homicide
(J. Miller & Decker, 2001).
Based on the groundwork of qualitative research, quantitative
studies have begun to
examine the gang-victimization link. This relationship has been
8. supported among samples
of youth (Barnes, Boutwell, & Fox, 2012; Melde et al., 2009),
high school students (Gover
et al., 2009), recently arrested juveniles (Decker et al., 2008),
adult jail inmates (Fox, Lane,
et al., 2010, 2013), and prison inmates (Fox, Rufino, & Kercher,
2012; Rufino, Fox, &
Kercher, 2012). Furthermore, evidence suggests the gang-
victimization link remains
robust over time. Using five waves of data from the G.R.E.A.T.
program, Peterson et al.
(2004) found that gang members were significantly more likely
than non-gang members to
be victimized before, during, and after gang membership.
DeLisi et al.’s (2009) examina-
tion of two waves of the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health (Add Health)
data supported the gang-victimization link before and after
implementing propensity score
matching, and this effect remained significant over time. Recent
social network analyses
also suggest gang members are at a greater risk of victimization.
The relationship between
social distance (e.g., connectedness to others) and the
probability of being shot is espe-
cially robust among gang members (Papachristos, Braga, &
Hureau, 2012). Indeed, gangs
whose members are often murdered are also more likely to
murder (Papachristos, 2009).
1018 Fox
However, other quantitative work casts doubt on the strength of
the gang-victimiza-
9. tion link. Savitz et al. (1980) were among the first to examine
this relationship and found
no significant differences among gang and non-gang boys’
experiences with robbery,
assault, or extortion. Some evidence suggests that the gang-
victimization link washes
out after controlling for relevant factors, or when using
different victimization measures.
Compared to non-gang youth, Taylor, Peterson, Esbensen, and
Freng (2007) found that
gang youth experienced significantly more violent victimization
(aggravated assault
and robbery), significantly less general violent victimization
(simple assault, aggravated
assault, and robbery), and found no significant group
differences for individual victim-
ization rates (number of violent and general violent
victimization). In addition, account-
ing for delinquent and/or criminal behavior mediates the
relationship between gang
membership and victimization among some studies (Katz,
Webb, Fox, & Shaffer, 2011;
Spano, Frelich, & Bolland, 2008; Taylor et al., 2007; but for
exceptions, see DeLisi,
Barnes, Beaver, & Gibson, 2009; Fox et al., 2012; Rufino et al.,
2012). Prior to matching
gang and non-gang youth on several covariates, Gibson et al.
(2009) found support for
the gang-victimization link; however, after employing
propensity score matching, this
relationship became nonsignificant. Given the limited number of
studies on the gang-
victimization link, and the inconsistent findings, this study aims
to advance this line of
research by summarizing what we know and where future
research should go to better
10. understand the gang-victimization link.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CURRENT STUDY:
MOVING THE FIELD FORWARD
The mixed results that have emerged within this literature
emphasizes the need for future
research in this area. As Taleb (2010) points out, “the test of
originality for an idea is
not the absence of one single predecessor but the presence of
multiple but incompatible
ones” (p. 5). The multiple, but incompatible, findings within the
few published studies on
the gang-victimization link indicate the need for reconciliation
if we are to deepen our
understanding of the lives and experiences of gang members. In
this vein, this study aims
to promote additional scholarly attention to the gang-
victimization link by contributing a
series of promising avenues for future research.
Comprehensive searches using Academic Search Premier and
Cambridge Scientific
Abstracts1 were conducted to locate the 16 published studies on
the gang-victimization
link, which were examined in the analyses (see Table 1). In an
effort to move the field
beyond purely descriptive analyses, this study examined prior
gang-victimization research
that employed multivariate techniques. Therefore, descriptive
(e.g., univariate or bivariate)
rather than multivariate analyses testing the gang-victimization
link were excluded (Curry,
Decker, & Egley, 2002; Decker et al., 2008; Esbensen, Peterson,
Taylor, & Freng, 20102;
Katz, Maguire, & Choate, 2011; J. Miller & Decker, 2001;
11. Savitz et al., 1980). Related to
this study, two published studies have recently presented
reviews of the gang-victimization
link. Taylor’s (2008) review focused specifically on violence
among youth gangs and
Gibson, Swatt, Miller, Jennings, and Gover’s (2012) review
debates the use of propensity
score matching (e.g., Gibson et al., 2009 vs. Ozer & Engel,
2012). Although both stud-
ies are important, this study is unique in its focus on the
methodological and theoretical
contributions within the field. Similar in some ways to the
recent work by Decker and
The Gang-Victimization Link 1019
TABLE 1. Samples Used Among Prior Gang-Victimization
Research
Publication Sample Type Data Sample Size
Barnes et al. (2012) Youth in junior and
high school
Surveys (Add Health) 2,267 pairs
Childs et al. (2009) Youth in middle
school
Surveys (G.R.E.A.T.) 3,907
DeLisi et al. (2009) Youth in junior and
high school
12. Surveys (Add Health) 15,197
(Wave III)
to 20,745
(Wave I)
Fox, Lane, et al. (2010) Adult jail inmates Surveys (Florida)
2,414
Fox et al. (2013) Adult jail inmates Surveys (Florida) 2,414
Fox et al. (2012) Adult prison inmates Interview surveys
(Texas)
217
Gibson et al. (2009) Youth in middle
school
Surveys (G.R.E.A.T.) 953
Gover et al. (2009) Youth in high school Surveys (South
Carolina)
4,597
Katz et al. (2011) Youth arrestees Surveys (Arizona
ADAM)
909
Melde et al. (2009) Youth from 6th to
9th grade
Surveys (15 schools) 1,450
Ozer & Engel (2012) Youth in middle
13. school
Surveys (G.R.E.A.T.) 1,109
Peterson et al. (2004) Youth in 6th to
8th grade
Surveys (G.R.E.A.T.) 5,935 (8th
graders)
2,045 (6th
and 7th
graders)
Rufino et al. (2012) Adult prison inmates Interview surveys
(Texas)
217
Spano et al. (2008) Youth ages 9–19
years
Surveys (Alabama
MYS)
1,295
(Waves I
and II)
Taylor et al. (2007) Youth in 8th grade Surveys (G.R.E.A.T.)
