1-s2.0-S2666790822000441-main.pdf

Cleaner Engineering and Technology 7 (2022) 100439
Available online 8 February 2022
2666-7908/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Sustainable high-performance, self-compacting concrete using ladle slag
G.M. Sadiqul Islam *
, Suraiya Akter, Tabassum Binte Reza
Department of Civil Engineering, Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology, Chattogram - 4349, Bangladesh
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
High-performance self-compacting concrete
Fresh properties
Strength
Ladle slag
A B S T R A C T
High-Performance Concrete (HPC) meets special requirements (e.g., low shrinkage and permeability, high
strength, and improved durability) and uniformity requirements beyond the range of conventional concrete. Self-
compacting Concrete (SCC) is placed by its weight as it is enough flowable to pass through congested reinforced
areas and avoid aggregate segregation. To reduce cement use and the associated CO2 production from its pro
duction, Ladle Slag, a steel industry waste material, is used to replace cement in the production of HPSCC. The
material’s chemical composition indicates self-cementing and pozzolanic properties. Ladle Slag (5%, 10%, 15%
and 25%) is used in place of CEM I (cement) and their fresh, mechanical and durability properties are compared
with the control concrete (no waste) sample. The fresh properties were tested and confirmed using Slump flow, T
500, V-funnel, and L-box. Obtained results generally indicate improvement in fresh, mechanical and durability
properties of produced concretes for up to 15% use of Slag compared to the control concrete. Cost analysis
suggests that industrial waste could be a promising green material for HPSCC by economically saving the carbon
footprint.
1. Introduction
Concrete is the most widely used building material, generally
composed of stone, sand, cement, and water. High-Performance Con
crete (HPC) production has always been an important goal for concrete
technology (Akhnoukh and Buckhalter, 2021). Concrete of compressive
strength 40–140 MPa has been used worldwide for more than 30 years
(Mehta and Aitcin, 1990). This provides high early strength, reduces
column size, builds superstructures with a long span, and provides
increased durability (Muhannad, 2009). Generally, high-strength con
crete is produced with a low w/c ratio which leads to low workability,
unable to spread through the corners of the formwork without external
actions. Given the above, a Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) model was
first proposed and developed in Japan during the 1980s (Okamura and
Ouchi, 2003). SCC also provides a better working environment by
eliminating the vibration noise and provides a better surface finish
(Domone, 2007). With the development in chemical admixture, modern
concrete technology has got new dimensions such as reducing water
demand and the time-dependent volume change (Islam et al., 2019).
Furthermore, high-performance self-compacting concrete (HPSCC) en
sures appreciable fresh properties, exhibits high strength, minimizes the
voids on the congested reinforced area, and provides excellent durability
characteristics (Jiang et al., 2018). Therefore, the material has been
popular for use in the precast industry (Mabroum et al., 2020).
The cement industry has never been sustainable until scientists found
effective use of industrial wastes as a supplement of cement to reduce
the environmental impact of concrete (Islam et al., 2011). The use of the
SCM in concrete could help achieve sustainable development by
reducing greenhouse gas from the cement production process. Industrial
waste based Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM) is added in
concrete for their desirable low porosity and permeability by refining
microspores (Bumanis et al., 2020). Various industrial wastes, e.g. fly
ash from power generation (McCarthy et al., 2015) by coal burning,
Ladle Slag from steel production (Shi, 2002), and silica fume from the
silicon processing industry, have been used (Saini and Vattipalli, 2020).
Ladle Slag in concrete could improve fresh properties, e.g. consistency
and workability (Anastasiou et al., 2014) and later hardened properties
such as compressive strength (Najm et al., 2021) and durability (Song
et al., 2021).
