The document is a letter introducing a formula booklet for Class XI physics. It emphasizes that Class XI is an important year for preparing for competitive exams like IITJEE. While school curriculum focuses on board exams, students need extra preparation for engineering entrance exams. The booklet contains formulas and study tips to help students maximize their preparation time and stay focused on the goal of cracking competitive exams. It covers various physics topics like units, kinematics, Newton's laws, vectors, circular motion, etc. and aims to help students revise chapters quickly using the formulas provided.
This document contains solutions to problems from Chapter 5 of an engineering textbook. Problem 5-3 calculates the torque and allowable twist in a torsion bar made of two springs in parallel. Problem 5-12 calculates the maximum deflection and stress in a beam loaded by two point loads. Problem 5-19 involves selecting the appropriate cross-sectional dimensions to achieve a required stiffness for a beam of given length.
The document provides instructions for a test being administered. It is a 3 hour test containing 180 questions worth 4 marks each. Instructions include filling out personal details on the answer sheet, doing rough work only in the test booklet, signing attendance sheets, and not using calculators. Failure to follow instructions may be considered unfair practice.
The document provides bibliographic references for 14 books and papers on the topics of tensors, vector analysis, and continuum mechanics. It includes publication information such as author names, titles, publishers, and years. The references are listed alphabetically by author surname.
Pembahasan ujian nasional matematika ipa sma 2013mardiyanto83
This document contains 31 math problems and their solutions from a 2011 Indonesian national exam practice test for high school/secondary school students studying the science program. The problems cover a range of math topics including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and statistics. The full solutions are provided for each multiple choice question, with the correct answer indicated by a letter.
1. The document contains solutions to problems from chapter 4 of Engineering Electromagnetics by Hayt, Buck. It involves calculating work done, electric fields, electric potentials, and energies for various charge distributions and field configurations.
2. Key steps include using the relations dW=-QE·dL, V=Q/4πε0r, and E=-∇V to solve for requested quantities like work done, potentials, and fields.
3. Calculations are shown for problems involving point charges, line charges, and volume charge distributions using the appropriate expressions for electric field, potential, and integrals over paths or volumes.
1) A vector random variable assigns a vector of real numbers to each outcome of a random experiment. An example is selecting a student's name from an urn based on their height, weight, and age. This would make the vector random variable equal to (height, age, weight).
2) For discrete random variables X and Y, their joint probability distribution is defined as the probability that X assumes a value less than or equal to x, and Y assumes a value less than or equal to y. This can be written as P(X≤x, Y≤y).
3) If the joint probability distribution of X and Y can be written as the product of the marginal probability distributions of X and
The document summarizes key points from Physics 111 Lecture 2:
1) It recaps 1-D constant acceleration motion and introduces 1-D free fall, reviewing that gravity causes a downward acceleration.
2) Vectors in 2D and 3D are discussed, including vector addition and unit vectors.
3) Kinematics equations for constant acceleration are extended to 3D motion, and it is noted that for constant acceleration, most 3D problems can be reduced to 2D.
4) Examples of projectile motion and 2D motion are presented to demonstrate applying the concepts.
The document describes the use of the EST method to analyze statically indeterminate plane frames. It presents the basic equilibrium equations for a frame element and the overall frame. Key steps include: (1) deriving the transfer matrix to relate displacements and forces at the ends of each element, (2) assembling the global equilibrium equations by summing the equations for each element, and (3) including any boundary conditions, joint equilibrium conditions, and compatibility equations between elements. The analysis determines the displacements, forces, moments, and stresses throughout the frame.
This document contains solutions to problems from Chapter 5 of an engineering textbook. Problem 5-3 calculates the torque and allowable twist in a torsion bar made of two springs in parallel. Problem 5-12 calculates the maximum deflection and stress in a beam loaded by two point loads. Problem 5-19 involves selecting the appropriate cross-sectional dimensions to achieve a required stiffness for a beam of given length.
The document provides instructions for a test being administered. It is a 3 hour test containing 180 questions worth 4 marks each. Instructions include filling out personal details on the answer sheet, doing rough work only in the test booklet, signing attendance sheets, and not using calculators. Failure to follow instructions may be considered unfair practice.
The document provides bibliographic references for 14 books and papers on the topics of tensors, vector analysis, and continuum mechanics. It includes publication information such as author names, titles, publishers, and years. The references are listed alphabetically by author surname.
Pembahasan ujian nasional matematika ipa sma 2013mardiyanto83
This document contains 31 math problems and their solutions from a 2011 Indonesian national exam practice test for high school/secondary school students studying the science program. The problems cover a range of math topics including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and statistics. The full solutions are provided for each multiple choice question, with the correct answer indicated by a letter.
1. The document contains solutions to problems from chapter 4 of Engineering Electromagnetics by Hayt, Buck. It involves calculating work done, electric fields, electric potentials, and energies for various charge distributions and field configurations.
2. Key steps include using the relations dW=-QE·dL, V=Q/4πε0r, and E=-∇V to solve for requested quantities like work done, potentials, and fields.
3. Calculations are shown for problems involving point charges, line charges, and volume charge distributions using the appropriate expressions for electric field, potential, and integrals over paths or volumes.
1) A vector random variable assigns a vector of real numbers to each outcome of a random experiment. An example is selecting a student's name from an urn based on their height, weight, and age. This would make the vector random variable equal to (height, age, weight).
2) For discrete random variables X and Y, their joint probability distribution is defined as the probability that X assumes a value less than or equal to x, and Y assumes a value less than or equal to y. This can be written as P(X≤x, Y≤y).
3) If the joint probability distribution of X and Y can be written as the product of the marginal probability distributions of X and
The document summarizes key points from Physics 111 Lecture 2:
1) It recaps 1-D constant acceleration motion and introduces 1-D free fall, reviewing that gravity causes a downward acceleration.
2) Vectors in 2D and 3D are discussed, including vector addition and unit vectors.
3) Kinematics equations for constant acceleration are extended to 3D motion, and it is noted that for constant acceleration, most 3D problems can be reduced to 2D.
4) Examples of projectile motion and 2D motion are presented to demonstrate applying the concepts.
The document describes the use of the EST method to analyze statically indeterminate plane frames. It presents the basic equilibrium equations for a frame element and the overall frame. Key steps include: (1) deriving the transfer matrix to relate displacements and forces at the ends of each element, (2) assembling the global equilibrium equations by summing the equations for each element, and (3) including any boundary conditions, joint equilibrium conditions, and compatibility equations between elements. The analysis determines the displacements, forces, moments, and stresses throughout the frame.
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- SHOW KITCHEN
- WORLD CUISINE
- SNOOKER TABLE
- FOOSBALL TABLE
- COZI INTERIORS
- CORPORATE DISCOUNTS
- PRIVATE PARTIES
- PACKAGE DESIGNING AS PER BUDGET
SO PLAN OUT UR EVE
REGARDS
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SHUBHAM PALACE -3RD FLOOR - ABOVE HDFC BANK -SEC 15
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This document outlines the structure and requirements for the HSC Physics course at Merrylands High School. It discusses that the core modules cover Space, Motors and Generators, and From Ideas to Implementation. Students must also choose one option module such as Geophysics or Medical Physics. It provides guidance on what students need to do to succeed in the course, including checking resources daily, taking notes, doing regular practice questions, and submitting all assessments on time.
This document provides information about the class 12 physics syllabus and exam structure for the academic year 2012-2013 in India.
The syllabus is divided into 10 units covering topics like electrostatics, current electricity, magnetism, electromagnetic induction, optics, modern physics, electronic devices and communication systems. The question paper will be of 70 marks and 3 hours duration. 3-5 marks will be allocated to value based questions.
The practical exam will have two experiments each from section A and B carrying 8+8 marks. Practical records will be 6 marks and a project 3 marks. Viva will be 5 marks, totaling to a 30 mark practical exam. 15 experiments are to be performed from the listed experiments
Pressure, temperature and ‘rms’ related to kinetic modelMichael Marty
The macroscopic properties of a gas, pressure and temperature, are explained in terms of molecule movement of the Kinetic Theory. The derivation of formulas are shown in logical steps for pressure, temperature and KE.
The document discusses rotational motion and kinematics. It defines key concepts like the radian, angular velocity, and angular acceleration. It describes how to relate linear and rotational motion through equations. It also introduces the concept of moment of inertia, which describes an object's resistance to changes in rotational motion based on its mass distribution. Different formulas are given for calculating the moment of inertia of objects like rods, disks, and point masses rotating around different axes.
Physics Earth magnetic field using tangent galvanometerTushar Ukey
Class 12 investigatory projects about to study earth magnetic field and find using value tangent galvanometer hope you like it my friend work very hard to make this project please download my doc file to use it to your own purpose. and also take some information from that thanks.
The document describes an experiment on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. It includes an aim to determine the law using a copper wire, iron rod and magnet. It also includes sections on the certificate, acknowledgement, apparatus, introduction explaining the theory behind electromagnetic induction discovered by Faraday and Henry. The theory section defines magnetic flux and describes Faraday's law that the induced electromotive force in a closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit. It concludes that Faraday's law has many applications and impacts our lives in powering technologies.
This document contains sample problems and solutions from Chapter 1 of a textbook on mechanical engineering design. Problem 1-1 through 1-4 are for student research. The remaining problems provide examples of calculating stresses, forces, displacements, and other mechanical properties using various equations. The problems demonstrate applying concepts like resolving forces, calculating moments of inertia, and determining figures of merit to optimize designs.
This document provides equations and calculations for determining the mean cycles to failure (x-bar) and standard deviation of cycles to failure (s_x) for a sample of fatigue test data. The sample data consists of the number of cycles to failure (x) and applied force (f) for 10 tests. The mean x-bar is calculated as the sum of the product of f and x divided by the sum of f, which equals 122.9 kcycles. The standard deviation s_x is calculated using the variance formula, which equals 30.3 kcycles.
This document provides equations and calculations for determining the mean cycles to failure (x-bar) and standard deviation (s_x) of fatigue test data. The given data shows cycles to failure (x) from fatigue tests of a material at various stress levels (f). The mean x-bar is calculated as 122.9 kcycles using equation 2-9. The standard deviation s_x is calculated as 30.3 kcycles using equation 2-10.
This document provides two examples of analyzing the forces and critical angle required for impending motion of a pin on a surface. It considers the forces and reactions for motion to the left and right. The critical angle is determined by resolving the applied force into components related to mass and acceleration and friction. The pin will accelerate if the angle is less than critical and will not move if the angle is greater than critical. The role of pin diameter is also briefly mentioned.
This document provides information about a Physics 1: Mechanics course taught by Phan Bao Ngoc. The course covers kinematics and dynamics of mass points, laws of conservation, and dynamics and statics of rigid bodies. It is worth 2 credits and uses the 7th edition of Fundamentals of Physics as the primary text. Assessment includes attendance, homework, an assignment, midterm exam, and final exam. Topics covered include one-dimensional and two-dimensional motion, velocity, acceleration, constant acceleration, freely falling objects, and projectile motion. Homework assigned is to read a section and problems 1-7, 14, 23, 27-29, 38, 40, and 45.