5,935
Taylor et al. (2008) Youth in 8th grade Surveys (G.R.E.A.T.)
5,935
Note. Add Health 5 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent
14. Health; G.R.E.A.T. 5
Gang Resistance Education and Training program; ADAM 5
Arrestee Drug Abuse
Monitoring program; MYS 5 Mobile Youth Survey.
1020 Fox
colleagues (in press) that reviews the state of the literature on
gang membership in general,
this study offers a synthesis focused specifically on the
victimization of gangs. This study
contributes to the gang and victimization literatures by (a)
synthesizing the methodological
and theoretical advancements and (b) offering recommendations
for studying the gang-
victimization link.
METHODOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS AND LIMITATIONS
OF THE
GANG-VICTIMIZATION LITERATURE
The following presents an overview of the major
methodological advancements and limi-
tations within the gang-victimization literature, including: (a)
sampling and data collec-
tion procedures, (b) measuring gang membership, (c) measuring
crime victimization, and
(d) analyses and results.
Sampling and Data Collection Procedures
As shown in Table 1, data used to test the gang-victimization
link have used samples of
students in elementary, middle, and high schools (Barnes et al.,
15. 2012; DeLisi et al., 2009;
Gibson et al., 2009; Gover et al., 2009; Melde et al., 2009;
Peterson et al., 2004; Taylor
et al., 2008; Taylor et al., 2007), youth in high-poverty
neighborhoods (Spano et al., 2008),
and offenders, including juveniles (Katz et al., 2011), jail
inmates (Fox, Lane, et al., 2010,
2013), and prison inmates (Fox et al., 2012; Rufino et al.,
2012). Most (n 5 12; 75%) of
the studies examine youth rather than adults (see Table 1).
Given that there are so few
gang-victimization studies, there are ample opportunities to
study unique samples. For
example, there are no published studies that examine the gang-
victimization link among
adults outside of jail or prison. Also, it may be especially wise
for future research to sam-
ple a higher proportion of delinquent or criminal individuals,
such as parolees, incarcer-
ated juveniles, or individuals listed on police gang member
identification cards. Relatedly,
the work on inmate misconduct may help further unpack the
effects of gang membership
(Griffin & Hepburn, 2006; Worrall & Morris, 2012). Although
this literature focuses on
offending and misconduct behavior while incarcerated,
examining this from the perspec-
tive of inmate victimization (e.g., inmate-on-inmate violence)
will be particularly impor-
tant for advancing the field. Because only one sample of jail
inmates and another sample
of prison inmates have been collected to test the gang-
victimization link, more research
is needed from criminal or incarcerated groups. Inevitably,
these suggestions may require
collecting data from hard-to-access populations; however, some
16. recently published guides
may be useful for collecting data from within correctional
institutions (Fox, Zambrana, &
Lane, 2010; Lane & Lanza-Kaduce, 2007; Jeffords, 2007;
Jenness, Maxson, Sumner, &
Matsuda, 2010; Trulson, Marquart, & Mullings, 2004).
Prior research examining the gang-victimization link
exclusively relies on structured
self-reported surveys or interview surveys. In general, the
sample sizes among published
studies are substantial (see Table 1). With the exception of in-
person interview surveys with
prison inmates (Fox et al., 2012; Rufino et al., 2012), most of
the sample sizes among prior
research consist of more than 1,000 respondents. Large samples
are important given the
low prevalence rates of gang membership (detailed in the
following section) and in terms
of conducting analyses that distinguish among variations in
gang membership (e.g., current
gang members, ex-gang members, gang associates).
The Gang-Victimization Link 1021
Measuring Gang Membership
Accurately measuring gang membership is critical for
determining the necessary resources
for law enforcement and public policies to assist with antigang
efforts (Esbensen, Winfree,
He, & Taylor, 2001), and much attention has already been
devoted to the importance of
defining and measuring gangs (R. A. Ball & Curry, 1995;
17. Decker & Kempf-Leonard,
1991; Klein, 1995; Klein & Maxson, 2006). Within the gang
literature generally, and the
gang-victimization literature specifically, the self-report method
is considered common
and valid (Webb, Katz, & Decker, 2006; i.e., “Have you ever
been a gang member? Are
you now in a gang?”; see Table 2). Although the self-report
method remains an imperfect
technique, it has been determined to be “a particularly robust
measure of gang member-
ship capable of distinguishing gang from nongang youth”
(Esbensen et al., 2001, p. 124).
Based on self-report measures, scholars have operationalized
gang membership in
various ways (see Table 2). Some research compares current
versus non-gang members,
which necessarily categorizes ex-gang members with non-gang
members (Melde et al.,
2009; Peterson et al., 2004; Spano et al., 2008; Taylor et al.,
2008; Taylor et al., 2007).
