The document discusses how Africa is diverging economically and in terms of governance. While some countries are experiencing strong economic growth, others are falling behind due to issues like mismanagement and conflict. Institutionally, performance is uneven across the continent, with weak legislatures and pressure on civil society in many nations. Democracy has stalled in recent years, with countries ranked as either free, partly free, or not free. Overall, Africa is becoming more diverse, making broad policies and summits that cover the entire continent increasingly difficult.
[FBEC 2001] Chinese Investment in Africa EssayDuanrui Shi
China has significantly increased its economic engagement with African countries in recent decades. It has provided billions in aid and investment focused on infrastructure development projects. This has strengthened Africa's economy and reduced its debt to Western nations. However, some criticize China's non-interference policy, claiming it fuels poor governance and human rights issues. Overall China views its relationship with Africa as mutually beneficial, focusing on development and economic cooperation rather than political conditions.
Democracy, security & poverty in ghana -a mid-term review of the kufuor admin...Kayode Fayemi
This article discusses the critical issue of insecurity facing Africa. The author argues that insecurity affects everyone on the continent regardless of social status and crosses ethnic, religious, and national boundaries. It is driving increasing numbers of Africans to emigrate due to uncertainty and lack of economic opportunities. This is resulting in a brain drain that benefits developed countries. Even those at the top of political and economic hierarchies experience insecurity as authoritarian rulers cling to power and leave fractured states when removed. The failure to build legitimate states has made political stability and sustainable growth impossible. However, initiatives like NEPAD and the MDGs aim to address challenges like poverty reduction if accompanied by appropriate policies addressing Africa's complex security needs.
AHMR is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of all aspects (socio-economic, political, legislative and developmental) of Human Mobility in Africa. Through the publication of original research, policy discussions and evidence research papers AHMR provides a comprehensive forum devoted exclusively to the analysis of contemporaneous trends, migration patterns and some of the most important migration-related issues.
The rise of China as a very visible actor in Africa is one of the most striking features of the first decade of the new millennium. Trade between the two regions is projected to reach $100 billion before 2010, ten times the 2000 figure. Accumulated investment by Chinese firms doubled from $6.27 to almost $12 billion between 2005 and 2006, and Chinese banks have offered attractive (and sometimes very large) packages of loans to finance trade, investment, and development.
Many African governments welcomed China’s announcements of further aid, trade, and investment at a major China–Africa summit in November 2006 in Beijing. At the same time, the rise of China has been greeted with fear and apprehension by many in the United States, Europe, and Africa who see this strong interest more as a threat than an opportunity. Although trade and investment are two central means by which China and Africa engage this paper focuses primarily on development finance and official development assistance: the broad spectrum of activities called “foreign aid.”
For the most part, the donor community focused on Chinese aid only recently, and in many cases only with the publicity surrounding the November 2006 Forum on China–Africa Cooperation in Beijing, where Chinese president Hu Jintao pledged to double China’s aid to Africa by 2009 (Box 1). He also promised to offer $3 billion in preferential loans and $2 billion in preferential export buyers credits, establish three to five special trade and economic zones, allow more than 400 kinds of goods into China duty-free, and set up a $5 billion fund to support investment by Chinese firms in African economies.
Later that year the president of the China Export Import Bank (Eximbank), Li Ruogu, announced that he hoped to disburse up to $20 billion in finance for African projects over the next three years. Box 1: Address by Chinese President Hu Jintao, Beijing Summit of The Forum on China–Africa Cooperation, 4 November 2006 To forge a new type of China-Africa strategic partnership and strengthen our cooperation in more areas and at a higher level, the Chinese Government will take the following eight steps:
1. Double its 2006 assistance to Africa by 2009.
2. Provide US$3 billion of preferential loans and US$2 billion of preferential buyer’s credits to Africa in the next three years.
3. Set up a China-Africa development fund which will reach US$5 billion to encourage Chinese companies to invest in Africa and provide support to them.
4. Build a conference center for the African Union to support African countries in their efforts to strengthen themselves through unity and support the process of African integration.
5. Cancel debt in the form of all the interest-free government loans that matured at the end of 2005 owed by the heavily indebted poor countries and the least developed countries in Africa that have diplomatic relations with China...
Political economy, Asian tigers success, Causes of Africa's poor economic performance, 'begging bowel' of Africa, poverty amidst wealth, foreign aid is a prison.
The Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa (SIHMA) is delighted to present the third issue of African Human Mobility Review (AHMR) - an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created in 2015 to encourage and facilitate the study of Human Mobility in Africa
This document provides an update paper for the African Union committee at the National High School Model United Nations conference in March 2015. It discusses two topics: Chinese investment in Africa's development, and conflict introduced by the blood diamond supply chain. For the first topic, it outlines recent increases in Chinese investment and influence on the African continent, and some African nations' approaches to managing this influence. For the second topic, it notes increasing criticism of the Kimberley Process certification system for diamonds and efforts to address issues within the blood diamond supply chain. The document provides context and issues for delegates to consider in addressing these important topics facing the African Union.
The U.S. counterterrorism efforts in East Africa and the Horn of Africa do not yet adequately address the threat, despite six years having passed since the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. The region faces instability, porous borders, ties to extremist elements in the Arabian Peninsula, and endemic poverty and corruption - all of which allow terrorist groups to operate. While U.S. counterterrorism programs in the region have strengthened security at embassies and cooperation with countries, the efforts are not long-term or comprehensive enough to counter the threat of Islamic fundamentalism and al-Qaeda in the unstable political and security environment of East Africa.
[FBEC 2001] Chinese Investment in Africa EssayDuanrui Shi
China has significantly increased its economic engagement with African countries in recent decades. It has provided billions in aid and investment focused on infrastructure development projects. This has strengthened Africa's economy and reduced its debt to Western nations. However, some criticize China's non-interference policy, claiming it fuels poor governance and human rights issues. Overall China views its relationship with Africa as mutually beneficial, focusing on development and economic cooperation rather than political conditions.
Democracy, security & poverty in ghana -a mid-term review of the kufuor admin...Kayode Fayemi
This article discusses the critical issue of insecurity facing Africa. The author argues that insecurity affects everyone on the continent regardless of social status and crosses ethnic, religious, and national boundaries. It is driving increasing numbers of Africans to emigrate due to uncertainty and lack of economic opportunities. This is resulting in a brain drain that benefits developed countries. Even those at the top of political and economic hierarchies experience insecurity as authoritarian rulers cling to power and leave fractured states when removed. The failure to build legitimate states has made political stability and sustainable growth impossible. However, initiatives like NEPAD and the MDGs aim to address challenges like poverty reduction if accompanied by appropriate policies addressing Africa's complex security needs.
AHMR is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of all aspects (socio-economic, political, legislative and developmental) of Human Mobility in Africa. Through the publication of original research, policy discussions and evidence research papers AHMR provides a comprehensive forum devoted exclusively to the analysis of contemporaneous trends, migration patterns and some of the most important migration-related issues.
The rise of China as a very visible actor in Africa is one of the most striking features of the first decade of the new millennium. Trade between the two regions is projected to reach $100 billion before 2010, ten times the 2000 figure. Accumulated investment by Chinese firms doubled from $6.27 to almost $12 billion between 2005 and 2006, and Chinese banks have offered attractive (and sometimes very large) packages of loans to finance trade, investment, and development.
Many African governments welcomed China’s announcements of further aid, trade, and investment at a major China–Africa summit in November 2006 in Beijing. At the same time, the rise of China has been greeted with fear and apprehension by many in the United States, Europe, and Africa who see this strong interest more as a threat than an opportunity. Although trade and investment are two central means by which China and Africa engage this paper focuses primarily on development finance and official development assistance: the broad spectrum of activities called “foreign aid.”
For the most part, the donor community focused on Chinese aid only recently, and in many cases only with the publicity surrounding the November 2006 Forum on China–Africa Cooperation in Beijing, where Chinese president Hu Jintao pledged to double China’s aid to Africa by 2009 (Box 1). He also promised to offer $3 billion in preferential loans and $2 billion in preferential export buyers credits, establish three to five special trade and economic zones, allow more than 400 kinds of goods into China duty-free, and set up a $5 billion fund to support investment by Chinese firms in African economies.