The compressive and tensile strengths of SCC depends on the w/c
ratio, their mix proportion parameters, coarse aggregate volume, and
the interface between the cement paste and aggregate (Jiang et al.,
2018). Muhannad (2009) found an optimum w/c ratio range of 0.3–0.4
for 28-days compressive strength, while the typical range of w/(c + p)
for high-strength concrete is from 0.2 to 0.5 (ACI 211.4R-93). The
flowability of SCC through steel reinforcing bars depends on the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gmsislam@cuet.ac.bd (G.M.S. Islam).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Cleaner Engineering and Technology
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/cleaner-engineering-and-technology
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2022.100439
Received 12 May 2021; Received in revised form 15 January 2022; Accepted 6 February 2022

2
maximum size and volume of coarse aggregate (Cheah et al., 2020).
Maximum aggregate size range 3/
8 - 0.5 inch can produce strength above
9000 psi (Su et al., 2001).
To achieve high fluidity and adequate stability during transportation
and placing, the use of chemical admixtures and high cement content is
necessary for HPSCC (Akhnoukh and Buckhalter, 2021). However,
excessive cement content increases hydration heat and autogenous
shrinkage (Sabet et al., 2013). On the other hand, denser microstructure
and low inherent porosity and permeability of high strength SCC can be
achieved using a lower w/(c + p) ratio and SCM (Bingöl and Tohumcu,
2013). Studies incorporated fly ash (Ting et al., 2021) and GGBS (Saini
and Vattipalli, 2020) with silica fume, waste glass and silica fume
(Mehta and Ashish, 2020), stainless steel slag (Sheen et al., 2015),
different additives (Esen and Orhan, 2016) and waste plastic fibres
(Al-Hadithi and Hilal, 2016) in the production of SCC. Review work by
(Najm et al., 2021) also summarized use of steel slags in concrete. In
addition, studies reported the incorporation of Ladle Slag in SCC as filler
with other materials (Sideris et al., 2015). However, the use of Ladle
Slag in HPSCC as SCMs is limited.
This research, therefore, aims to evaluate the performance of in
dustrial by-products Ladle Slag as SCM in the production of HSSCC for
sustainable concrete practice. In this regard, an extensive experimental
program was undertaken to evaluate fresh, mechanical, and simple
durability properties. Further analysis of the results obtained from these
tests indicated the cost effectiveness and environmental benefits of Ladle
Slag.
2. Materials and methodology
2.1. Materials
Commercial high range water reducing admixture (HRWRA) and
viscosity modifying admixture (VMA) are used to produce self-
compacting concrete. VMA influences viscosity and shear yield stress
in SCC (Schwartzentruber et al., 2006). High range water reducing ad
mixtures can reduce the mixing water by 30% (ACI 211.4R-93). The
HRWRA is based on polycarboxylic ether and can gain strength early.
The admixture is available in light brown liquid form. The recom
mended dose from the manufacturer is 0.3–1.5% by weight of cement.
The viscosity modifying agent is an admixture in the colourless
ready-to-use organic liquid form developed to control the viscosity and,
thereby, the rheological properties of concrete. Vibration is not required
for concrete compaction; even the structure is highly reinforced. This
was applied after all the ingredients were added to the concrete. There is
no fixed optimum dosage, which should be determined by trial.
A CEM I (52.5N grade) cement was used in this study. Ladle Slag is
used as SCM. Rapid cooling of ladle slag was done to avoid delayed
expansion (Tossavainen et al., 2007). The chemical compositions of the
binders are given in Table 1.
The majority in ladle slag is CaO, and SiO2 satisfies the oxide
requirement of pozzolana as per ASTM. Ladle Slag is an off-white ma
terial. The crystalline phases found from the XRD test is plotted in Fig. 1.
Calcio olivine, Åkermanite and low Quartz are the major minerals found
using powder diffraction file (PDF) cards. The combination also in
dicates the materials are rich with calcium and silica-based elements
promising as SCM in concrete. The specific gravity of Ladle Slag was
found to be 2.25. The specific surface area of CEM I and Ladle Slag was
4530 cm2
/gm and 3840 cm2
/gm, respectively. Particle size distribution
of Ladle Slag and CEM I are given in Fig. 2. As shown in the figure, the
industrial waste is larger than CEM I. The Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) micrographs of CEM I and Ladle Slag is given in Fig. 3. While a
relatively clean surface was seen for CEM I, agglomeration of particles
and surface deposition was noted for Ladle Slag. The average particle
size of Ladle Slag was approximately 50 μm, supporting the laser particle
size distribution shown in Fig. 2.