The document summarizes the time-independent Schrodinger wave equation, which describes standing waves as a function and can be written as:
∇2ψ + 8π2m/h2(E - V)ψ = 0
Where ψ is the wave function, ∇2 is the Laplacian operator, m is mass, h is Planck's constant, E is the total energy, and V is the potential energy. This equation describes standing waves in three dimensions using coordinates x, y, and z.
The document provides information about calculating mean, variance, and standard deviation from a data set. It includes a table of values for number of cycles (x) and failure cycles (f) for a sample of bearings. It then shows the calculations to find:
1) The mean number of cycles is 122.9 thousand cycles.
2) The variance is 912.9 thousand cycles squared.
3) The standard deviation is 30.3 thousand cycles.
The document provides information about calculating mean, variance, and standard deviation from a data set. It includes a table of values for number of cycles (x) and failure cycles (f) for a sample. It then shows the calculations to find:
1) The mean number of cycles is 122.9 thousand cycles
2) The variance is 912.9 thousand cycles squared
3) The standard deviation is 30.3 thousand cycles
The intent is to demonstrate calculating statistics from a data set to characterize the distribution and variability. The example uses cycle life data from a fatigue test to find the central tendency and spread.
Stochastic Frank-Wolfe for Constrained Finite Sum Minimization @ Montreal Opt...Geoffrey Négiar
We propose a novel Stochastic Frank-Wolfe (a.k.a. conditional gradient) algorithm for constrained smooth finite-sum minimization with a generalized linear prediction/structure. This class of problems includes empirical risk minimization with sparse, low-rank, or other structured constraints. The proposed method is simple to implement, does not require step-size tuning, and has a constant per-iteration cost that is independent of the dataset size. Furthermore, as a byproduct of the method we obtain a stochastic estimator of the Frank-Wolfe gap that can be used as a stopping criterion. Depending on the setting, the proposed method matches or improves on the best computational guarantees for Stochastic Frank-Wolfe algorithms. Benchmarks on several datasets highlight different regimes in which the proposed method exhibits a faster empirical convergence than related methods. Finally, we provide an implementation of all considered methods in an open-source package.
This document contains a sample paper for the GATE exam with 25 multiple choice questions covering topics such as matrices, complex numbers, differential equations, mechanics, and heat transfer. The questions test concepts like limits, determinants, vector relationships, properties of materials, kinematics of rolling objects, and definitions of terms like Poisson's ratio and Biot number. An explanation or working is provided for each question to explain the reasoning behind the correct answer.
The document contains a solution to an aptitude test with 14 multiple choice questions covering topics like ratios, probability, geometry, linear equations, and mechanics. For each question, the correct answer is provided along with a brief explanation of the solution. The questions assess logical reasoning and problem-solving abilities.
The document provides examples of linear equations in two variables and their solutions. It begins by giving examples of writing linear equations from word problems and expressing equations in the form ax + by + c = 0. It then gives examples of finding solutions to different linear equations by substitution. The document also demonstrates drawing graphs of various linear equations. It concludes by asking students to identify linear equations from their graphs.
The instructor's manual provides solutions to problems from Chapter 1 of the textbook "Introduction to Matlab 6 for Engineers". The solutions include MATLAB code sessions that demonstrate how to solve various problems involving matrices, polynomials, plotting functions, and solving systems of equations. Figures generated by some of the MATLAB plots are also included.
The document discusses techniques for finding the slope of a tangent line to a function at a given point using derivatives. It provides examples of finding the slope for various functions, including polynomials, trigonometric functions, and implicitly defined functions, using the definition of derivative and rules like the product rule. Approximations of slope using finite differences are also covered. Guidelines for performing implicit differentiation are outlined.
Hand Craftedly Designed & Modulled By Owner / Propreitor
: SUNPREET SINGH : With The Dedication To Give Navi Mumbai A Wow Factor & Find A Reason To Celebrate.
- 3 DIFFERENT SECTIONS (5000sqft)
- OPEN AIR LOUNGE
- DANCE FLOOR
- PRIVATE SECTION
- BIGGEST PROJECTOR SCREEN (18 BY 25 FEET)
- INHOUSE LIVE DJ
- OPEN LIVE BAR
- SHOW KITCHEN
- WORLD CUISINE
- SNOOKER TABLE
- FOOSBALL TABLE
- COZI INTERIORS
- CORPORATE DISCOUNTS
- PRIVATE PARTIES
- PACKAGE DESIGNING AS PER BUDGET
SO PLAN OUT UR EVE
REGARDS
ZENZIBU DA SKY LOUNGE
SHUBHAM PALACE -3RD FLOOR - ABOVE HDFC BANK -SEC 15
NEAR DMART - KOPERKHAIRAINE -NAVI MUMBAI
GUESTLINE : 9004173737
WEBSITE : www.zenzibu.com
EMAIL : info@zenzibu.com
This document outlines the structure and requirements for the HSC Physics course at Merrylands High School. It discusses that the core modules cover Space, Motors and Generators, and From Ideas to Implementation. Students must also choose one option module such as Geophysics or Medical Physics. It provides guidance on what students need to do to succeed in the course, including checking resources daily, taking notes, doing regular practice questions, and submitting all assessments on time.
This document provides information about the class 12 physics syllabus and exam structure for the academic year 2012-2013 in India.
The syllabus is divided into 10 units covering topics like electrostatics, current electricity, magnetism, electromagnetic induction, optics, modern physics, electronic devices and communication systems. The question paper will be of 70 marks and 3 hours duration. 3-5 marks will be allocated to value based questions.
The practical exam will have two experiments each from section A and B carrying 8+8 marks. Practical records will be 6 marks and a project 3 marks. Viva will be 5 marks, totaling to a 30 mark practical exam. 15 experiments are to be performed from the listed experiments
Pressure, temperature and ‘rms’ related to kinetic modelMichael Marty
The macroscopic properties of a gas, pressure and temperature, are explained in terms of molecule movement of the Kinetic Theory. The derivation of formulas are shown in logical steps for pressure, temperature and KE.
The document discusses rotational motion and kinematics. It defines key concepts like the radian, angular velocity, and angular acceleration. It describes how to relate linear and rotational motion through equations. It also introduces the concept of moment of inertia, which describes an object's resistance to changes in rotational motion based on its mass distribution. Different formulas are given for calculating the moment of inertia of objects like rods, disks, and point masses rotating around different axes.
Physics Earth magnetic field using tangent galvanometerTushar Ukey
Class 12 investigatory projects about to study earth magnetic field and find using value tangent galvanometer hope you like it my friend work very hard to make this project please download my doc file to use it to your own purpose. and also take some information from that thanks.
The document describes an experiment on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. It includes an aim to determine the law using a copper wire, iron rod and magnet. It also includes sections on the certificate, acknowledgement, apparatus, introduction explaining the theory behind electromagnetic induction discovered by Faraday and Henry. The theory section defines magnetic flux and describes Faraday's law that the induced electromotive force in a closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit. It concludes that Faraday's law has many applications and impacts our lives in powering technologies.
This document contains sample problems and solutions from Chapter 1 of a textbook on mechanical engineering design. Problem 1-1 through 1-4 are for student research. The remaining problems provide examples of calculating stresses, forces, displacements, and other mechanical properties using various equations. The problems demonstrate applying concepts like resolving forces, calculating moments of inertia, and determining figures of merit to optimize designs.
This document provides equations and calculations for determining the mean cycles to failure (x-bar) and standard deviation of cycles to failure (s_x) for a sample of fatigue test data. The sample data consists of the number of cycles to failure (x) and applied force (f) for 10 tests. The mean x-bar is calculated as the sum of the product of f and x divided by the sum of f, which equals 122.9 kcycles. The standard deviation s_x is calculated using the variance formula, which equals 30.3 kcycles.
This document provides equations and calculations for determining the mean cycles to failure (x-bar) and standard deviation (s_x) of fatigue test data. The given data shows cycles to failure (x) from fatigue tests of a material at various stress levels (f). The mean x-bar is calculated as 122.9 kcycles using equation 2-9. The standard deviation s_x is calculated as 30.3 kcycles using equation 2-10.
This document provides two examples of analyzing the forces and critical angle required for impending motion of a pin on a surface. It considers the forces and reactions for motion to the left and right. The critical angle is determined by resolving the applied force into components related to mass and acceleration and friction. The pin will accelerate if the angle is less than critical and will not move if the angle is greater than critical. The role of pin diameter is also briefly mentioned.
This document provides information about a Physics 1: Mechanics course taught by Phan Bao Ngoc. The course covers kinematics and dynamics of mass points, laws of conservation, and dynamics and statics of rigid bodies. It is worth 2 credits and uses the 7th edition of Fundamentals of Physics as the primary text. Assessment includes attendance, homework, an assignment, midterm exam, and final exam. Topics covered include one-dimensional and two-dimensional motion, velocity, acceleration, constant acceleration, freely falling objects, and projectile motion. Homework assigned is to read a section and problems 1-7, 14, 23, 27-29, 38, 40, and 45.
The document summarizes the time-independent Schrodinger wave equation, which describes standing waves as a function and can be written as:
∇2ψ + 8π2m/h2(E - V)ψ = 0
Where ψ is the wave function, ∇2 is the Laplacian operator, m is mass, h is Planck's constant, E is the total energy, and V is the potential energy. This equation describes standing waves in three dimensions using coordinates x, y, and z.
The document provides information about calculating mean, variance, and standard deviation from a data set. It includes a table of values for number of cycles (x) and failure cycles (f) for a sample of bearings. It then shows the calculations to find:
1) The mean number of cycles is 122.9 thousand cycles.
2) The variance is 912.9 thousand cycles squared.
3) The standard deviation is 30.3 thousand cycles.
The document provides information about calculating mean, variance, and standard deviation from a data set. It includes a table of values for number of cycles (x) and failure cycles (f) for a sample. It then shows the calculations to find:
1) The mean number of cycles is 122.9 thousand cycles
2) The variance is 912.9 thousand cycles squared
3) The standard deviation is 30.3 thousand cycles
The intent is to demonstrate calculating statistics from a data set to characterize the distribution and variability. The example uses cycle life data from a fatigue test to find the central tendency and spread.
Stochastic Frank-Wolfe for Constrained Finite Sum Minimization @ Montreal Opt...Geoffrey Négiar
We propose a novel Stochastic Frank-Wolfe (a.k.a. conditional gradient) algorithm for constrained smooth finite-sum minimization with a generalized linear prediction/structure. This class of problems includes empirical risk minimization with sparse, low-rank, or other structured constraints. The proposed method is simple to implement, does not require step-size tuning, and has a constant per-iteration cost that is independent of the dataset size. Furthermore, as a byproduct of the method we obtain a stochastic estimator of the Frank-Wolfe gap that can be used as a stopping criterion. Depending on the setting, the proposed method matches or improves on the best computational guarantees for Stochastic Frank-Wolfe algorithms. Benchmarks on several datasets highlight different regimes in which the proposed method exhibits a faster empirical convergence than related methods. Finally, we provide an implementation of all considered methods in an open-source package.
This document contains a sample paper for the GATE exam with 25 multiple choice questions covering topics such as matrices, complex numbers, differential equations, mechanics, and heat transfer. The questions test concepts like limits, determinants, vector relationships, properties of materials, kinematics of rolling objects, and definitions of terms like Poisson's ratio and Biot number. An explanation or working is provided for each question to explain the reasoning behind the correct answer.