Later that year the president of the China Export Import Bank (Eximbank), Li Ruogu, announced that he hoped to disburse up to $20 billion in finance for African projects over the next three years. Box 1: Address by Chinese President Hu Jintao, Beijing Summit of The Forum on China–Africa Cooperation, 4 November 2006 To forge a new type of China-Africa strategic partnership and strengthen our cooperation in more areas and at a higher level, the Chinese Government will take the following eight steps:
1. Double its 2006 assistance to Africa by 2009.
2. Provide US$3 billion of preferential loans and US$2 billion of preferential buyer’s credits to Africa in the next three years.
3. Set up a China-Africa development fund which will reach US$5 billion to encourage Chinese companies to invest in Africa and provide support to them.
4. Build a conference center for the African Union to support African countries in their efforts to strengthen themselves through unity and support the process of African integration.
5. Cancel debt in the form of all the interest-free government loans that matured at the end of 2005 owed by the heavily indebted poor countries and the least developed countries in Africa that have diplomatic relations with China...
Political economy, Asian tigers success, Causes of Africa's poor economic performance, 'begging bowel' of Africa, poverty amidst wealth, foreign aid is a prison.
The Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa (SIHMA) is delighted to present the third issue of African Human Mobility Review (AHMR) - an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created in 2015 to encourage and facilitate the study of Human Mobility in Africa
This document provides an update paper for the African Union committee at the National High School Model United Nations conference in March 2015. It discusses two topics: Chinese investment in Africa's development, and conflict introduced by the blood diamond supply chain. For the first topic, it outlines recent increases in Chinese investment and influence on the African continent, and some African nations' approaches to managing this influence. For the second topic, it notes increasing criticism of the Kimberley Process certification system for diamonds and efforts to address issues within the blood diamond supply chain. The document provides context and issues for delegates to consider in addressing these important topics facing the African Union.
The U.S. counterterrorism efforts in East Africa and the Horn of Africa do not yet adequately address the threat, despite six years having passed since the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. The region faces instability, porous borders, ties to extremist elements in the Arabian Peninsula, and endemic poverty and corruption - all of which allow terrorist groups to operate. While U.S. counterterrorism programs in the region have strengthened security at embassies and cooperation with countries, the efforts are not long-term or comprehensive enough to counter the threat of Islamic fundamentalism and al-Qaeda in the unstable political and security environment of East Africa.
Construction Management in Developing Countries, Lecture 3, Needs of the developed and developing countries; ways to fulfill the needs and their impact in construction project management in developing countries
Reframing and representing african affairs (1)Thapelo
This document discusses reframing representations of Africa. It begins by describing how Africa is often portrayed negatively in Western media through overgeneralization and a failure to show diversity. Social media is changing this by allowing Africans to share their own perspectives. The document then discusses seven debates around alternative development models for Africa, including restructuring global economic systems, increasing financial transparency, promoting better leadership, supporting environmentalism, ending aid, increasing civil society participation, and understanding issues through a post-colonial lens.
This document summarizes an article from the African Human Mobility Review about upholding refugee rights in the context of the cessation clause. The key points are:
1. The cessation clause in the 1951 Refugee Convention allows for refugee status to be revoked if the circumstances causing a person to flee their home country no longer exist. However, applying this clause risks infringing on refugees' human rights.
2. Examining the controversial application of the cessation clause to Rwandan refugees shows how it led to rights violations by forcing repatriation. It also highlights the problem of prioritizing institutional perspectives over refugees' own knowledge and experiences.
3. There are debates around how to interpret
The document discusses alternative approaches to development in Africa. It outlines 7 prominent debates: 1) restructuring global economic arrangements to unchain Africa from exploitative relations, 2) increasing financial transparency and ending the looting of Africa's resources, 3) promoting better political leadership through initiatives like the Ibrahim Prize, 4) supporting sustainable environmental development and environmentalism of the poor, 5) ending foreign aid to promote self-development, 6) promoting civil society participation, and 7) understanding African issues through a post-colonial lens that reverses traditional Western perspectives.
For Africa to achieve transformative progress, policy solutions must come from African sources. The Africa
Growth Initiative brings together African scholars to provide policymakers with high-quality research,
expertise and innovative solutions that promote Africa’s economic development. The Initiative also
collaborates with research partners in the region to raise the African voice in global policy debates on
Africa. Our mission is to deliver research from an African perspective that informs sound policy, creating
sustained economic growth and development for the people of Africa.