Stone chips and coarse river sand are used as aggregates. The prop
erties of aggregates and grading of stone are given in Tables 2 and 3,
respectively. The nominal aggregate size of 12.5 mm was obtained by
blending two size aggregates. The 12.5–9.5 mm size aggregate was 425
kg/m3
, while 350 kg/m3
was for the 4.75–9.5 mm size fraction. Mix
proportion of the HPSCC was adopted and adjusted from previous
research (Intezar et al., 2019) given in Table 4 on saturated and surface
dry (SSD) basis.
Initially, all the aggregates and cement were dry mixed for 2 min to
mix the control sample without SCM. The admixture was added after the
initial 75% of the mixing water in the mix. Cement was replaced by 5%,
10%, 15% and 25% Ladle Slag. Ladle Slag was mixed with the aggre
gates and cement. After preparing the mixture, a slump-flow test, L-box
test, and V-funnel test were conducted.
2.2. Methodology
2.2.1. Fresh properties
Fresh properties of SCC, including slump flow, L box, and V funnel,
has been tested following that described in (EFNARC, 2005), matching
with EN standards.
2.2.1.1. Slump flow test. The slump flow value measures the free flow of
SCC in the horizontal direction on a plane surface without any ob
structions. The test was conducted as per EN 12350–8 (2009). About six
liters of concrete is needed to perform the test. A circle of 500 mm
diameter should be marked on the base plate. Then the base plate and
slump cone was moistened; the slump cone was placed centrally on the
base plate on level ground. Then the cone was filled with freshly pre
pared concrete. Any surplus concrete from around the base of the cone
should be removed before raising the cone vertically. The concrete was
allowed to flow out freely. The time required by the concrete to reach
the 500 mm spread circle was measured with a stopwatch (This is the
T500 time). The T500 time is a secondary indication of flow. Thus, a
shorter time indicates better flowability. Viscosity can be evaluated by
the T500 time or by the V-funnel flow time. A slump flow and T500 time
of >550 mm and <7 s are required for SCC.
2.2.1.2. L box test. This test was performed as per (EN, 2010a) to
observe the passing ability of SCC either it will be capable of flowing
through constricted openings without segregation or not. The acceptable
range for passing ability can be obtained by the L-box blocking ratio, the
fraction of H2/H1. To use in civil engineering structures, the required
L-box blocking ratio of SCC using 3 bars is 0.8–1.0.
2.2.1.3. V-funnel test. V-funnel test was carried out as per (EN, 2010b)
to evaluate the stability and flow-ability of the SCC. V-funnel flow time
is required to fall the concrete vertically below through the funnel after
the funnel is filled with concrete and after 5min of setting. The accept
able range of V-funnel flow time for SCC is 6–12 (EFNARC, 2005).
2.2.2. Hardened properties
Most guidelines of SCC have emphasized fresh properties than
Table 1
Chemical composition of binders.
Oxides, % Ladle Slag Cement
CaO 46.14 61.28
SiO2 31.42 28.42
Al2O3 2.95 2.78
Fe2O3 0.88 2.62
MgO 2.13 2.14
Na2O 1.27 1.47
K2O 0.07 0.67
TiO2 0.79 0.58
MnO 1.49 0.03
G.M.S. Islam et al.

3
hardened properties (EFNARC, 2005). The ratio of load that causes
failure of a specimen to the cross-section area in uniaxial compression is
the compressive strength of concrete. A cube specimen (100 mm) was
used to evaluate this property. The test was carried out as per ASTM C39
(ASTM, 2020). The load was applied to the opposite sides by placing the
specimens centrally on the base plate. The load was gradually imposed
at a rate of 8–21 MPa/min until the sample failed.
A splitting tensile strength test was carried out as per ASTM C496
(ASTM, 2017). Diametrical lines were drawn on opposite sides of the
Fig. 1. XRD spectra of Ladle Slag showing the abundance of Ca and Si-based minerals.