The document contains a solution to an aptitude test with 14 multiple choice questions covering topics like ratios, probability, geometry, linear equations, and mechanics. For each question, the correct answer is provided along with a brief explanation of the solution. The questions assess logical reasoning and problem-solving abilities.
The document provides examples of linear equations in two variables and their solutions. It begins by giving examples of writing linear equations from word problems and expressing equations in the form ax + by + c = 0. It then gives examples of finding solutions to different linear equations by substitution. The document also demonstrates drawing graphs of various linear equations. It concludes by asking students to identify linear equations from their graphs.
The instructor's manual provides solutions to problems from Chapter 1 of the textbook "Introduction to Matlab 6 for Engineers". The solutions include MATLAB code sessions that demonstrate how to solve various problems involving matrices, polynomials, plotting functions, and solving systems of equations. Figures generated by some of the MATLAB plots are also included.
The document discusses techniques for finding the slope of a tangent line to a function at a given point using derivatives. It provides examples of finding the slope for various functions, including polynomials, trigonometric functions, and implicitly defined functions, using the definition of derivative and rules like the product rule. Approximations of slope using finite differences are also covered. Guidelines for performing implicit differentiation are outlined.
PRESENTATION ON INTRODUCTION TO SEVERAL VARIABLES AND PARTIAL DERIVATIVES Mazharul Islam
This document provides an introduction to partial derivatives and several examples of calculating them. It begins by defining partial derivatives as the rate of change of a function with respect to one variable, holding other variables constant. Several examples are then provided of calculating partial derivatives of multivariable functions. The document concludes by stating the chain rule for partial derivatives, which relates the derivative of a composite function to its constituent partial derivatives.
This document describes an experiment using the Newton-Raphson method to find the roots of nonlinear equations in MATLAB. Two nonlinear equations are given as an example: x^2+xy=10 and y+3xy^2=57. The MATLAB code implements the Newton-Raphson method to iteratively calculate the roots. For the given equations, the method converges after 15 iterations with roots of x=4.3937 and y=-2.1178. The experiment demonstrated the use of the Newton-Raphson method to solve nonlinear equations numerically in MATLAB.
Lecture on the use of Deep Learning in Optimization. It explains in detail the backpropagation algorithm. Various techniques like the Newton method, Gradient Descent, and Conjugate Direction are explained.
Support vector machine (Machine Learning)VARUN KUMAR
1. Support vector machine is a supervised machine learning algorithm that constructs a hyperplane or set of hyperplanes to classify data points.
2. It finds the optimal hyperplane that separates classes of data points by maximizing the margin between the closest data points of each class.
3. The optimal hyperplane is the one that maximizes the margin of separation between the different classes and minimizes the risk of misclassifying new data points.
1) The time-independent Schrodinger wave equation describes a standing wave with wavelength λ that has an amplitude at any point along the x direction.
2) In three dimensions, the Schrodinger wave equation incorporates second derivatives with respect to x, y, and z coordinates.
3) The Hamiltonian operator Ĥ in the time-independent Schrodinger wave equation is the Laplacian operator ∇2 plus 8π2m/h2 times the potential energy V.
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How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
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Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
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core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
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16469890 formula-booklet-physics-xi
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Most students tend to take it easy after the board examinations of Class X. The summer
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every year for the prestigious institutes.
Some students get governed completely by the emphasis laid by the teachers of the school in
which they are studying. Since, the objective of the teachers in the schools rarely is to equip the
student with the techniques reqired to crack IITJEE, most of the students tend to take it easy in
Class XI. Class XI does not even have the pressure of board examinations.
So, while the teachers and the school environment is often not oriented towards the serious
preparation of IITJEE, the curriculum of Class XI is extremely important to achieve success in
IITJEE or any other competitive examination like AIEEE.
The successful students identify these points early in their Class XI and race ahead of rest of
the competition. We suggest that you start as soon as possible.
In this booklet we have made a sincere attempt to bring your focus to Class XI and keep your
velocity of preparations to the maximum. The formulae will help you revise your chapters in a
very quick time and the motivational quotes will help you move in the right direction.
Hope you’ll benefit from this book and all the best for your examinations.
Praveen Tyagi
Gaurav Mittal
Prasoon Kumar
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CONTENTS
Description Page Number
1. Units, Dimensions & Measurements 03
2. Motion in one Dimension & Newton’s Laws of Motion 04
3. Vectors 06
4. Circular Motion, Relative Motion, and Projectile Motion 07
5. Friction & Dynamics of Rigid Body 09
6. Conservation Laws & Collisions 12
7. Simple Harmonic Motion & Lissajous Figures 14
8. Gravitation 18
9. Properties of Matter 20
10. Heat & Thermodynamics 25
11. Waves 30
12. Study Tips 35
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UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND MEASUREMENTS
(i) SI Units:
(a) Time-second(s);
(b) Length-metre (m);
(c) Mass-kilogram (kg);
(d) Amount of substance–mole (mol); (e) Temperature-Kelvin (K);
(f) Electric Current – ampere (A);
(g) Luminous Intensity – Candela (Cd)
(ii) Uses of dimensional analysis
(a) To check the accuracy of a given relation
(b) To derive a relative between different physical quantities
(c) To convert a physical quantity from one system to another system
c
2
1
b
2
1
a
2
1
122221
T
T
x
L
L
x
M
M
nnorunun
==
(iii) Mean or average value:
N
X...XX
X N21 ++−
=
(iv) Absolute error in each measurement: |∆Xi| = | X –Xi|
(v) Mean absolute error: ∆Xm=
N
|X| i∆Σ
(vi) Fractional error =
X
X∆
(vii) Percentage error = 100x
X
X∆
(viii) Combination of error: If ƒ = c
ba
Z
YX
, then maximum fractional error in ƒ is:
Ζ
∆Ζ
+
∆
+
∆
=
ƒ
ƒ∆
|c|
Y
Y
|b|
X
X
|a|
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MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION & NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
(i) Displacement: | displacement | ≤ distance covered
(ii) Average speed:
2
2
1
1
21
21
21
v
s
v
s
ss
tt
ss
v
+
+
=
+
+
=
(a) If s1 = s2 = d, then
21
21
vv
vv2
v
+
= = Harmonic mean
(b) If t1 = t2, then
2
vv
v 21 +
= =arithmetic mean
(iii) Average velocity: (a)
12
12
av
tt
rr
v
−
−
=
→→
→
; (b) v|v| av ≤
→
(iv) Instantaneous velocity: |v|and
dt
rd
v
→
→
→
= = v = instantaneous speed
(v) Average acceleration:
12
12
av
tt
vv
a
−
−
=
→→
→
(vi) Instantaneous acceleration: dt/vda
→→
=
In one – dimension, a = (dv/dt) = v
dx
dv
(vii) Equations of motion in one dimension:
(a) v = u + at;
(b) x = ut +
2
1
at2
;
(c) v2 u2 + 2ax;
(d) x = vt –
2
1
at
2
;
(e)
+
=
2
uv
x t;
(f) ;at
2
1
utxxs 2
0 +=−=
(g) v
2
= u2
+ 2a (x–x0)
(viii) Distance travelled in nth second: dn = u +
2
a
(2n–1)
(ix) Motion of a ball: (a) when thrown up: h = (u2
/2g) and t = (u/g)
(b) when dropped: v = √(2gh) and t = √(2h/g)
(x) Resultant force: F = √(F1
2
+ F2
2
+ 2F1F2 cos θ)
(xi) Condition for equilibrium: (a) ;)FF(F 213
→→→
+−= (b) F1 + F2 ≥ F3 ≥ |F1 – F2|
(xii) Lami’s Theorem:
( ) ( ) ( )γ−π
=
β−π
=
α−π sin
R