A variation of this measure isolates those who have been a
member of a gang within the
past year from non-gang members (DeLisi et al., 2009; Gover et
al., 2009). Other research
combines current and former members into an “ever gang
member” measure (Barnes
et al., 2012; Fox, Lane, et al., 2010, 2013). Given the dynamic
nature of victimization, it
may be particularly important to isolate the effects of level of
gang membership includ-
ing current, former, associate, and non-gang members. To
illustrate this point, Katz and
colleagues (2011) found that gang members were victimized
significantly more than ex-
18. gang members, who were victimized significantly more than
gang associates, who were
victimized significantly more than non-gang members. Although
capturing these levels of
gang membership is ideal, collapsing groups (e.g., current and
ex-gang members) may be
necessary in some cases (e.g., increasing statistical power using
small samples).
Gang membership is a comparatively rare event (see Table 2).
Youth gang member-
ship ranges from about 2% (Peterson et al., 2004) to 17%
(Barnes et al., 2012). Among
prison inmates, strategic oversampling of gang members yielded
a 39% prevalence rate
(Fox et al., 2012; Rufino et al., 2012). As shown in Table 2,
lifetime measures of gang
membership yield higher prevalence rates (15%–17%) compared
to more restrictive gang
measures, such as prior year or current membership.
Approximately 15% of incarcerated
jail inmates (Fox, Lane, et al., 2010, 2013) and juveniles report
belonging to a street gang
(Katz et al., 2011). The low base rate of gang membership
highlights the importance
of examining larger sample sizes to obtain sufficient gang
samples (see VanVoorhis &
Morgan, 2007, for more on sample size and statistical power).
Measuring Crime Victimization
Types of Victimization Items Measured. The gang-victimization
literature also relies on
self-reported victimization, although there is wide variation
among the type of measures
(see Table 3). Although it is important to assess various
19. victimization types, this varia-
tion may contribute to the confusion about the strength of the
relationship between gang
membership and crime victimization. As shown in Table 3,
measures have primarily
focused on specific types of violent crime, including being
assaulted with and without a
weapon, robbed, threatened with a weapon, shot, and
cut/stabbed. More research is needed
that replicates these specific items in an effort to refine our
understanding of the gang-
victimization link. It is possible that gang members may be
more at-risk for experiencing
1022 Fox
T
A
B
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2
.
G
an
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b
65. certain types of crimes, but not others. Considering these
distinctions will advance this
area of research and may also result in prevention efforts
tailored to the specific needs of
gang members. Furthermore, very few studies have examined
property crime, which has
been measured as: theft of more than $50, theft in general and at
school, and theft and van-
dalism. Analyzing property and personal crime victimization
separately, Fox, Lane, et al.
(2010, 2013) found that gang members were victimized
significantly more than non-gang
members by personal crime but not by property crime. Given
this limited evidence that
the gang-victimization link may only exist for personal (and not
property) crime, future
research is needed to more fully examine this possibility.
Number of Victimization Items Measured. Table 3 also features
the number of items
used to measure crime victimization. Although many of the
studies have used as few as 2
or 3 items to measure victimization, some research examines up
to 13 items (see Table 3).
Measuring victimization with very few indicators presents
methodological challenges,
given the inability to adequately capture the true extent to
which gang members may
have been victimized. Drawing from the broader victimization
literature, the research on
interpersonal victimization offers important insight. Scales
based on multiple behaviorally
specific items (i.e., approximately 10–12 items) outperform a
single item (or even 2 or
3 basic items) for accurately measuring sexual assault (Kolivas
& Gross, 2007), stalking
66. (Fox, Nobles, & Fisher, 2011), and intimate partner violence
(Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998).
Therefore, using multiple-item measures of violent and/or
property crime victimization
will advance our understanding of the gang-victimization link.
Reliability and Validity of Victimization Measures. Prior
research on the gang-
victimization link has largely overlooked the reliability and
validity of victimization mea-
sures (see Table 3). Reliability, or the degree to which items are
consistently measuring a
similar concept (Carmines & Zeller, 1979), has been assessed in
only four (25%) of the
gang-victimization studies (e.g., Barnes et al., 2012; DeLisi et
al., 2009; Fox, Lane, et al.,
2010, 2013). Within the social science literature, Cronbach’s
(1951) alpha remains one of
the most robust indicators of the internal consistency among
multiple items; yet, research
is often published without reporting Cronbach’s alpha or other
measures of reliability
(Whittington, 1998), and this is also a problem with the gang-
victimization literature (see
Table 3). The lack of reliability estimates within the gang-
victimization literature offers a
gap for future investigation. However, it is important to note
that scales with many items
tend to enhance Cronbach’s alpha levels (DeVellis, 2003),
which means that higher levels
may simply be a reflection of more items rather than better
measures. Certainly, the goal
of advancing this literature should not rely on boosting alphas
while sacrificing quality
measures. In other words, future research must strike a balance
between a comprehensive
67. versus cluttered measure of victimization. Given that many
victimization scales are com-
prised of few items, intercorrelations will generally be low.
Indeed, alphas will increase as
the intercorrelations between items increase (Warner, 2008).
There is also a void of validity tests among the gang-
victimization studies (see Table 3).
Validity, or the accuracy with which a measure reflects the
construct it intends to mea-
sure (Carmines & Zeller, 1979), is generally conceptualized in
different ways, includ-
ing content, construct, and criterion-related validity. A detailed
discussion of validity is
beyond the scope of this article; however, it is worthwhile to
note that none of the studies
within the gang-victimization literature offer formal tests of
validity. As discussed ear-
lier, the use of limited victimization items, especially in terms
of property victimization,
has important implications for content validity. For example,
victimization scales lack
content validity when only two or three items are considered
(e.g., robbery and assault).
1024 Fox
T
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132. Indeed, the dynamics of victimization require more rigorous
measures. Additionally, it
will be especially important for future research to validate
victimization scales separately
among gang and non-gang members.