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of CEMI and LFS.
Fig. 3. SEM micrographs showing particle shapes and sizes.
Table 2
Properties of aggregate.
Property Sand Stone
Specific gravity 2.60 2.70
Absorption capacity, % 1.8 1.0
Fineness modulus 2.90 6.55
Unit weight, kg/m3 1620 1560
Table 3
Grading of coarse aggregate.
Sieve size (mm) % Passing % Retain
12.5 100 0
9.50 45 55
4.75 0 45
G.M.S. Islam et al.

4
cube (150 mm) specimen to ensure they were in the same axial place. A
small diameter iron rod was placed on the lower plate, and the concrete
specimen was kept on it. Then the diametrical lines were kept vertical
during the sample alignment. The specimen was centered on the bottom
plate. Then another rod was placed above the concrete specimen. The
load was gradually imposed at a rate of approximately 0.7–1.4 MPa/min
as per ASTM C496 (ASTM, 2017) until the sample failed. The breaking
load was recorded.
Water absorption and volume of permeable tests were carried out as
per ASTM C642 (ASTM, 2013). Firstly, the samples were oven-dried to
obtain constant mass, and then after taking the mass, those were
immersed underwater for not less than 48 h. Then, the saturated and
surface dry (SSD) weight was obtained. The samples were boiled for 5 h,
and then another SSD weight was finally taken. Water absorption ca
pacity and volume of permeable pores are calculated from these data.
These test results indicate the ingress susceptibility of chemicals and
other atmospheric gas and moisture into the hardened concrete. Thereby
the durability of the concrete can be indirectly assessed.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Fresh properties
3.1.1. Slump flow and T500
The slump flow values of trial mixes are given in Figs. 4 and 5. As per
(EFNARC, 2005) the slump flow of an SCC should be ranged between
550 and 850 mm. It was found that all samples achieved the minimum
requirement. No trend or relationship between the cement replacement
by Ladle Slag and slump flow value was noted. The control concrete was
mixed using 1.3% HRWRA (by weight of cement). However, only
HRWRA was not sufficient for achieving SCC with Ladle Slag. The mixes
were, therefore, used a 0.65% VMA in addition to HRWRA.
The control mix and concrete with Ladle Slag achieved SCC criteria
with a w/c ratio of 0.29. The acceptable range for T500 time is 2–7 s
(Soleymani Ashtiani et al., 2013). In general, the T500 decreased with
an increase in slump flow (Fig. 5 and 6). As shown in Fig. 6 the time was
reduced for up to a Ladle Slag content of 15% and then increased. Lower
T500 time up to a 15% cement replacement indicates a promising per
formance of Ladle Slag in SCC. Su et al. (2001) reported influence of
power content and w/c ratio on the fresh properties of SCC. The powder
content and w/c ratio were kept constants for all the trial mixes in this
study. Therefore, the indication of improved fresh performance was due
to the properties of Ladle Slag. Sideris et al. (2018) reported a 10% Ladle
Slag replacement as optimum for SCC.
Table 4
Concrete mix proportions.
Mixes Coarse aggregate (kg/ m3
) Fine aggregate (kg/m3
) Cement (kg/m3
) Ladle Slag (kg/m3
) Water (kg/m3
) Admixture (kg/m3
) Fresh Volume (m3
)
Control 775 740 620 – 185 8.06 0.963
LS-5 589 31 185 0.967
LS-10 558 62 185 0.970
LS-15 527 93 185 0.974
LS-25 465 155 185 0.982
* 0.65% VMA was used in addition to this admixture for all concrete with Ladle Slag.
Fig. 4. Slump flow of HPSCC samples showing a minimum of 550 mm spread.
Fig. 5. Slump flow values of trial mixes.
G.M.S. Islam et al.