sin
Q
sin
P
(xiii) Newton’s second law:
==
→→→→
dt/pdF;amF
(xiv) Impulse: =−∆=∆
→→
12 ppandtFp Fdt
(xv) Newton’s third law:
∫
2
1
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(a)
→→
−= 1212 FF
(b) Contact force: 2112 FF
mM
m
F =
+
=
(c) Acceleration: a =
mM
F
+
(xvi) Inertial mass: mI = F/a
(xvii) Gravitational mass: mG = GI
2
mm;
GM
FR
g
F
==
(xviii) Non inertial frame: If
→
0a be the acceleration of frame, then pseudo force
→→
−= 0amF
Example: Centrifugal force = rm
r
mv2
2
ω=
(xix) Lift problems: Apparent weight = M(g ± a0)
(+ sign is used when lift is moving up while – sign when lift is moving down)
(xx) Pulley Problems:
(a) For figure (2):
Tension in the string, T = g
mm
mm
21
21
+
Acceleration of the system, a = g
mm
m
21
2
+
The force on the pulley, F = g
mm
mm2
21
21
+
(b) For figure (3):
Tension in the string, g
mm
mm2
T
21
21
+
=
Acceleration of the system, g
mm
mm
a
12
12
+
−
=
The force on the pulley, g
mm
mm4
F
21
21
+
=
•a
T
T T
T
a
m2
m1
Fig. 3
m2
m1
T
Frictionless
surface
m2g
Fig. 2
T
F
(1)
(2)
M
F21
m
F12
Fig. 1
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VECTORS
(i) Vector addition: )B(ABAandABBAR
→→→→→→→→→
−+=−+=+=
(ii) Unit vector: )A/A(A
^ →
=
(iii) Magnitude: )AA(AA 2
z
2
y
2
x ++√=
(iv) Direction cosines: cos α = (Ax/A), cos β = (Ay/A), cos γ = (Az/A)
(v) Projection:
(a) Component of
→
A along
→
B =
^
B.A
→
(b) Component of
→
B along
→
A =
→
B.A
^
(c) If
→
A = ,jAiA
^
y
^
x + then its angle with the x–axis is θ = tan–1
(Ay/Ax)
(vi) Dot product:
(a)
→→
B.A = AB cos θ, (b) zzyyxx BABABAB.A ++=
→→
(vii) Cross product:
(a) =
→→
BxA AB sin θ
^
n ;
(b) ;0AxA =
→→
(c)
→→
BxA =
zyx
zyx
^^^
BBB
AAA
kji
(viii) Examples:
(a) ;r.FW
→→
= (b) ;v.FP
→→
= (c) ;A.E
→→
Ε =φ (d) ;A.B
→→
Β =φ
(e) ;rxwv
→→→
= (f) ;Fx
→→→
τ=τ (g)
=
→→→
BxvqF m
(ix) Area of a parallelogram: Area = |BxA|
→→
(x) Area of a triangle: Area = |BxA|
2
1 →→
(xi) Gradient operator:
z
k
y
j
x
iV
^^^
∂
∂
+
∂
∂
+
∂
∂
=
(xii) Volume of a parallelopiped:
=
→→→
CxB.AV
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CIRCULAR MOTION, RELATIVE MOTION & PROJECTILE MOTION
(i) Uniform Circular Motion:
(a) v = ωr;
(b) a = (v
2
/r) = ω2
r ;
(c) F = (mv2
/r);
(d) ;0v.r =
→→
(e) 0a.v =
→→
(ii) Cyclist taking a turn: tan θ = (v
2
/rg)
(iii) Car taking a turn on level road: v = √(µsrg)
(iv) Banking of Roads: tan θ = v
2
/rg
(v) Air plane taking a turn: tan θ = v
2
/r g
(vi) Overloaded truck:
(a) Rinner wheel < Router wheel
(b) maximum safe velocity on turn, v = √(gdr/2h)
(vii) Non–uniform Circular Motion:
(a) Centripetal acceleration ar = (v2
/r);
(b) Tangential acceleration at = (dv/dt);
(c) Resultant acceleration a=√ )aa( 2
t
2
r +
(viii) Motion in a vertical Circle:
(a) For lowest point A and highest point B, TA – TB = 6 mg; v
2
A = v
2
B + 4gl ; vA ≥ √(5gl); and vB≥
√ (gl)
(b) Condition for Oscillation: vA < √(2gl)
(c) Condition for leaving Circular path: √(2gl) < vA < √(5gl)
(ix) Relative velocity: ABBA vvv
→→→
−=
(x) Condition for Collision of ships: 0)vv(x)vr( BABA =−−
→→→→
(xi) Crossing a River:
(a) Beat Keeps its direction perpendicular to water current
(1) vR =√( ;)vv( 2
b
2
w + (2) θ = tan
–1
);v/v( bw
(3) t=(x/vb) (it is minimum) (4) Drift on opposite bank = (vw/vb)x
(b) Boat to reach directly opposite to starting point:
(1) sin θ = (vw/vb); (2) vresultant = vb cos θ ; (3) t=
θcosv
x
b
(xii) Projectile thrown from the ground:
(a) equation of trajectory: y = x tan θ –
θ22
2
cosu2
xg
(b) time of flight:
g
sinu2
T
θ
=
(c) Horizontal range, R = (u2
sin 2θ/g)
(d) Maximum height attained, H = (u
2
sin
2
θ/2g)
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(e) Range is maximum when θ = 450
(f) Ranges are same for projection angles θ and (90
0
–θ)
(g) Velocity at the top most point is = u cos θ
(h) tan θ = gT
2
/2R
(i) (H/T2
) = (g/8)
(xiii) Projectile thrown from a height h in horizontal direction:
(a) T = √(2h/g);
(b) R = v√(2h/g);
(c) y = h – (gx
2
/2u2
)
(d) Magnitude of velocity at the ground = √(u
2
+ 2gh)
(e) Angle at which projectiles strikes the ground, θ = tan
–1
u
gh2
(xiv) Projectile on an inclined plane:
(a) Time of flight, T =
( )
0
0
θ
θ−θ
cosg
sinu2
(b) Horizontal range,
( )
0
0
θ
θθ−θ
=
cosg
cossinu2
R
2
2
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FRICTION
(i) Force of friction:
(a) ƒs ≤ µsN (self adjusting); (ƒs)max = µsN
(b) µk = µkN (µk = coefficient of kinetic friction)
(c) µk < µs
(ii) Acceleration on a horizontal plane: a = (F – µkN)/M
(iii) Acceleration of a body sliding on an inclined plane: a = g sin θ (1– µk cot t2
)
(iv) Force required to balance an object against wall: F = (Mg/µs)
(v) Angle of friction: tan θ = µs (µs = coefficient of static friction)
DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES
(i) Average angular velocity:
ttt 1 ∆
θ∆
=
−
θ−θ
=ω
2
12
(ii) Instantaneous angular velocity: ω = (dθ/dt)
(iii) Relation between v, ω and r : v=ωr; In vector form
→→→
ω= rxv ; In general form, v = ωr sin θ
(iv) Average angular acceleration:
ttt 12 ∆
ω∆
=
−
ω−ω
=α 12
(v) Instantaneous angular acceleration: α = (dω/dt) = (d
2
θ/dt2
)
(vi) Relation between linear and angular acceleration:
(a) aT = αr and aR = (v
2
/r) = ω
2
R
(b) Resultant acceleration, a = √ )aa( 2
R
2
T +
(c) In vector form,
ωω=ω=α=+=
→→→→→→→→→→→→
rxxuxaandrxawhere,aaa RTRT
(vii) Equations for rotational motion:
(a) ω = ω0 + αt;
(b) θ = ω0t +
2
1
αt
2
;
(c) ω2
– ω0
2
= 2αθ
(viii) Centre of mass: For two particle system:
(a) ;
mm
xmxm
x
21
2211
CM
+
+
=
(b)
21
2211
CM
mm
vmvm
v
+
+
=
(c)
21
2211
CM
mm
amam
a
+
+
=
Also 2
CM
2
CM
CM
CM
CM
dt
xd
dt
dv
aand
dt
dx
v ===
(ix) Centre of mass: For many particle system:
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(a) ;
M
xm
X ii
CM
Σ
=
(b) ;
M
rm
r
ii
CM
→
→ Σ
=
(c) ;
dt
rd
v
CM
CM
→
→
=
(d) ;
dt
vd
a
CM
CM
→
→
=
(e)
→→→
Σ== iiCMCM vmvMP ;
(f) .FamaMF iiiCMext
→→→→
Σ=Σ== If ;constantV,0a,0F CMCMext ===
→→→
(g) Also, moment of masses about CM is zero, i.e., 2211ii rmrmor0rm ==Σ
→
(x) Moment of Inertia: (a) I = Σ mi ri
2
(b) I = µr
2
, where µ = m1m2/(m1 + m2)
(xi) Radius of gyration: (a) K = √(I/M) ; (b) K = √[(r1
2
+ r2
2
+ … + rn
2
)/n] = root mean square distance.
(xii) Kinetic energy of rotation: K =
2
1
Iω
2
or I = (2K/ω
2
)
(xiii) Angular momentum: ( ) ( ) dvmcsinrpL(b);pxrLa ;θ==
→→→
(xiv) Torque: ( ) ( ) θ=τ=τ
→→→
sinFrb;Fxra
(xv) Relation between τ and L:
=τ
→→
dt/dL ;
(xvi) Relation between L and I: (a) L = Iω; (b) K =
2
1
Iω2
= L2
/2I
(xvii) Relation between τ and α:
(a) τ = Iα,
(b) If τ = 0, then (dL/dt)=0 or L=constant or, Iω=constant i.e., I1ω1= I2ω2
(Laws of conservation of angular momentum)
(xviii) Angular impulse: tL ∆τ=∆
→→
(xix) Rotational work done: W = θτ=θτ avd
(xx) Rotational Power:
→→
ωτ= .P
(xxi) (a) Perpendicular axes theorem: Iz = Ix + Iy
(b) Parallel axes theorem: I = Ic + Md2
(xxii) Moment of Inertia of some objects
(a) Ring: I = MR2
(axis); I =
2
1
MR2
(Diameter);
I = 2 MR
2
(tangential to rim, perpendicular to plane);
I = (3/2) MR
2
(tangential to rim and parallel to diameter)
∫
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(b) Disc: I =
2
1
MR2
(axis); I =
4
1
MR2
(diameter)
(c) Cylinder: I = ( )axisMR
2
1 2
(d) Thin rod: I = (ML
2
/12) (about centre); I = (ML
2
/3) (about one end)
(e) Hollow sphere : Idia = (2/3) MR
2
; Itangential = (5/3) MR
2
(f) Solid sphere: Idia = (2/5) MR
2
; Itangential = (7/5) MR
2
(g) Rectangular:
( )
12
bM
I
22
C
+
=
l
(centre)
(h) Cube: I = (1/6) Ma
2
(i) Annular disc: I = (1/2) M ( 2
2
2
1 RR + )
(j) Right circular cone: I = (3/10) MR2
(k) Triangular lamina: I = (1/6) Mh2
(about base axis)
(l) Elliptical lamina: I = (1/4) Ma2
(about minor axis) and I = (1/4) Mb
2
(about major axis)
(xxiii) Rolling without slipping on a horizontal surface:
+=ω+= 2
2
2
22
R
K
1MV
2
1
I
2
1
MV
2
1
K (Q V = Rω and I = MK2
)
For inclined plane
(a) Velocity at the bottom, v =
+ 2
2
R
K
1gh2
(b) Acceleration, a = g sin θ
+
2
2
r
K
1
(c) Time taken to reach the bottom, t = θ
+ sing
R
K
1s2 2
2
(xxiv) Simple pendulum: = T = 2π√ (L/g)
(xxv) Compound Pendulum: T = 2π√ (I/Mg l), where l = M (K
2
+ l2
)
Minimum time period, T0 = 2π√ (2K/g)
(xxvi) Time period for disc: T = 2π √(3R/2g)
Minimum time period for disc, T = 2π√ (1.414R/g)
(xxvii)Time period for a rod of length L pivoted at one end: T = 2π√(2L/3g
The heights by great men reached and kept…
…were not attained by sudden flight,
but they, while their companions slept…
…were toiling upwards in the night.