Recall Timeframe for Victimization Measures. Similar to the
wide variety of victim-
ization types measured by prior research, the recall timeframe
also varies considerably
across studies (see Table 3). Some studies ask respondents to
disclose victimization
experienced over the lifetime (Fox, Lane, et al., 2010, 2013;
Katz et al., 2011), during the
past 2 years outside of prison (Fox et al., 2012; Rufino et al.,
2012), during the past year
(Barnes et al., 2012; DeLisi et al., 2009; Gibson et al., 2009;
Taylor et al., 2008; Taylor
et al., 2007), or during the past 90 days (Melde et al., 2009) or
past 30 days (Katz et al.,
2011). Others use different timeframes for different measures
within the same study. For
example, Gover et al. (2009) feature a lifetime measure for one
item (e.g., sexual assault
victimization) and a past year timeframe for the other two
measures (e.g., injured during a
fight and physically assaulted by a dating partner). Similarly,
Spano et al. (2008) employs
a 90-day timeframe for being threatened with a knife or gun and
a year timeframe for need-
ing medical attention for a cut and being shot at. The first wave
of data used by Peterson et
al. (2004) implemented a recall timeframe of 6 months for the
victimization items whereas
the next four waves increased to a 12-month period.
133. The variation among recall timeframes within and between
studies presents hurdles
for interpreting the extent to which gang members are
victimized and in terms of making
comparisons across studies. Understandably, some of these
studies are based on secondary
data and are not products of original data collection efforts
designed for the specific pur-
pose of examining the gang-victimization link (e.g., Add Health
data). Future research can
advance this literature by standardizing the victimization
measures and recall timeframe.
Data collected for the purpose of testing the gang-victimization
link may also benefit
by relying on multiple timeframes across all items, similar to
the data derived from the
ADAM program (Katz et al., 2011).
Analyses and Results
Prior literature on the gang-victimization link has already made
great strides for advanc-
ing our understanding of this complex relationship (see Table
4). Nearly half (n 5 7)
of the studies have already begun to use longitudinal data to test
the gang-victimization
relationship over time. Further use of cross-sectional data is
also important, particularly
when examining hard-to-access samples (e.g., homeless,
incarcerated, or recently released
offenders). In addition, about half (n 5 8) of the studies have
conducted analyses separately
among gang versus non-gang subsamples (see Table 4).
Examining the groups individually
is important for observing key differences that may be masked
when considering the sam-
134. ple as a whole. Nine studies (56%) control for the effect of
criminal behavior, which may
impact (or render spurious) the gang-victimization link (see
Table 4). Among the studies
that control for crime, results are mixed. Some studies find that
the gang-victimization
link holds even when controlling for crime (DeLisi et al., 2009;
Fox et al., 2012; Ozer &
Engel, 2012; Rufino et al., 2012), whereas others find that the
gang-victimization link
washes out after accounting for involvement in gang crime
(Katz et al., 2011; Spano et al.,
2008; Taylor et al., 2007). Future research using various
samples to more closely examine
the effect of crime on the gang-victimization link would
contribute to the field.
Despite these impressive advancements, there are also
analytical limitations among
the gang-victimization literature that warrant consideration.
Within the more general gang
The Gang-Victimization Link 1027
T
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4
.
171. ch
in
g.
a S
am
pl
ed
m
al
es
o
nl
y.
1028 Fox
literature, there has been increasing attention to the importance
of gender and race differ-
ences (Esbensen & Winfree, 1998; J. Miller, 1998, 2001; Vigil,
2002). However, the gang-
victimization field has yet to fully examine the unique
experiences among men versus women
separately, and across different races and/or ethnicities. In fact,
only one study has examined
split models among men and women (Gover et al., 2009) and
another study analyzed Blacks
and Whites separately (Savitz et al., 1980). The overall lack of
172. attention to gender and race
differences within the gang-victimization link may be a function
of the recency of this line
of research as well as a limitation of low gang prevalence rates.
With only a small percent
of gang members in a sample, further reducing power by
splitting the sample by gender or
race/ ethnicity may not be a viable option in some cases.
Although most prior research treats
gender and race/ethnicity as control variables, the degree to
which demographic differences
emerge within the gang-victimization link leaves much
opportunity for future research.
THEORETICAL ADVANCEMENTS AND LIMITATIONS OF
THE
GANG-VICTIMIZATION LITERATURE
Many published studies on the gang-victimization link do not
conduct theoretical tests
to understand this relationship (see Table 5). However, theory
can inform the gang-
victimization relationship, just as theory has been instrumental
in contextualizing the
relationship between gang membership and delinquency and/or
crime (Wood & Alleyne,
2010). Testing theory is critical for moving the field forward
and for better understanding
why gang members might be more susceptible to victimization.
Theoretical applications
of the gang-victimization link also have important practical and
policy implications.
Knowing more about the theoretical connections between gang
membership and victim-
ization will help practitioners and policymakers improve the
lives of gang members who
173. are victimized. Akers and Sellers (2009) contend, “. . . the
better the theory explains the
problem, the better it is able to guide efforts to solve the
problem” (p. 11). If gang members
are victimized as a function of their risky routines, or self-
control, or dangerous neigh-
borhood, then programs and policies can be effectively tailored
to address the root of the
problem. Conducting theoretical tests is the first step toward
sharpening our understanding
of why gang members are at a greater risk of harm, and this
knowledge will be essential for
developing a road map for the prevention and reduction of
victimization.
One point of clarification is needed regarding studies grounded
in theory versus those
that test theory. Some research is grounded in theory, such as
lifestyle/routine activity and
collective liability, but do not empirically test these
perspectives (e.g., Katz et al., 2011;
Taylor et al., 2007). Similarly, Gibson et al. (2009) match youth
on various theoretically
relevant variables, including impulsivity, risk-seeking,
delinquent peers, school commit-
ment, and parental monitoring. Although these elements are
related to several theories (e.g.,
routine activity/lifestyle, self-control, social control/bond),
these studies were not designed
or conducted as theoretical tests. Thus, the following discussion
focuses more specifically
on research that empirically tests theories for understanding the
gang-victimization link.