5
3.1.2. L box test
The simulated environment in the L box indicates how the SCC will
perform in a closely reinforced structural element. The passing ability of
SCC should be > 0.8. Fig. 7 shows the blocking ratio of trial mixes. The
control mix did not include VMA and gave less block ratio. A linear
relationship was obtained between the slump flow and blocking ratio of
the Ladle Slag concrete (see Fig. 8). This is generally an accepted
behaviour reported recently (Benaicha et al., 2019).
3.1.3. V-funnel test
Fig. 9(a) shows the typical pictures of the test and results obtained for
the trail mixes. The test was conducted with freshly mixed concrete and
after 5 min of mixing. In general, the test time was increased after 5 min
due to the setting of cementitious components. All the trial mixes
satisfied the requirements of v-funnel test time (6–12 s) as per EFNARC
(2005). This test did not give any trend with cement replacement by
Ladle Slag.
3.1.4. Effect of Ladle Slag content
The effect of the Ladle Slag level on the fresh properties of SCC is
shown in Fig. 10. The T500 time was decreased linearly up to a ladle slag
level of 10–15%. It was then again increased. Sideris et al. (2018) re
ported 10% replacement of Ladle Slag could be an optimum for SCC
workability. The results of T500 time agreed with v-funnel test time to
some extent. The passing time increased beyond 10% Ladle Slag
replacement level. The difference was found clearer T500 with results.
In all cases, the T500 was found within the recommended limit (<7 s) by
EFNARC (2005).
3.2. Hardnened properties
3.2.1. Compressive strength
The compressive strength concrete replaced CEM I with ladle slag is
given in Fig. 11. In most cases, the compressive strength of cement
replaced concretes was higher than the control concrete in both the early
(7 days) and mature stage (28 days). The strength was increased with the
replacement level of Ladle Slag, and maximum strength was found for a
15% replacement level. For the 25% cement replaced concrete, though
the seven-day compressive strength was lower (15%) than the control, it
improved at 28 days and was found 8% higher than the control concrete.
The secondary hydration reaction later contributed to the strength
improvement (Adesanya et al., 2017). Studies (Sideris et al., 2015,
2018) with up to 25% Ladle Slag filler reported improved compressive
strength of 5–7% with Slag level and curing age up to 90 days. This study
used CEM II and limestone filler. Therefore, it made a complex reaction
mechanism. Rodriguez et al. (2009) reported the improvement in
workability and strength due to long term pozzolanic behaviour of Ladle
Slag incorporated mortar.
In general, concrete strength depends on the reactivity of cementi
tious media and the packing of ingredient materials (Lai et al., 2020). At
an early age, the effect of filler is evident (Tangpagasit et al., 2005). The
lower T500 time indicates higher fluidity of fresh concrete and is ex
pected to compact better. The results shown in Figs. 10(a) and 11 can be
correlated. This filler effect improved the compressive strength at early
ages while the reactivity of secondary by-products was limited. How
ever, at a later age (28 days), the compressive strength was improved
due to both reactivity and compaction. With this combined effect, the 28
days compressive strength of 25% Ladle Slag concrete gave even higher
compressive strength than the control concrete. Sideris et al. (2018)
reported a relationship between compressive strength and fresh prop
erties. It is noted that the L-box and V-funnel test results indicate packing
effect, although as per requirements, the results vary within a small
range.
3.2.2. Split tensile strength
All the trial mixes gave good results in the split tensile test. Fig. 12
shows split tensile strength test results of trial mixes using different
Ladle Slag levels. The tensile strength of mixes with 10, 15, and 25%
Ladle Slag increased from the mix with 5% Ladle Slag by 17%, 51%, and
Fig. 6. T500 time of concrete mixes.
Fig. 7. L-Box blocking ratio of trial mixes.
Fig. 8. Relationship between fresh properties of Ladle Slag concrete.
G.M.S. Islam et al.

6
34%, respectively, in 7 days curing. For 28 days of curing, the values
increased by 25%, 50%, and 37.5%, respectively. As with the
compressive strength, a 15% cement replacement with Ladle Slag gave
SCC the highest tensile strength than all other mixes. The result is even
more significant than a control mix with no cement replacement. This
indicates an excellent performance of Ladle Slag at the 15% level. Ac
cording to Adesanya et al. (2017) the secondary reaction of Ladle slag
occurs later, and a higher replacement level gives better results. A
similar trend was noted by an earlier study with mortar (Rodriguez
et al., 2009).