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CONSERVATION LAWS AND COLLISIONS
(i) Work done: (a) ;d.FW
→→
= (b) ;θ= cosFdW (c) =W
(ii) Conservation forces: 0rd.F(c);rd.F(b)rd.F)a( =
→→→→→→
For conservative forces, one must have:
→
FxV = 0
(iii) Potential energy: (a) ( ) ( ) UVFc;dU/dXF(b)W;UV −=−=−=
→
(iv) Gravitational potential energy: (a) U = mgh ; (b)
( )hR
GMm
U
+
−=
(v) Spring potential energy: ( ) ( ) ( )2
1
2
2
2
xxKUb;KxUa −=∆=
(vi) Kinetic energy: (a) ∆K = W = ( ) 22
i
2
f mvKb;mvmv =−
(vii) Total mechanical energy: = E = K + U
(viii) Conservation of energy: ∆K = – ∆U or, Kƒ + Uƒ = Ki + Ui
In an isolated system, Etotal = constant
(ix) Power: (a) P = (dw/dt) ; (b) P = (dw/dt) ; (c) P =
→→
v.F
(x) Tractive force: F = (P/v)
(xi) Equilibrium Conditions:
(a) For equilibrium, (dU/dx) = 0
(b) For stable equilibrium: U(x) = minimum, (dU/dx) = 0 and (d2
U/dx2
) is positive
(c) For unstable equilibrium: U(x) = maximum, (dU/dx) = 0 and (d
2
U/dx2
) is negative
(d) For neutral equilibrium: U(x) = constant, (dU/dx) = 0 and (d
2
U/dx
2
) is zero
(xii) Velocity of a particle in terms of U(x): v = ± ( )[ ]xUE
m
2
−
(xiii) Momentum:
(a) ( )
==
→→→→
dt/pdFb;vmp ,
(b) Conservation of momentum: If ,ppthen,0F ifnet
→→→
==
(c) Recoil speed of gun, B
G
B
G x v
m
m
v =
(xiv) Impulse: tFp av ∆=∆
→→
(xv) Collision in one dimension:
(a) Momentum conservation : m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(b) For elastic collision, e = 1 = coefficient of restitution
(c) Energy conservation: m1u1
2
+ m2u2
2
= m1v1
2
+ m2v2
2
(d) Velocities of 1
st
and 2
nd
body after collision are:
∫ 2
1
x
x
Path 1 Path 2 closed
path
∫
b
a ∫
b
a ∫
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
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2
12
12
1
21
1
22
12
2
1
21
21
1 u
mm
mm
u
mm
m2
v;u
mm
m2
u
mm
mm
v
+
−
+
+
=
+
+
+
−
=
(e) If m1 = m2 = m, then v1 = u2 and v2 = u1
(f) Coefficient of restitution, e = (v2–v1/u1 = u2)
(g) e = 1 for perfectly elastic collision and e=0 for perfectly inelastic collision. For inelastic
collision 0 < e < 1
(xvi) Inelastic collision of a ball dropped from height h0
(a) Height attained after nth impact, hn = e2n
h0
(b) Total distance traveled when the ball finally comes to rest, s = h0 (1+e2
)/(1–e2
)
(c) Total time taken, t =
−
+
e1
e1
g
h2 0
(xvii) Loss of KE in elastic collision: For the first incident particle
( )
%100
K
K
,mmIf;
mm
m4m
K
K
and
mm
mm
K
K
i
lost
212
21
21
i
lost
2
21
21
i
=
∆
=
+
=
∆
+
−
=
ƒ
(xviii) Loss of KE in inelastic collision: ∆ Klost = Ki – Kƒ=
21
21
mm
mm
2
1
+
(u1 – u2)2
(1–e2
)
Velocity after inelastic collision (with target at rest)
( )
1
21
1
21
21
21
1 u
mm
e1m
vandu
mm
emm
v
+
+
=
+
−
=
(xix) Oblique Collision (target at rest):
m1u1 = m1v1 cos θ1 + m2v2 cos θ2 and m1v1 sin θ1 = m2v2 sin θ2
Solving, we get: m1u1
2
= m1v1
2
+ m2v2
2
(xx) Rocket equation: (a)
dt
dM
v
dt
dV
M el−=
(b) V = – vrel loge
−
0
b0
M
mM
[M0 = original mass of rocket plus fuel and mb = mass of fuel burnt]
(c) If we write M = M0 – mb = mass of the rocket and full at any time, than velocity of rocks at
that time is:
V = vrel loge (M0/M)
(xxi) Conservation of angular momentum:
(a) If τext = 0, then Lƒ = Li
(b) For planets,
min
max
min
max
r
r
v
v
=
(c) Spinning skater, I1ω1 = I2W2 or ωƒ = ωi
ƒI
Ii
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SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND LISSAJOUS FIGURES
(i) Simple Harmonic Motion:
(a) F = – Kx ;
(b) a = –
m
K
x or a = – ω2
x, where ω = √(K/m);
(c) Fmax = ± KA and amax = ±ω
2
A
(ii) Equation of motion: 0x
dt
xd
2
2
=ω+ 2
(iii) Displacement: x = A sin (ωt + φ)
(a) If φ = 0, x = A sin ωt ;
(b) If φ = π/2, x = A cos ωt
(c) If x = C sin ωt + D cos ωt, then x = A sin (ωt + φ) with A= √(C
2
+D2
) and φ = tan–1
(D/C)
(iv) Velocity:
(a) v = A ω cos (ω+ φ);
(b) If φ=0, v = A ω cos ωt;
(c) vmax =±ωA
(d) v = ± ω√(A
2
– x
2
);
(e) 1
A
v
A
x
22
2
2
2
=
ω
+
(v) Acceleration:
(a) a = –ω2
x = – ω
2
A sin (ωt+φ) ;
(b) If φ=0, a=– ω
2
A sin ωt
(c) |amax| = ω
2
A;
(d) Fmax = ± m ω
2
A
(vi) Frequency and Time period:
(a) ω = √(K/m) ;
(b) ƒ= ( );m/K
2
1
π
(c) T = 2π
K
m
(vii) Energy in SHM: Potential Energy:
(a) U = Kx2
;
(b) F = –
dx
dU
;
(c) Umax = mω
2
A
2
;
(d) U = mω
2
A
2
sin
2
ωt
(viii) Energy in SHM: Kinetic energy:
(a) K = mv2
;
(b) K= mω2
(A
2
–x
2
);
(c) K = mω
2
A2
cos2
ωt ;
(d) Kmax = mω2
A2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
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(ix) Total energy:
(a) E = K + U = conserved;
(b) E = (1/2) mω
2
A2
;
(c) E = Kmax = Umax
(x) Average PE and KE:
(a) < U > = (1/4) mω2
A
2
;
(b) < K > = (1/4) mω
2
A
2
;
(c) (E/2) = < U > = < K >
(xi) Some relations:
(a) ω = ;
xx
vv
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
−
−
(b) T = 2π 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
vv
xx
−
−
; (c) A =
( ) ( )
2
2
2
1
12
2
21
vv
xvxv
−
− 2
(xii) Spring– mass system:
(a) mg = Kx0;
(b) T = 2π
g
x
2
K
m 0
π=
(xiii) Massive spring: T = 2π
( )
K
3/mm s+
(xiv) Cutting a spring:
(a) K’ = nK ;
(b) T’ = T0/√(n) ;
(c) ƒ’ = √(n) ƒ0
(d) If spring is cut into two pieces of lengths l1 and l2 such that l1 = nl2, then K1 = K,
n
1n
+
K2 =
(n +1) K and K1l1 = K2l2
(xv) Springs in parallel:
(a) K = K1 + K2 ;
(b) T = 2π √[m/(K1 + K2)]
(c) If T1 = 2π√ (m/K1) and T2 = 2π√(m/K2), then for the parallel combination:
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
21
2
2
2
1
2
and
TT
TT
Tor
T
1
T
1
T
1
ω+ω=ω
+
=+=
(xvi) Springs in series:
(a) K1x1 = K2x2 = Kx = F applied
(b)
21
21
21 KK
KK
Kor
K
1
K
1
K
1
+
=+=
(c) 2
2
2
1
2
2
1
TTTor
111
+−
ω
+
ω
=
ω 2
2
2
(d) T = 2π
( )
( )21
21
21
21
KKm
KK
2
1
or
KK
KKm
+π
=ƒ
+
(xvii) Torsional pendulum:
(a) Iα=τ–Cθ or 0
I
C
dt
d
2
2
=θ+
θ
;
(b) θ=θ0 sin (ωt+φ);
(c) ω = √(C/I) ;
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(d) ƒ =
I
C
2
1
π
;
(e) T = 2π√(I/C), where C = πηr
4
/2l
(xviii) Simple pendulum:
(a) Iα = τ =– mgl sin θ or
+
θ
2 l
g
dt
d2
sin θ = 0 or 0
g
dt
d
2
2
=θ+
θ
l
;
(b) ω = √(g/l) ;
(c) ƒ = ( );g/
2
1
l
π
(d) T = 2π √(l/g)
(xix) Second pendulum:
(a) T = 2 sec ;
(b) l = 99.3 cm
(xx) Infinite length pendulum:
(a) ;
R
11
g
1
2T
e
+
π=
l
(b) T=2π
g
Re
(when l→∞)
(xxi) Anharmonic pendulum: T ≅ T0
+≅
θ
+
2
2
0
2
0
16
A
1T
16
1
l
(xxii) Tension in string of a simple pendulum: T = (3 mg cos θ – 2 mg cos θ0)
(xxiii) Conical Pendulum:
(a) v = √(gR tan θ) ;
(b) T = 2π√ (L cos θ/g)
(xxiv) Compound pendulum: T = 2π
( )
2
/K2
ll +
(a) For a bar: T = 2π√(2L/3g) ;
(b) For a disc : T = 2π√ (3R/2g)
(xxv) Floating cylinder:
(a) K = Aρg ;
(b) T = 2π√(m/Aρg) = 2π√(Ld/ρg)
(xxvi) Liquid in U–tube:
(a) K = 2A ρg and m = ALρ ;
(b) T = 2π√(L/2g) = 2π√(h/g)
(xxvii)Ball in bowl: T = 2π√[(R – r)/g]
(xxviii) Piston in a gas cylinder:
(a) ;
V
EA
K
2
=
(b) ;
EA
mV
2T
2
π=
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(c)
PA
V
2T
2
m
π= (E–P for Isothermal process);
(d)
P
V
2T m
γΑ
π= 2
(E = γ P for adiabatic process)
(xxix) Elastic wire:
(a) K = ;
AY
l
(b) T =
AY
m
2
l
π
(xxx) Tunnel across earth: T = 2π√(Re/g)
(xxxi) Magnetic dipole in magnetic field: T = 2π√(I/MB)
(xxxii)Electrical LC circuit: T = 2π LC or
LC2
1
π
=ƒ
(xxxiii) Lissajous figures –
Case (a): ω1 = ω2 = ω or ω1 : ω2 = 1 : 1
General equation: φ=φ−+ sincos
ab
xy2
b
y
a
x 2
2
2
2
2
For φ = 0 : y = (b/a) x ; straight line with positive slope
For φ = π/4 : ellipseoblique;
2
1
ab
xy2
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
=−+
For φ = π/2 : ellipselsymmetrica;1
b
y
a
x
2
2
2
2
=+
For φ = π : y = –(b/a) x ; straight line with negative slope.
Case (b): For ω1 : ω2 = 2:1 with x = a sin (2ωt + φ) and y = b sin ωt
For φ = 0, π: Figure of eight
For φ = :
3
,
4
π
4
π
Double parabola
For φ = :
3
,
2
π
2
π
Single parabola
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GRAVITATION
(i) Newton’s law of gravitation:
(a) F = G m1m2/r
2
; (b) a = 6.67 x 10
–11
K.m
2
/(kg)
2
; (c)
r
dr2
F
dF
−=
(ii) Acceleration due to gravity (a) g = GM/R2
; (b) Weight W = mg
(iii) Variation of g:
(a) due to shape ; gequator < gpole
(b) due to rotation of earth:(i) gpole = GM/R2
(No effect)
(ii) gequator = R
R
GM 2
2
ω−
(iii) gequator < gpole
(iv) ω
2
R = 0.034 m/s
2
(v) If ω ≅ 17 ω0 or T = (T0/17) = (24/17)h = 1.4 h, then object would
float on equator
(c) At a height h above earth’s surface g’ = g Rhif,
g
h2
1 <<
−
(d) At a depth of below earth’s surface: g’ = g
−
R
d
1
(iv) Acceleration on moon: gm = earth2
m
m
g
6
1
R
GM
≅
(v) Gravitational field: (a) ( ) ( ) ( )insiderr
R
GM
gb;outsider
r
GM
g
^
3
^
2
−=−=
→→
(vi) Gravitational potential energy of mass m:
(a) At a distance r : U(r) = – GMm/r
(b) At the surface of the earth: U0 = – GMm/R
(c) At any height h above earth’s surface: U – U0 = mgh (for h < < R)
or U = mgh (if origin of potential energy is shifted to the surface of earth)
(vii) Potential energy and gravitational force: F = – (dU/dR)
(viii) Gravitational potential: V(r) = –GM/r
(ix) Gravitational potential energy of system of masses:
(a) Two particles: U = – Gm1m2/r
(b) Three particles: U = –
23
32
13
31
12
21
r
mGm
r
mGm
r
mGm
−−
(x) Escape velocity:
(a) ve =
R
GM2
or ve = √(2gR) = √(gD)
(b) ve =
3
G8
R
ρπ
(xi) Maximum height attained by a projectile:
( ) R
h
v
hR
h
vor v
1v/v
R
h ee2
e
≅
+
=
−
= (if h < < R)
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(xii) Orbital velocity of satellite:
( ) ( )
( )
;
hR2
R
vvb;
r
GM
va e00
+
== (c) v0 ≅ve/√2 (if h<<R)
(xiii) Time period of satellite: (a)
( ) ( ) ( )Rhif
g
R
2Tb;
GM
hR
2T
3
<<π=
+
π=
(xiv) Energy of satellite: (a) Kinetic energy K =
r
GMm
2
1
mv
2
1 2
0 =
(b) Potential energy U =–
r
GMm
=– 2K ;
(c) Total energy E=K + U=–
2
1
;
r
GMm
(d) E = U/2 = – K ; (e) BE = –E =
2
1
r
GMm
(xv) Geosynchronous satellite: (a) T = 24 hours ; (b) T2
= ( ) ;hR
GM
4 3
+
π2
(c)
4
GMT
h
3/1
2
2
π
= –R ; (d) h ≅ 36,000 km.