Today I am uploading the second presentation I have shown to my students. As I could observe, they were very much interested in the topic of economic diplomacy, especially due to being business- and international employment-oriented. What I can say from this experience is the fact that international students, young, hard-working people coming in a huge majority from developing countries, now very well what they want to get from their higher education - practical knowledge is key. There is, however, also another field they understand very much about and these are global challenges they benefit or suffer from. Here we have had an opportunity to discuss changes in global economy and their impact on regional economic environments. Hope another piece of my teaching material will gain your interest. Thank you in advance for any feedback you'd be willing to share.
This issue of the Journal of International Relations features 10 articles on various topics in international relations written by undergraduate students, as well as a featured article by Dr. Henry Kissinger. The articles cover topics such as China's participation in UN peacekeeping missions and its ties to Africa, changes in state sovereignty from globalization, nuclear proliferation concerns in Iran, Egypt and Saudi Arabia, and increased US-Nigeria military cooperation after the Chibok school kidnapping. Other articles examine female suicide bombers in Palestine, political protest in Turkey, US policy toward Taiwan, the role of women in peacemaking, intersections between liberal feminism and identity, and Ottoman cultural influence in Europe. Dr. Kissinger's article reflects on foreign crises representing
This document discusses the concept of China's "community of common development" with other developing nations. It examines China's relationship with Africa in particular. While China and African nations share some developmental interests and aspirations for growth, their economic trajectories may not be fully aligned as China continues its rise. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation aims to strengthen ties but risks raising African leaders' expectations for support beyond what China can provide. Overall the idea of a community represents solidarity between China and other developing states but may not reflect identical paths of development.
Poverty in Africa is multifaceted with no single cause. Some key causes discussed include corruption from weak leadership, conflicts draining resources, and unfavorable trade policies. Potential solutions proposed are tackling corruption through strong institutions and governance, building infrastructure to support economies, implementing sound economic policies, and promoting regional integration. Addressing the complex causes of poverty in Africa will require sustained efforts across many areas.
The document discusses a draft concept note for a World Conference on Youth in Sri Lanka. It provides background on youth populations globally and in developing regions, noting that many youth face challenges accessing employment, education, and decision making opportunities. It outlines Sri Lanka's commitment to youth development and participation, including establishing a Youth Parliament. The concept note argues that youth must be actively involved in shaping the post-2015 development agenda to ensure it meets their needs and priorities, such as education, health, employment, and equality.
This document provides an overview of a study conducted by American Express Meetings & Events on the meetings and events market in Africa. Key findings from the study include:
- While total meetings activity in Africa is low compared to other regions, around 40% of survey respondents hold some meetings in Africa, totaling over 9% of their meetings. The majority of these are in Southern and North Africa.
- Respondents see increasing interest in Africa as a meetings destination over the next two years, with demand expected to rise most for resort properties and non-traditional meeting facilities.
- Perceptions of and familiarity with different African regions varies greatly, with only North and Southern Africa having over 50% familiarity among
This document summarizes tourism in Africa and its potential for economic growth. It finds that tourism currently contributes over $36 billion to Africa's GDP and is responsible for millions of jobs. However, Africa faces constraints like inadequate air and road transport that hamper tourism. If these constraints are addressed, tourism could be a significant driver of economic development across Africa by harnessing the region's natural and cultural assets. The document outlines opportunities and constraints to expanding Africa's tourism industry.
This document summarizes key highlights from the UNWTO's 2015 Tourism report. It finds that international tourist arrivals grew 4.3% in 2014 to reach 1.13 billion, marking the fifth consecutive year of robust growth above the long-term average. Growth was strongest in the Americas at 8% while Asia and the Pacific and the Middle East also saw increases of 5%. International tourism receipts grew 3.7% in 2014 to $1.245 trillion. The report forecasts continued growth of 3-4% in international tourist arrivals in 2015 and estimates arrivals will reach 1.8 billion by 2030.
The Contested Areas of Myanmar: Subnational Conflict, Aid, and Development-လက...MYO AUNG Myanmar
The Contested Areas of Myanmar: Subnational Conflict, Aid, and Development-လက္နက္ကိုင္ပဋိပကၡ ေဒသမ်ား
https://asiafoundation.org/publication/contested-areas-myanmar-subnational-conflict-aid-development/
The Contested Areas of Myanmar: Subnational Conflict, Aid, and Development
https://burmese.voanews.com/a/current-affairs-armed-forces-and-conflicts-in-myanmar/4163817.html?ltflags=mailer
လက္နက္ကိုင္ပဋိပကၡ ေဒသမ်ား (၁)
Africa is Rising - Presentation at IMANI Ghana annual lecture -SYPALA 2015metisdecisions
Africa is rising- where is the evidence? This presentation provides just that; evidence, to support the proposition that indeed, Africa has made progress, albeit more needs to be done several fronts. The text also focus on what the roe of entrepreneurship ought to be given the stark evidence of inequality and poverty that still pertains.