3.2.3. Water absorption and voids
The water absorption and volume of permeable voids are given in
Fig. 13. The test indicates the durability potential of the concrete. As
shown in Fig. 13, the volume of permeable pores and corresponding
water absorption is interrelated. As the fresh and other properties of the
concrete samples varied within a narrow range, these two properties are
also found with a similar trend. According to VicRoads (2007), water
absorption of concrete is less than 5%, and void less than 11% denoted
as ‘low’ and ‘excellent’ category. The produced concrete samples gave
promising results and could be considered a high prospect for durability.
Sideris et al. (2018) reported sorptivity as a good indication of dura
bility. In their study, SCC samples with low sorptivity gave better
resistance to carbonation and chloride attack. Saloni et al. (2021)
correlated microstructure, C–S–H gel formation, water absorption and
chloride penetration. It was concluded that reduction in water absorp
tion indicated improvement in compressive strength and, thereby,
durability properties.
Fig. 9. V-funnel test.
Fig. 10. Effect of Ladle Slag on the fresh properties of SCC.
Fig. 11. Effect of Ladle Slag on the compressive strength. Fig. 12. Tensile strength of concrete with Ladle Slag.
G.M.S. Islam et al.

7
3.3. Practical implications
Considering the cost of ladle slag as US$ 30/ton (including trans
portation from the iron industry) and the cost of other materials as per
the rate schedule of the Public Works Department of Bangladesh, the
cost of 1 m3
concrete for different trials mixes was found (Fig. 14). With
the increase in Ladle Slag content, the cost of concrete reduces gradually
as CEM I is replaced by Ladle Slag, which costs approximately 30% of
CEM I. Although the lowest cost would be for the LS-25 sample, the
optimum strength was obtained for LS-15 Samples. The further analysis
considered cost per unit compressive strength (MPa), indicating that the
use of ladle slag (10–25%) would be cost-effective than CEM I concrete,
considering the strength and self-compatibility. In addition to these
direct costs, additional savings in carbon footprint would be added to
sustainable construction practice.
4. Conclusions
The fresh and hardened properties of HPSCC produced with 5–25%
replacement of CEM I with steel industry waste Ladle Slag are evaluated.
Overall, the fresh properties gave promising results by satisfying inter
national standard requirements.
➢ Replacing CEM I with Ladle Slag up to 15% increases the compres
sive and tensile strength of the control concrete. Concrete compres
sive strength of up to 70 MPa was achieved using steel industry waste
instead of traditional cement, with a large carbon footprint. Dura
bility properties such as water absorption and voids were found
within the standard range indicated the potentiality of the waste
materials to form high-performance concrete.
➢ Cost estimation showed that Ladle Slag would be a cost-effective and
eco-friendly construction material to use in concrete to replace CEM
I. In addition, the material gave better performance than CEM I
concrete while considering the cost per unit strength. This route of
using the waste material in construction would also save the space
required for landfilling.
➢ The compressive and tensile strength test can be performed over a
more extended curing period than 28 days with a further study. As
these materials are expected to provide secondary hydration reac
tion, Ladle Slag could enhance durability in HPSCC by refining mi
cropores over time. However, this needs to confirm by additional
experimental works.
Disclaimer
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author statement
G. M. Sadiqul Islam: Methodology, rewriting a significant part, final
editing including the addition of new figures, material arrangement,
Supervision.
Suraiya Akter: Conceptualization, experimental work, writing-
original draft preparation.
Tabassum Binte Reza: Experimental work, writing-original draft
preparation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Laboratory support provided by the Department of Civil Engineering,
CUET, is gratefully acknowledged. In addition, the authors are thankful
to the industrial partners BSRM Steel Mills Ltd. and BASF chemicals for
supplying research materials.
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G.M.S. Islam et al.

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