(xvi) Kepler’s law:
(a) Law of orbits: Orbits are elliptical
(b) Law of areas: Equal area is swept in equal time
(c) Law of period: T
2
∝ r
3
; T
2
= (4π
2
/GM)r
3
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SURFACE TENSION
(i) (a)
l
F
Length
Force
T == ; (b)
A
W
areaSurface
energySurface
T ==
(ii) Combination of n drops into one big drop: (a) R = n1/3
r
(b) Ei = n(4πr2
T), Eƒ = 4πR2
T, (Eƒ/Ei) = n–1/3
,
−=
∆
1/3
i n
1
1
E
E
(c) ∆E = 4πR2
T (n1/3
–1) = 4πR3
T
−
R
1
r
1
(iii) Increase in temperature: ∆θ =
s
T3
ρ
−
R
1
r
1
or
−
ρ R
1
r
1
sJ
T3
(iv) Shape of liquid surface:
(a) Plane surface (as for water – silver) if Fadhesive >
2
Fcohesive
(b) Concave surface (as for water – glass) if Fadhesive >
2
Fcohesive
(c) Convex surface (as for mercury–glass) if Fadhesive <
2
Fcohesive
(v) Angle of contact:
(a) Acute: If Fa> Fc/√2 ;
(b) obtuse: if Fa<Fc/√2 ;
(c) θc=900
: if Fa=Fc√/2
(d) cos θc =
a
ssa
T
TT
l
l−
, (where Tsa, Tsl and Tla represent solid-air, solid- liquid and liquid-air
surface tensions respectively). Here θc is acute if Tsl < Tsa while θc is obtuse if Tsl > Tsa
(vi) Excess pressure:
(a) General formula: Pexcess =
+
21 R
1
R
1
T
(b) For a liquid drop: Pexcess = 2T/R
(c) For an air bubble in liquid: Pexcess = 2T/R
(d) For a soap bubble: Pexcess = 4T/R
(e) Pressure inside an air bubble at a depth h in a liquid: Pin = Patm + hdg + (2T/R)
(vii) Forces between two plates with thin water film separating them:
(a) ∆P = T ;
R
1
r
1
−
(b) ;
R
1
r
1
ATF
−=
(c) If separation between plates is d, then ∆P = 2T/d and F = 2AT/d
(viii) Double bubble: Radius of Curvature of common film Rcommon =
rR
rR
−
(ix) Capillary rise:
(a) ;
rdg
cosT2
h
θ
=
(b)
rdg
2T
h = (For water θ = 00
)
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(c) If weight of water in meniseus is taken into account then T =
θ
+
cos2
3
r
hrdg
(d) Capillary depression,
( )
rdg
cosT2
h
θ−π
−
(x) Combination of two soap bubbles:
(a) If ∆V is the increase in volume and ∆S is the increase in surface area, then 3P0∆V + 4T∆S =
0 where P0 is the atmospheric pressure
(b) If the bubbles combine in environment of zero outside pressure isothermally, then ∆S = 0 or
R3 = √ ( )2
2
2
1 RR +
ELASTICITY
(i) Stress: (a) Stress = [Deforming force/cross–sectional area];
(b) Tensile or longitudinal stress = (F/π r
2
);
(c) Tangential or shearing stress = (F/A);
(d) Hydrostatic stress = P
(ii) Strain: (a) Tensile or longitudinal strain = (∆L/L);
(b) Shearing strain = φ;
(c) Volume strain = (∆V/V)
(iii) Hook’s law:
(a) For stretching: Stress = Y x Strain or
( )LA
FL
Y
∆
=
(b) For shear: Stress = η x Strain or η = F/Aφ
(c) For volume elasticity: Stress = B x Strain or B = –
( )V/V
P
∆
(iv) Compressibility: K = (1/B)
(v) Elongation of a wire due to its own weight: ∆L =
Y
gL
2
1
YA
MgL
2
1 2
ρ
=
(vi) Bulk modulus of an idea gas: Bisothermal = P and Badiabatic = γP (where γ = Cp/Cv)
(vii) Stress due to heating or cooling of a clamped rod
Thermal stress = Yα (∆t) and force = YA α (∆t)
(viii) Torsion of a cylinder:
(a) r θ = lφ (where θ = angle of twist and φ = angle of shear);
(b) restoring torque τ = cθ
(c) restoring Couple per unit twist, c = πηr4
/2l (for solid cylinder)
and C = πη (r2
4
– r1
4
)/2l (for hollow cylinder)
(ix) Work done in stretching:
(a) W =
2
1
x stress x strain x volume = Y
2
1
(strain)2
x volume =
( ) volumex
Y
stress
2
1 2
(b) Potential energy stored, U = W =
2
1
x stress x strain x volume
(c) Potential energy stored per unit volume, u =
2
1
x stress x strain
(x) Loaded beam:
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(a) depression, δ = ( )rrectangula
Ybd4
W
3
3
l
(b) Depression, δ = ( )lcylindrica
rY12
W
2
3
π
l
(xi) Position’s ratio:
(a) Lateral strain =
r
r
D
D ∆−
=
∆
−
(b) Longitudinal strain = (∆L/L)
(c) Poisson’s ratio σ =
L/L
rr
strainallongitudin
strainlateral
∆
/∆−
=
(d) Theoretically, –1 < σ < 0.5 but experimentally σ ≅ 0.2 – 0.4
(xii) Relations between Y, η, B and σ:
(a) Y = 3B (1–2σ) ;
(b) Y = 2η (1+ σ);
(c)
η
+=
3
1
B9
1
Y
1
(xiii) Interatomic force constant: k = Yr0 (r0 = equilibrium inter atomic separation)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
(i) Boyle’s law: PV = constant or P1V1 = P2V2
(i) Chare’s law: (V/T) = constant or (V1/T1) = (V2/T2)
(ii) Pressure – temperature law: (P1/T1) = (P2/T2)
(iii) Avogadro’s principle: At constant temperature and pressure, Volume of gas,
V ∝ number of moles, µ
Where µ = N/Na [N = number of molecules in the sample
and NA = Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023
/mole]
M
Msample
= [Msample = mass of gas sample and M = molecular weight]
(iv) Kinetic Theory:
(a) Momentum delivered to the wall perpendicular to the x–axis, ∆P = 2m vx
(b) Time taken between two successive collisions on the same wall by the same molecule: ∆t =
(2L/vx)
(c) The frequency of collision: νcoll. = (νx/2L)
(d) Total force exerted on the wall by collision of various molecules: F = (MN/L) <vx
2
>
(e) The pressure on the wall : P = 2
rms
2
rms
22
x v
3
1
v
V
mN
3
1
v
V3
mN
v
V
mN
ρ==><=><
(v) RMS speed:
(a) νrms = √(v1
2
+ v2
2
+ … + v 2
N /N);
(b) νrms = √(3P/ρ) ;
(c) νrms = √(3KT/m);
(d) νrms = √(3RT/M) ; (e)
( )
( ) 1
2
1
2
2rms
1rms
M
M
m
m
==
ν
ν
(vi) Kinetic interpretation of temperature:
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(a) (1/2) Mv2
rms = (3/2) RT ;
(b) (1/2) mv
2
rms = (3/2) KT
(c) Kinetic energy of one molecule = (3/2) KT ;
(d) kinetic energy of one mole of gas = (3/2) RT
(e) Kinetic energy of one gram of gas (3/2) (RT/M)
(ix) Maxwell molecular speed distribution:
(a) n (v) = 4πN KT2/mv-2
3/2
2
ev
KT2
m
π
(b) The average speed:
M
RT
60.1
M
RT8
m
KT8
v =
π
=
π
=
(c) The rms speed: vrms =
M
RT
73.1
M
RT3
m
kT3
==
(d) The most probable speed: νp =
M
RT
41.1
M
RT2
m
KT2
==
(e) Speed relations: (I) vp < v < vrms
(II) vp : v : vrms = √(2) : √(8/π) : √(3) = 1.41 : 1.60 : 1.73
(x) Internal energy:
(a) Einternal = (3/2)RT (for one mole)
(b) Einternal = (3/2 µRT (for µ mole)
(c) Pressure exerted by a gas P = E
3
2
V
E
3
2
=
(xi) Degrees of freedom:
(a) Ideal gas: 3 (all translational)
(b) Monoatomic gas : 3 (all translational)
(c) Diatomic gas: 5 (three translational plus two rotational)
(d) Polyatomic gas (linear molecule e.g. CO2) : 7 (three translational plus two rotational plus two
vibrational)
(e) Polyatomic gas (non–linear molecule, e.g., NH3, H2O etc): 6 (three translational plus three
rotational)
(f) Internal energy of a gas: Einternal = (f/2) µRT. (where f = number of degrees of freedom)
(xii) Dalton’s law: The pressure exerted by a mixture of perfect gases is the sum of the pressures
exerted by the individual gases occupying the same volume alone i.e., P = P1 + P2 + ….
(xiii) Van der Wall’s gas equation:
(a) ( ) Τµ=µ
µ
+ Rb-V
V
aP
2
2
(b) ( ) RTbV
V
aP m2
m
2
=−
µ
+ (where Vm = V/µ = volume per mole);
(c) b = 30 cm3
/mole
(d) Critical values: Pc = ;
Rb27
a8
T,b3V,
b27
a
CC2
==
(e) 375.0
8
3
RT
VP
C
CC
==
(xiv) Mean free path: λ =
nd2
1
2
ρπ
,
Where ρn = (N/V) = number of gas molecules per unit volume and
d = diameter of molecules of the gas
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FLUID MECHANICS
(i) The viscous force between two layers of area A having velocity gradient (dv/dx) is given by: F = –
ηA (dv/dx), where η is called coefficient of viscosity
(i) In SI system, η is measured I Poiseiulle (Pl) 1Pl = 1Nsm–2
= 1 decapoise. In egs system, the unit
of η is g/cm/sec and is called POISE
(ii) When a spherical body is allowed to fall through viscous medium, its velocity increases, till the sum
of viscous drag and upthrust becomes equal to the weight of the body. After that the body moves
with a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
(iii) According to STOKE’s Law, the viscous drag on a spherical body moving in a fluid is given by: F =
6πηr v, where r is the radius and v is the velocity of the body.