As shown in Table 5, only seven of the gang-victimization
studies (44%) have tested
174. theory, including lifestyles/routine activity theory (Spano et al.,
2008; Taylor et al., 2008),
social disorganization (Fox, Lane, et al., 2010; Fox et al.,
2012), self-control (Childs et al.,
2009; Fox et al., 2013), and the biosocial perspective (Barnes et
al., 2012). The follow-
ing presents an overview of these preliminary theoretical tests
and offers recommenda-
tions for future theoretical tests. Space limitations preclude a
thorough discussion of the
The Gang-Victimization Link 1029
TABLE 5. Theory Tests of the Gang-Victimization Link
Publication Theory Tested Theory Result
Barnes et al. (2012) Biosocial
perspective
Mixed: Nonshared environment explained
significantly more gang membership and
victimization than genetics
Childs et al. (2009) Self-control Unsupported: self-control does
not mediate
the gang-victimization link; self-control
and gang membership do not have an
interactive effect on victimization
DeLisi et al. (2009) None None
Fox, Lane, et al.
(2010)
175. Social
disorganization
Mixed: social disorder explained property
victimization among gang members, but
not physical disorder or collective efficacy
Fox et al. (2013) Self-control Mixed: Lower self-control
explains personal
victimization and higher self-control
explains property victimization among
gang members
Fox et al. (2012) Social
disorganization
Mixed: Neighborhood dangerousness
significantly increased victimization
among gang members whereas the other
five disorganization items did not
Gibson et al. (2009) None None
Gover et al. (2009) None None
Katz et al. (2011) None None
Melde et al. (2009) None None
Ozer & Engel (2012) None None
Peterson et al. (2004) None None
Rufino et al. (2012) None None
176. Spano et al. (2008) Routine activity
theory
Supported: Gun carrying, employment
status, number of hours employed,
and criminal behavior mediated gang-
victimization link
Taylor et al. (2007) None None
Taylor et al. (2008) Lifestyles/routine
activities theory
Supported: Delinquency and availability of
drugs/alcohol mediated gang-victimization
relationship
Total 7 of 16 (44%)
1030 Fox
theories, their policy implications, and their application to the
gang-victimization link.
Instead, core theoretical concepts are highlighted in an effort to
spark further scholarly
interest and empirical investigation.
Lifestyle/Routine Activity Theory
Given that lifestyle and routine activity theories were originally
designed to explain vic-
timization, rather than offending, they were naturally the first to
be used to understand the
gang-victimization link. Essentially, lifestyles (Garofalo, 1987;
177. Hindelang, Gottfredson, &
Garofalo, 1978) and routine activity theory (Cohen & Felson,
1979) suggest that personal
and behavioral characteristics can influence the likelihood of
victimization. According to
routine activity theory, the convergence of motivated offenders,
suitable targets, and the
lack of capable guardianship increase the risk of victimization
(Cohen & Felson, 1979).
Extending these theories to understand the victimization of gang
members, Taylor (2008)
argues that “gang members may be viewed as suitable targets
lacking capable guardian-
ship for serious violent victimization but who often have
extensive interactions with
motivated offenders” (p. 131). If lifestyles or routine activities
influence gang members’
victimization, then prevention and intervention programs need
to address delinquent and
risky lifestyle behaviors (Taylor, 2008). Efforts that promote
healthy relationships within
the family could be worthwhile insomuch as they enhance time
spent with capable guard-
ians. Programs that aim to reduce interactions with motivated
offenders would also be
beneficial for reducing risk. Furthermore, avoiding the
appearance of being a suitable
target can also help reduce victimization. Admittedly, this is
easier said than done given
that addressing gang members’ lifestyles means completely
rewiring the gang mentality
and lifestyle. If lifestyles/routine activity theory matters for
enhancing the victimization
of gang members, then lifestyle changes will be necessary to
reduce that risk. As Felson
and Clarke (2010) point out, “we know very little about which
178. routine precautions work
and which do not,” largely because of the “sheer number of
routine precautions that people
employ” (p. 116). Future research will contribute to our
understanding of the routines
that most effectively reduce the risk of victimization among
gang members by examining
trends in risky gang behavior (i.e., going out at night,
associating with other gang mem-
bers, engaging in crime).
Given that only two studies have tested and found support for
lifestyle/routine activity
theories to explain the gang-victimization link (Spano et al.,
2008; Taylor et al., 2008),
much opportunity remains for future research. Taylor et al.
(2008) and Spano et al. (2008)
both studied school-based samples of youth, examined three
measures of victimization,
and treated gang membership as an independent variable rather
than estimating models
separately among gang and non-gang members. Therefore,
future research can extend
this line of work by testing lifestyle/routine activity theories
among other samples (e.g.,
delinquent youth, criminal samples, adults, homeless) and
expanding the number and
type of crime victimization measures. Furthermore, estimating
models separately for
gang/non-gang members, among men/women, and by
race/ethnicity will determine the
unique effects of lifestyles/routine activity on specific
subgroups that may be masked in
the full models.
In terms of lifestyle/routine activity measures, prior research
179. has already examined
an impressive array of theoretical variables. Spano et al. (2008)
used measures of gun
carrying, employment, hours per week employed, family
structure, parental monitoring,
violent behavior, and drinking/drug use. Taylor et al. (2008)
examined measures capturing
The Gang-Victimization Link 1031
prosocial and delinquent peer involvement, positive and
negative peer commitment, unsu-
pervised leisure time, availability of alcohol and/or drugs,
substance use, and delinquency.