(iv) The terminal velocity is given by: vT =
( )
η
σ−ρ gr
9
2 2
where ρ is the density of the material of the body and σ is the density of liquid
(v) Rate of flow of liquid through a capillary tube of radius r and length l
R
p
r/8
p
8
pr
V
4
4
=
πη
=
η
π
=
ll
where p is the pressure difference between two ends of the capillary and R is the fluid resistance
(=8 ηl/πr4
)
(vi) The matter which possess the property of flowing is called as FLUID (For example, gases and
liquids)
(vii) Pressure exerted by a column of liquid of height h is : P = hρg (ρ = density of the liquid)
(viii) Pressure at a point within the liquid, P = P0 + hρg, where P0 is atmospheric pressure and h is the
depth of point w.r.t. free surface of liquid
(ix) Apparent weight of the body immersed in a liquid Mg’ = Mg – Vρg
(x) If W be the weight of a body and U be the upthrust force of the liquid on the body then
(a) the body sinks in the liquid of W > U
(b) the body floats just completely immersed if W = U
(c) the body floats with a part immersed in the liquid if W < U
(xi)
solidofdensity
solidofdensity
solidofvolumetotal
solidaofpartimmersedofVolume
=
(xii) Equation of Continuity: a1v1 = a2v2
(xiii) Bernouilli’s theorem: (P/ρ) + gh +
2
1
v
2
= constant
(xiv) Accelerated fluid containers : tan θ =
g
ax
(xv) Volume of liquid flowing per second through a tube: R=a1v1 = a2v2
( )2
2
2
1 aa
gh2
−
(xvi) Velocity of efflux of liquid from a hole:
v = √(2gh), where h is the depth of a hole from the free surface of liquid
I do not ask to walk smooth paths, nor bear an easy load.
I pray for strength and fortitude to climb rock-strewn road.
Give me such courage I can scale the hardest peaks alone,
And transform every stumbling block into a stepping-stone.
– Gail Brook Burkett
ax
ρ
θ
Fig. 4
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HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
(i) L2 – L1 = L1α(T2 – T1); A2 – A1 = A2 β(T2 – T1); V2 – V1 = V1γ(T2 – T1)
where, L1, A1, V1 are the length, area and volume at temperature T1; and L2, A2, V2 are that at
temperature T2.α represents the coefficient of linear expansion, β the coefficient of superficial
expansion and γ the coefficient of cubical expansion.
(ii) If dt be the density at t
0
C and d0 be that at 0
0
C, then: dt = d0 (1–γ∆T)
(iii) α : β: γ = 1 : 2 : 3
(iv) If γr, γa be the coefficients of real and apparent expansions of a liquid and γg be the coefficient of the
cubical expansion for the containing vessel (say glass), then
γr = γa + γg
(v) The pressure of the gases varies with temperature as : Pt = P0 (1+ γ∆T), where γ = (1/273) per
0
C
(vi) If temperature on Celsius scale is C, that on Fahrenheit scale is F, on Kelvin scale is K, and on
Reaumer scale is R, then
(a)
4
R
5
273K
9
32F
5
C
=
−
=
−
= (b) 32C
5
9
F +=
(c) ( )32F
9
5
C −=
(d) K = C + 273 (e) ( )459.4F
9
5
K +=
(vii) (a) Triple point of water = 273.16 K
(b) Absolute zero = 0 K = –273.15
0
C
(c) For a gas thermometer, T = (273.15) ( )Kelvin
P
P
triple
(d) For a resistance thermometer, Rθ = R0 [1+ αθ]
(viii) If mechanical work W produces the same temperature change as heat H, then we can write:
W = JH, where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat
(ix) The heat absorbed or given out by a body of mass m, when the temperature changes by ∆T is: ∆Q
= mc∆T, where c is a constant for a substance, called as SPECIFIC HEAT.
(x) HEAT CAPACITY of a body of mass m is defined as : ∆Q = mc
(xi) WATER EQUIVALENT of a body is numerically equal to the product of its mass and specific heat
i.e., W = mc
(xii) When the state of matter changes, the heat absorbed or evolved is given by: Q = mL, where L is
called LATENT HEAT
(xiii) In case of gases, there are two types of specific heats i.e., cp and cv [cp = specific heat at constant
pressure and Cv = specific heat at constant volume]. Molar specific heats of a gas are: Cp = Mcp
and Cv = Mcv, where M = molecular weight of the gas.
(xiv) Cp > Cv and according to Mayer’s formula Cp – Cv = R
(xv) For all thermodynamic processes, equation of state for an ideal gas: PV = µRT
(a) For ISOBARIC process: P = Constant ;
T
V
=Constant
(b) For ISOCHORIC (Isometric) process: V = Constant;
T
P
=Constant
(c) For ISOTHERMAL process T = Constant ; PV= Constant
(d) For ADIABATIC process: PVγ
= Constant ; TVγ–1
=Constant
and P(
1–γ
) Tγ
= Constant
(xvi) Slope on PV diagram
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(a) For isobaric process: zero
(b) For isochoric process: infinite
(c) For isothermal process: slope = –(P/V)
(d) For adiabatic process: slope = –γ(P/V)
(e) Slope of adiabatic curve > slope of isothermal curve.
(xvii) Work done
(a) For isobaric process: W = P (V2 – V1)
(b) For isochoric process: W = 0
(c) For isothermal process: W=µRT loge (V2/V1)
µRT x 2.303 x log10 (V2/V1)
P1V1 x 2.303 x log10 (V2/V1)
µRT x 2.303 x log10 (P1/P2)
(d) For adiabatic process:
( )
( )
( )
( )1−γ
−
=
1−γ
−µ
= 221121 VPVPTTR
W
(e) In expansion from same initial state to same final volume
Wadiabatic < Wisothermal < Wisobaric
(f) In compression from same initial state to same final volume:
Wadiabatic < Wisothermal < Wisobaric
(xviii) Heat added or removed:
(a) For isobaric process: Q = µCp∆T
(b) For isochoric process = Q = µCv∆T
(c) For isothermal process = Q = W = µRt loge (V2/V1)
(d) For adiabatic process: Q = 0
(xix) Change in internal energy
(a) For isobaric process = ∆U = µCv∆T
(b) For isochoric process = ∆U = µCv∆T
(c) For isothermal process = ∆U = 0
(d) For adiabatic process: ∆U = –W =
( )
( )1
TTR 12
−γ
−µ
(xx) Elasticities of gases
(a) Isothermal bulk modulus = BI = P
(b) Adiabatic bulk modulus BA = γP
(xxi) For a CYCLIC process, work done ∆W = area enclosed in the cycle on PV diagram.
Further, ∆U = 0 (as state of the system remains unchanged)
So, ∆Q = ∆W
(xxii) Internal energy and specific heats of an ideal gas (Monoatomic gas)
(a) U =
2
3
RT (for one mole);
(b)
2
3
U = µRT (for µ moles)
(c) ∆U =
2
3
µR∆T (for µ moles);
(d) Cv= R
2
3
Τ
U1
=
∆
∆
µ
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(e) Cp = Cv + R =
2
3
R + R =
2
5
R
(f) γ = 67.1
3
5
R
2
3
R
2
5
C
C
v
p
==
=
(xxiii)Internal energy and specific heats of a diatomic gas
(a)
2
5
U = µRT (for µ moles);
(b) ∆U =
2
5
µR∆T (for µ moles)
(c) Cv = ;R
2
5
T
U1
=
∆
∆
µ
(d) Cp = Cv + R =
2
5
R + R =
2
7
R
(e) 4.1
5
7
2
R5
2
R7
C
C
v
p
==
=
=γ
(xxiv) Mixture of gases: µ = µ1 + µ2
21
221121
NN
mNmNMM
M
+
+
=
µ+µ
+µ+µ
=
21
21
21
21
21
21
µ+µ
µ+µ
=
µ+µ
µ+µ
= 2121 pp
p
vv
v
CC
Cand
CC
C
(xxv) First law of thermodynamics
(a) ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W or ∆U = ∆Q – ∆W
(b) Both ∆Q, ∆W depends on path, but ∆U does not depend on the path
(c) For isothermal process: ∆Q = ∆W = µRT log | V2/V1|, ∆U = 0, T = Constant, PV = Constant
and Ciso = ± ∞
(d) For adiabatic process: ∆W =
( )
( )
,
1
TTR 12
γ−
−µ
∆Q = 0, ∆U = µCv (T2–T1), Q = 0,
PVγ
= constant, Cad = 0 and
ƒ
+==γ
2
1
C
C
v
p
(where ƒ is the degree of freedom)
(e) For isochoric process: ∆W = 0, ∆Q = ∆U = µCv∆T, V = constant, and Cv = (R/γ–1)
(f) For isobaric process: ∆Q = µCp∆T, ∆U = µCv∆T., ∆W = µR∆T, P = constant and
Cp = (γR/γ–1)
(g) For cyclic process: ∆U = 0, ∆Q = ∆W
(h) For free expansion: ∆U = 0, ∆Q = 0, ∆W = 0
(i) For polytropic process: ∆W = [µR(T2–T1)/1–n], ∆Q = µ C (T2–T1), PV
n
= constant and
n1
RR
C
−
+
1−γ
=
(xxvi)Second law of thermodynamics
(a) There are no perfect engines
(b) There are no perfect refrigerators
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(c) Efficiency of carnot engine: η = 1–
1
2
1
2
1
2
T
T
Q
Q
,
Q
Q
=
(d) Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator:
β=
21
2
21
22
TT
T
QQ
Q
W
Q
orrefrigeratondoneWork
reservoircoldfromabsorbedHeat
−
=
−
==
For a perfect refrigerator, W = 0 or Q1 = Q2 or β = ∞
(xxvii)The amount of heat transmitted is given by: Q = –KA t
x∆
θ∆
, where K is coefficient of thermal
conductivity, A is the area of cross section, ∆θ is the difference in temperature, t is the time of heat
flow and ∆x is separation between two ends
(xxviii) Thermal resistance of a conductor of length d = RTh =
AK
d
(xxix) Flow of heat through a composite conductor:
(a) Temperature of interface, θ =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )2211
2211
d/Kd/K
d/Kd/K
+
θ+θ 21
(b) Rate of flow of heat through the composite conductor: H =
( )
( ) ( )2211 K/dK/d
A
t
Q
+
θ−θ
= 21
(c) Thermal resistance of the composite conductor
( ) ( )2Th1Th
2
2
1
1
TH RR
AK
d
AK
d
R +=+=
(d) Equivalent thermal conductivity, K =
( ) ( )2211
21
K/dK/d
dd
+
+
(xxx) (a) Radiation absorption coefficient: a = Q0/Q0
(b) Reflection coefficient: r = Qr/Q0
(c) Transmission coefficient: t = Qt/Q0
(d) Emissive power: e or E = Q/A .t [t = time]
(e) Spectral emissive power: eλ =
( )λdAt
Q
and e = eλeλ
(f) Emissivity: ε = e/E ; 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1
(g) Absorptive power: a = Qa/Q0
(h) Kirchhoffs law: (eλ/aλ)1 = (eλ/aλ)B = ………= Eλ
(i) Stefan’s law: (a) E=σT
4
(where σ=5.67x10–8
Wm–2
K–4
)
For a black body: E = σ (T
4
–T0
4
)
For a body: e = εσ (T
4
–T0
4
)
(j) Rate of loss of heat: – )(A
dt
dQ 4
0
4
θ−θσε=
For spherical objects:
( )
( ) 2
2
2
1
2
1
r
r
dt/dQ
dt/dQ
=
(k) Rate of fall of temperature: ( ) ( )4
0
44
0
4
θ−θ
ρ
σε
=θ−θ
σε
=
θ
sV
A
ms
A
dt
d
∴
( )
( ) 1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
r
r
V
V
x
A
A
dtd
dtd
==
/θ
/θ
∫
∞
0
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(For spherical bodies)
(l) Newton’s law of cooling:
dt
dθ
= –K (θ–θ0) or (θ–θ0) α e–KT
(m) Wein’s displacement law: λmT = b (where b = 2.9 x 10
–3
m – K)
(n) Wein’s radiation law: Eλdλ=
A
λ5
ƒ (λT) dλ=
λ5
A
e–a/λT
dλ
(o) Solar Constant: S =
2
ES
S
R
R
σT
4
or T =
2/1
S
ES
4/1
R
RS
σ
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WAVES
1. Velocity: v = nλ and n = (1/T)
2. Velocity of transverse waves in a string: v =
dr
T
m
T
2
π
=
3. Velocity of longitudinal waves:
(a) In rods: v = √(Y/ρ) (Y – Young’s modulus, ρ = density)
(b) In liquids: v = √(B/ρ) (B = Bulk modulus)
(c) In gases: v = √(γP/ρ) (Laplace formula)
4. Effect of temperature:
(a) v = v0√ (T/273) or v = v0 + 0.61t
(b) (vsound/vrms) = √(γ/3)
5. Wave equation: (a) y = a sin
λ
π2
(vt–x)
(b) y = a sin 2π
λ
−
x
T
t
(c) y = a sin (ωt – kx), where wave velocity v = λ=
ω
n
k
6. Particle velocity: (a) vparticle = (∂y/∂t)
(b) maximum particle velocity, (vparticle)max = ω a
7. Strain in medium (a) strain = – (∂y/∂x) = ka cos (ωt – kx)
(b) Maximum strain = (∂y/dx)max = ka
(c) (vparticle/strain) = (ω/k) = wave velocity
i.e., vparticle = wave velocity x strain in the medium
8. Wave equation:
∂
∂
=
∂
∂
2
2
2
2
2
x
y
v
t
y
9. Intensity of sound waves:
(a) I = (E/At)
(b) If ρ is the density of the medium; v the velocity of the wave; n the frequency and a the
amplitude then I = 2π
2
ρ v n2
a2
i.e. I ∝ n2
a2
(c) Intensity level is decibel: β 10 log (I/I0). Where, I0 =Threshold of hearing = 10–12
Watt/m2
10. Principle of superposition: y = y1 + y2
11. Resultant amplitude: a = √(a1
2
+ a2
2
+ 2a1a
2
cos φ)
12. Resultant intensity: I = I1 + I2 + 2√(I1I2 cos φ)
(a) For constructive interference: φ = 2nπ, amax = a1 + a2 and Imax = (√I1 + √I2)2
(b) For destructive interference: φ = (2n–1) π, amin = a2 –a2 and Imin = (√I1=√I 2)
2
13. (a) Beat frequency = n1 – n2 and beat period T = (T1T2/T2–T1)
(b) If there are N forks in successive order each giving x beat/sec with nearest neighbour, then
nlast = nfirst + (N–1)x
14. Stationary waves: The equation of stationary wave,
(a) When the wave is reflected from a free boundary, is:
y = + 2a cos tsinkxcosa2
T
t2
sin
x2
ω=
π
λ
π
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(b) When the wave is reflected from a rigid boundary, is:
Y + –2a sin
T
t2
cos
x2 π
λ
π
=–2a sin kx cos ωt
15. Vibrations of a stretched string:
(a) For fundamental tone: n1 =
m
T1
λ
(b) For p th harmonic : np =
m
Tp
λ
(c) The ratio of successive harmonic frequencies: n1 : n2 : n3 :…….. = 1 : 2 : 3 : ……
(d) Sonometer:
m
T
2
l
n
l
= (m = π r2
d)
(e) Melde’s experiment: (i) Transverse mode: n =
m
T
2
p
l
(ii) Longitudinal mode: n =
m
T
2
p2
l
16. Vibrations of closed organ pipe
(a) For fundamental tone: n1 =
L4
v
(b) For first overtone (third harmonic): n2 = 3n1
(c) Only odd harmonics are found in the vibrations of a closed organ pipe
and n1 : n2 : n3 : …..=1 : 3 : 5 : ……
17. Vibrations of open organ pipe:
(a) For fundamental tone: n1 = (v/2L)
(b) For first overtone (second harmonic) : n2 = 2n1
(c) Both even and odd harmonics are found in the vibrations of an open organ pipe and
n1 : n2 : n3 : ……=1 : 2 : 3 : …….
18. End correction: (a) Closed pipe : L = Lpipe + 0.3d
(b) Open pipe: L = Lpipe + 0.6 d
where d = diameter = 2r
19. Resonance column: (a) l1 +e =
4
λ
; (b) l2 + e =
4
3λ
(c) e =
2
3 12 ll −
; (d) n =
( )
( )12
12
2or
2
v
ll
ll
−=λ
−
20. Kundt’s tube:
rod
air
rod
air
v
v
λ
λ
=
21. Longitudinal vibration of rods
(a) Both ends open and clamped in middle:
(i) Fundamental frequency, n1 = (v/2l)
(ii) Frequency of first overtone, n2 = 3n1
(iii)Ratio of frequencies, n1 : n2 : n3 : …… = 1 3: 5 : …..
(b) One end clamped
(i) Fundamental frequency, n1 = (v/4l)
(ii) Frequency of first overtone, n2 = 3n1
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(iii) Ratio of frequencies, n1 : n2 : n3 : ……= 1 : 3 : 5 : ………
22. Frequency of a turning fork: n α
ρ
Et
2l
Where t = thickness, l = length of prong, E = Elastic constant and ρ = density
23. Doppler Effect for Sound
(a) Observer stationary and source moving:
(i) Source approaching: n’ =
vv
v
s−
x n and λ’ =
v
vv s−
x λ
(ii) Source receding: n’ =
svv
v
+
x nand λ’ =
v
vv s+
x λ
(b) Source stationary and observer moving:
(i) Observer approaching the source: n’ =
v
vv 0+
x n and λ’ = λ
(ii) Observer receding away from source: n’ =
v
vv 0−
x n and λ’ = λ
(c) Source and observer both moving:
(i) S and O moving towards each other: n’ =
s
0
vv
vv
−
+
x n
(ii) S and O moving away from each other: n’ =
s
0
vv
vv
+
−
x n
(iii)S and O in same direction, S behind O : n’ =
s
0
vv
vv
−
−
x n
(iv)S and O in same direction, S ahead of O: n’=
s
0
vv
vv
+
+
x n
(d) Effect of motion of medium:
sm
0m
vvv
vvv
'n
±±
±±
=
(e) Change in frequency: (i) Moving source passes a stationary observer: ∆n = 2
s
2
s
vv
vv2
−
x n
For vs <<v, ∆, =
v
v2 s
x n
(ii) Moving observer passes a stationary source: ∆ n=
v
v2 0
x n
(f) Source moving towards or away from hill or wall
(i) Source moving towards wall
(a) Observer between source and wall
n’ = nx
vv
v
s−
(for direct waves)
n’ =
svv
v
−
x n (for reflected waves)
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(b) Source between observer and wall
n’ = nx
vv
v
s+
(for direct waves)
n’ =
svv
v
−
x n (for reflected waves)
(ii) Source moving away from wall
(a) Observer between source and wall
n’ = nx
vv
v
s+
(for direct waves)
n’ =
svv
v
+
x n (for reflected waves)
(b) Source between observer and wall
n’ = nx
vv
v
s−
(for direct waves)
n’ =
svv
v
+
x n (for reflected waves)
(g) Moving Target:
(i) S and O stationary at the same place and target approaching with speed u
n’ = nx
uv
uv
−
+
or n’ = nx
v
u2
1
+ (for u <<v)
(ii) S and O stationary at the same place and target receding with speed u
n’ = nx
uv
uv
+
−
or n’ = nx
v
u2
1
− (for u <<v)
(h) SONAR: n’ = nx
v
v2
1nx
vv
vv sub
sub
sub
±≅
±
±
(upper sign for approaching submarine while lower sign for receding submarine)
(i) Transverse Doppler effect: There is no transverse Doppler effect in sound. For velocity
component vs cos θ
n’= nx
cosvv
v
s θ±
(– sign for approaching and + sign for receding)
24. Doppler Effect for light
(a) Red shift (when light source is moving away):
n’ = nx
c/v1
c/v1
+
−
or λ’ = λ
−
+
x
c/v1
c/v1
For v << c, ∆ n = – nx
c
v
or ∆λ’ =
c
v
x λ
(b) Blue shift (when light source is approaching)
n’ = nx
c/v1
c/v1
−
+
or λ’ = λ
+
−
x
c/v1
c/v1
For v << c, ∆ n = n
c
v
or ∆λ’ =–
c
v
λ
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(c) Doppler Broadening = 2∆λ = 2
c
v
λ
(d) Transverse Doppler effect:
For light, n’ = nx
c
v
2
1
1nx
c
v
1
2
2
2
2
−=− (for v << c)
(e) RADAR: ∆n =
c
v2
n
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STUDY TIPS
• Combination of Subjects
Study a combination of subjects during a day i. e. after studying 2–3 hrs of mathematics
shift to any theoretical subject for 2 horrs. When we study a subject like math, a
particular part of the brain is working more than rest of the brain. When we shift to a
theoretical subject, practically the other part of the brain would become active and the
part studying maths will go for rest.
• Revision
Always refresh your memory by revising the matter learned. At the end of the day you
must revise whatever you’ve learnt during that day (or revise the previous days work
before starting studies the next day). On an average brain is able to retain the newly
learned information 80% only for 12 hours, after that the forgetting cycle begins. After
this revision, now the brain is able to hold the matter for 7 days. So next revision should
be after 7 days (sundays could be kept for just revision). This ways you will get rid of the
problem of forgetting what you study and save a lot of time in restudying that topic.
• Use All Your Senses
Whatever you read, try to convert that into picture and visualize it. Our eye memory is
many times stronger than our ear memory since the nerves connecting brain to eye are
many times stronger than nerves connecting brain to ear. So instead of trying to mug up
by repeating it loudly try to see it while reapeating (loudly or in your mind). This is
applicable in theoritical subjects. Try to use all your senses while learning a subject
matter. On an average we remember 25% of what we read, 35% of what we hear, 50%
of what we say, 75% of what we see, 95% of what we read, hear, say and see.
• Breathing and Relaxation
Take special care of your breathing. Deep breaths are very important for relaxing your
mind and hence in your concentration. Pranayam can do wonders to your concentration,
relaxation and sharpening your mined (by supplying oxygen to it). Aerobic exercises like
skipping, jogging, swimming and cycling are also very helpful.