Although these are sound theoretical measures, future research
that expands on these items,
particularly considering the unique nature of gang life, will
offer further precision to the
ways in which lifestyle/routine activities are conceptualized.
For example, promising gang-
related lifestyle/routine activities constructs could include
amount of time spent with gang
friends, exposure to gang-affiliated family members,
involvement in gang-related crime
(e.g., drive-by shootings, gang fights, gang-initiated home
invasion robbery), and emersion
in the gang lifestyle (e.g., leadership status, length of
membership, attachment to gang).
Social Disorganization Theory
At first glance, social disorganization theory may be considered
a less intuitive contribu-
tion to the gang-victimization link because of its origin as a
180. macrolevel theory designed
to understand offending. Central theoretical concepts suggest
that low socioeconomic
status neighborhoods containing a diverse racial mix of
residents who frequently move
in and out of the area are characteristic of social disorganization
that, in turn, results in
crime (Shaw & McKay, 1969). Socially disorganized
neighborhoods are subjected to a
breakdown of conventional community control, which also
results in a loss of collective
efficacy whereas neighbors are no longer trusting or cohesive
units committed to each
other (Sampson, 2004). Thrasher (1927) was among the first to
make the connection
between social disorganization and gangs, arguing that weak
economic conditions lead
to the deterioration of conventional institutions (producing
social disorganization), which
influenced youth to turn to street gangs. There are policy and
practical implications to
consider if social disorganization theory accounts for the
increased risk of victimization
among gang members. Certainly, knowing that the gang-
victimization link is caused by
social disorganization could be frustrating for policymakers
given the need for macrolevel
changes. However, some evidence suggests community-level
programs show promise
for reducing crime, including the following: monitoring of gang
offenders by community
workers, police, and probation officers; mentoring by Big
Brothers/Big Sisters of America;
and community-based after school recreation programs
(Sherman et al., 1998). If social
disorganization explains the victimization of gang members,
181. then future research would
contribute to this literature by examining the intervention and
prevention outcomes of
community-level programs.
Based on the connection between social disorganization and
gangs (Thrasher, 1927)
and social disorganization and victimization (Sampson &
Groves, 1989), two published
studies have examined and found limited support for the effects
of social disorganization
theory to explain the gang-victimization link (Fox, Lane, et al.,
2010; Fox et al., 2012).
Among jail inmates, Fox, Lane, et al. (2010) found perceptions
of neighborhood social
disorder to be significantly associated with gang members’
exposure to property crime
victimization and non-gang members’ exposure to personal
crime victimization (but not
physical disorder or collective efficacy). Among prison inmates,
Fox et al. (2012) found
that perceived neighborhood dangerousness was significantly
associated with victimiza-
tion among gang members compared to non-gang members;
however, other social disor-
ganization factors were not related to victimization (e.g.,
neighborhood quality, physical
disorder, and collective efficacy).
Despite the limited support garnered for social disorganization
theory’s ability to
explain victimization among gang members (especially in terms
of physical disorder and
182. 1032 Fox
collective efficacy), much remains unknown and worthy of
future research in this area. For
example, both studies examined cross-sectional samples of
incarcerated adult offenders
(Fox, Lane, et al., 2010; Fox et al., 2012), yet measures of
social disorganization were
based on the neighborhood outside of the carceral environment.
Although these studies are
important for understanding the impact of offenders’ community
context, it is equally as
important to examine the effects of disorganization from within
the jail or prison setting on
victimization among gang members (e.g., physical disorder,
social disorder, and collective
efficacy within the facility). Furthermore, considering the
community context necessary
for measuring neighborhood social disorganization, it is
particularly important to examine
other samples outside of an institutional setting (e.g., youth or
community samples).
Self-Control Theory
Given that Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) theory of low self-
control has recently been
extended to explain gang membership (Hope & Damphousse,
2002; Kissner & Pyrooz,
2009; Peterson-Lynskey, Winfree, Esbensen, & Clason, 2000)
and victimization (Schreck,
1999), this theory has promise for accounting for the gang-
victimization link. The theory
claims that low self-control leads to criminal behavior if the
opportunity presents itself,
and an abundance of research supports the theory via the use of
183. both attitudinal and
behavioral self-control measures (Pratt & Cullen, 2000). If self-
control accounts for the
gang-victimization link, then the policy implications geared
toward addressing crime may
also be relevant for reducing victimization. For example,
programs designed to promote
two-parent families and effective child care have been shown to
increase the self-control
of children (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Piquero, 2010). As
Piquero (2010) points out,
these strategies (and others) that have been successful at
increasing self-control are cost-
effective compared to their consequences. Indeed, future
research that examines the policy
and program implications related to increasing self-control may
substantially advance our
understanding of the gang-victimization link.
The two studies that test this relationship reveal limited or no
support for the effect
of self-control to explain the victimization of gang members.
Among jail inmates, low
self-control was significantly related to personal crime
victimization among gang and
non-gang members (Fox et al., 2013). Low self-control was
significantly associated with
property victimization among non-gang members, whereas high
self-control was predic-
tive of property victimization among gang members (Fox et al.,
2013). Among youth,
self-control did not mediate the gang-victimization link and no
interactive effects were
found between self-control and gang membership on
victimization (Childs et al., 2009).
Certainly, more attention to the effects of self-control on the
184. gang-victimization link will
aid in our understanding of this relationship. Much remains
unknown about these effects
over time (e.g., using longitudinal data), among different
populations, in terms of gender
and race/ethnicity differences, and when accounting for
criminal behavior.
Biosocial Perspective
Although the “nature versus nurture” debate continues to be of
scholarly interest concerning
various phenomena, merging the biological, genetic, and
environmental literatures (e.g., bio-
social perspective) is a relatively recent line of inquiry within
the study of criminology and,
especially, within the study of victimization. Among samples of
twin adolescents, genetic
factors explained between nearly 40% (Beaver, Boutwell,
Barnes, & Cooper, 2009) and
73% (H. A. Ball, Arseneault, Taylor, Maughan, Caspi, &
Moffitt, 2008) of the variance in
The Gang-Victimization Link 1033
victimization compared to nonshared environmental factors.
Furthermore, evidence suggests
that gang membership is also attributable to genetics, by way of
the monoamine oxidase A
(MAOA) gene (Beaver, DeLisi, Vaughn, & Barnes, 2010).
Scholars have been hesitant to rec-
ommend biosocial-related policy implications given the ongoing
politically sensitive debate
about the alterability of genes. However, Beaver (2009,
185. emphasis in original) contends that
“genetic effects can be altered by altering the environment” (p.
203) and underscores the
importance of targeting “a confluence of genetic, biological,
and environmental factors” to
influence behavior (i.e., victimization). Promising biosocial
strategies for the prevention of
antisocial behavior include promoting healthy pregnancy
education, adequate prenatal health
care, and no-cost childhood development classes for new
parents (Beaver, 2009; Olds et al.,
1998; Wright et al., 2008). If the gang-victimization link can be
understood within the bio-
social framework, then an important next step for future
research will be to identify preven-
tion and intervention strategies to reduce gang members’
victimization risk.
Recently, Barnes et al. (2012) examined the genetic and
environmental effects of
gang membership and victimization among a national sample
(Add Health) comprising
identical twins, fraternal twins, full siblings, half-siblings, and
cousins. Findings revealed
that 26% of the variance in gang membership and 34% of the
variance in victimization
was attributable to genetic factors. In terms of the genetic
versus environmental effects
on the relationship between gang membership and victimization
over time, Barnes et al.
concluded that “even after controlling for heritable influences
on victimization (and
controlling for prior victimization experiences), gang
membership increased the risk of
victimization” (p. 238). Importantly, the authors point out that
determining the type of
186. genes that impact gang membership and victimization may be
the next most promising
direction for future research. Similar to the other preliminary
theoretical tests, the work by
Barnes and colleagues should encourage further investigation
into the biosocial impact on
the gang-victimization link.
Promising, Yet Untested, Theories to Explain the Gang-
Victimization Link
There are numerous untested theories that may be applied to
understand the complex rela-
tionship between gang membership and victimization. A more
thorough presentation of
all potential theoretical candidates extends beyond the focus of
this study; however, three
theories in particular are worth highlighting briefly as possible
avenues for future gang-
victimization research. More specifically, social learning,
control balance, and life course/
criminal career theories are promising explanations that have
not yet been tested within the
gang-victimization literature. These theories are selected for
further discussion given their
widespread empirical support (to explain crime) and importance
for policy implications
(e.g., Akers, 2010; Moffitt, 1993; Tittle, 2010).
Considering the social context of gang membership, social
learning theory may be
especially well suited to explain the gang-victimization link.
Akers’ (1973) social learning
theory combines Sutherland’s (1939) concept of differential
association with other key
components, including definitions/attitudes about crime,
187. differential reinforcement for
engaging in crime, and modeling/imitation of others’ criminal
behaviors. In other words,
spending time socializing with deviant peers who regard crime
as positive behavior with
more beneficial outcomes compared to detrimental
consequences, influences the likeli-
hood of adopting and imitating those deviant and criminal
behaviors. Social learning
theory has received much empirical support for its ability to
explain criminal behavior,
and the strength of social learning appears to hold even when
accounting for self-control
1034 Fox
(Pratt et al., 2000), although some theoretical elements
(differential association and
definitions/attitudes) appear to be more robust than others
(differential reinforcement and
modeling/imitation; Pratt et al., 2010). Given evidence that
emphasizes the importance
of social learning theory with regard to gang membership
(Kissner & Pyrooz, 2009) and
victimization (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011), social learning
theory may be key for under-
standing the gang-victimization relationship.
Control balance theory may also be a promising area for future
researchers interested in
furthering our understanding of the gang-victimization link.
Control balance theory (Tittle,
1995, 2004) is a multifaceted, integrated theory of deviance
premised on the interplay
188. between perceived control one exerts on others compared to
control to which one is sub-
jected. According to Tittle’s (2004) theoretical
reconceptualization, imbalances in control
(e.g., control deficits and control surpluses) influence one’s
propensity to commit deviant or
criminal behavior, if other factors are considered (e.g., self-
control, morals, peers, provoca-
tion, motivation, constraints, control balance desirability).
Applying control balance theory
to the study of victimization, Piquero and Hickman (2003)
contend that people with control
deficits may be perceived as weak or vulnerable to
victimization, whereas those with con-
trol surpluses may put themselves in riskier situations that lead
to victimization because of
displays of superiority. These claims are supported by the
limited published tests of control
balance theory for successfully explaining crime victimization
(DeLisi & Hochstetler,
2002; Nobles & Fox, 2013; Piquero & Hickman, 2003).
Although prior research has not yet
applied control balance theory to the study of gangs, one could
argue that gang member-
ship is a form of deviance, and control balance theory was
originally designed to explain
any form of deviance. It may also be speculated that gang
members exhibit either control
surpluses (because of an inflated ego, sense of invincibility, or
heightened aggression) or
control deficits (because of disadvantaged social status,
dysfunctional or abusive family
background, or vulnerability to victimization). Considering
these preliminary and potential
linkages, control balance theory may help explain the
victimization of gang members.
189. In light of the dynamic nature of gang membership and
victimization, the life course/
criminal career perspective may be a favorable explanation for
the gang-victimization
link. The life course/criminal career perspective examines
trajectories of criminal behav-
ior over time, rather than treating criminal behavior as
disconnected events (Blumstein,
Cohen, Roth, & Visher, 1986; Piquero, Farrington, &
Blumstein, 2003; Sampson & Laub,
1993). Of primary concern is the participation, frequency,
seriousness, and length of
criminal behavior. Considering these theoretical components,
Farrell, Tseloni, Wiersema,
and Peace (2001) expanded the life course/criminal career
perspective to account for
“career victims,” which examines trajectories of victimization
over time. This provided
the groundwork for few studies to begin examining trajectories
of victimization over time,
focusing on the participation, frequency, seriousness, and length
of victimization (Nobles,
Fox, Piquero, & Piquero, 2009) or the desistance from
victimization (Daigle, Beaver, &
Hartman, 2008). Further extending this line of research to the
study of gangs, it is plausible
that the risk of victimization changes over time, especially in
conjunction with fluctua-
tions in gang status. In other words, future research should
examine whether the process of
desisting from gang membership (e.g., moving from active
member to ex-gang member)
is related to the desistance of victimization risk. Similarly,
increases in gang status (e.g.,
moving from non-gang to affiliate to member) may be
190. associated with an increase in vic-
timization. Furthermore, determining differences between gang
and non-gang members
in terms of participation, frequency, seriousness, and length of
victimization will be an
important step for future inquiry.
The Gang-Victimization Link 1035
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this paper was to synthesize the growing
literature on the gang- victimization
link and to highlight specific recommendations for future
research based on the strengths
and limitations within the field. The extant literature is quite
mixed about whether gang
members are victimized significantly more than non-gang
members or whether evidence
suggests other factors explain or confound the gang-
victimization link. These inconsistent
findings underscore the importance for further scholarly
investigation, and future research
that advances the methodological and/or theoretical examination
of the gang-victimization
link will be particularly valuable. The following briefly reviews
the recommendations
outlined in this study.
Recommendations for Methodologically Advancing the
Gang-Victimization Literature
1. Sample adults outside of jail/prison and sample
criminal/incarcerated adults or juveniles.
191. 2. Sample size should be large enough to maintain statistical
power for examining subgroup
differences (e.g., gang status, gender, race/ethnicity).
3. Include a variety of specific types of crime victimization
(including property crimes) in
an effort to (a) replicate and extend prior research, (b) assess
reliability and validity, and
(c) expand recall timeframe by including multiple indicators
(e.g., during past month, past year,
and during the lifetime), and (d) examine whether the gang-
victimization link is dependent on
the specific type of victimization, in addition to creating
general victimization indexes.
4. Analyses of the gang-victimization link should include (a)
examinations of longitudinal data,
(b) controls for delinquency/crime, (c) measures of gang status
(e.g., current member, former
member, associate), and (d) models that account for potential
gender and race/ethnic differences.
Recommendations for Theoretically Advancing the
Gang-Victimization Literature
5. Given the lack of theory tests to explain the gang-
victimization link, future research testing
any theoretical perspective will advance the literature.
6. Tests of lifestyle/routine activity theory should (a) examine
samples other than school-based
samples of youth, (b) include a variety of victimization
measures, (c) conduct analyses sepa-
rately by gang status, and (d) account for the effects of gang-
specific lifestyle/routine activities
192. (e.g., time spent with gang friends, exposure to gang-affiliated
family members, involvement
in gang-related crime, gang leadership status, length of
membership, and gang attachment).
7. Tests of social disorganization theory should (a) use
longitudinal data, (b) sample non-
incarcerated individuals, and (c) examine neighborhood-based
disorganization items among
community samples or institution-based disorganization items
among incarcerated samples.
8. Tests of self-control theory should (a) account for the effects
of opportunities for victimiza-
tion, (b) examine untested samples (e.g., youth), (c) examine
gender and/or race/ethnicity
differences, and (d) control for the effects of
delinquent/criminal behavior.
9. Tests of the biosocial perspective should (a) examine adult
samples and criminal or incarcerated
samples, (b) determine which genes predict gang membership
and victimization, and (c) analyze
gene-environment interactions in the prediction of gang
membership and victimization.
10. Test other theoretical perspectives to better understand the
gang-victimization link, such as
social learning theory, control balance theory, and the life
course/criminal career perspective.
1036 Fox
In conclusion, there are many avenues available for contributing
193. to this body of knowl-
edge. Future research will also deepen this line of research by
examining the victimization
of gang members internationally (e.g., see Katz et al., 2011).
The Eurogang Project could
serve as a foundation for beginning international work within
the gang-victimization
context. Regardless of the country scholars’ wish to study, it is
hoped that the recom-
mendations outlined here will help advance our understanding
of the relationship between
gang membership and crime victimization.
NOTES
1. Article searches were concluded in January 2013 using the
following search terms: gangs,
gang membership, youth gangs, violence, violent, and
victimization.
2. Although Esbensen et al. (2010) feature several multivariate
models in their book, analyses predicting
victimization do not include a measure of gang membership
(and vice versa). The only analyses related to
the gang-victimization link are bivariate analyses, which is why
the study is excluded in the current analyses.
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Acknowledgment. The author thanks Jodi Lane at the University
of Florida for helpful feedback on
an earlier draft.
Correspondence regarding this article should be directed to
Kathleen A. Fox, PhD, Arizona State
University, School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 411 N.
Central Avenue, Phoenix, AZ
85004. E-mail: [email protected]
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without
permission.