This document summarizes the special issue of the African Human Mobility Review focused on migration in West Africa. It provides an introduction to the topics covered in the issue's research papers. The introduction discusses key trends in intra-regional and international migration patterns in West Africa. It notes that while much migration from the region is to destinations within West Africa, there are also significant flows to Europe and more recently Asia. The introduction provides context on the ECOWAS free movement protocol and its role in facilitating intra-regional mobility. It previews the five research papers in the issue, which examine challenges in implementing the ECOWAS protocol, experiences of migrants during the 2011 Libyan crisis, Ghanaian traders' networks in China, cultural ties
UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2014 . Why Tourism Matters? . Tourism as a long term global sector for development. Main trends 2013-2014 and future. Where do Tourism go towards?
The potential-for-public-private-partnership-(ppp)-in-ethiopiaDr Lendy Spires
This document provides an assessment of the potential for public-private partnerships (PPPs) in Ethiopia. It begins by defining PPPs and discussing their benefits. PPPs can bring private sector efficiencies and access to capital to public infrastructure and service provision. The document then analyses Ethiopia's economy and private sector, identifying several potential PPP projects and constraints. These include opportunities in agriculture, manufacturing, and renewable energy. However, Ethiopia faces challenges like underdeveloped legal and regulatory frameworks for PPPs. The document also examines PPP case studies from countries like Ghana, Namibia, South Africa, Nepal, and India. It concludes by recommending the Ethiopian government establish clear PPP policies, laws,
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
Industrialisation and industrial policy in africa is it a policy priorityDr Lendy Spires
This document summarizes an academic research paper on industrialization and industrial policy in Africa. It begins by outlining the importance of industrialization for economic development and Africa's historically low levels of industrialization. It then discusses Africa's post-independence import substitution industrialization policies and subsequent structural adjustment policies promoted by international financial institutions. The document reviews major continental and regional industrialization initiatives in Africa since the 1970s. Finally, it previews the national industrialization policies and trends in eight African countries that will be analyzed in the full paper.
Centre on Housing Rights & Evictions Community GuideDr Lendy Spires
Combating poverty is one of the major challenges the world faces. Today, between 1.5 and 2 billion people are trapped in extreme poverty, with less than a dollar a day to provide for their needs. In many countries, including Nigeria, poverty is deeply entrenched, preventing the vast majority of people in the developing world from realizing their economic and human potential. The majority of Nigeria’s 140 million people live in squalor, with 16 million Nigerians either landless, inadequately housed, or living in shacks and slums due to a huge housing deficit.
Hundreds of thousands of people have been displaced from their homes and farms annually to make way for development projects, city “beautification,” road expansion and infrastructural upgrading, urban renewal, implementation of development master plans etc— thereby pushing people further into chronic poverty. Sometimes projects are for the benefit of the country, but often the main benefits go to the powerful individuals and companies that take the land. Frequently, the people living on and using the land do not have secure rights to their land because the procedures for obtaining legal titles are so cumbersome, expensive, and laden with irregularities and deceit that ultimately they are forced to abandon the process or not engage in it at all.
Similarly, people are not given the opportunity to participate in decision-making about development projects that implicate them. However, due to efforts by international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs), there is a growing “Today, between 1.5 and 2 billion people are trapped in extreme poverty.„
Construction Management in Developing Countries, Lecture 3, Needs of the developed and developing countries; ways to fulfill the needs and their impact in construction project management in developing countries
Reframing and representing african affairs (1)Thapelo
This document discusses reframing representations of Africa. It begins by describing how Africa is often portrayed negatively in Western media through overgeneralization and a failure to show diversity. Social media is changing this by allowing Africans to share their own perspectives. The document then discusses seven debates around alternative development models for Africa, including restructuring global economic systems, increasing financial transparency, promoting better leadership, supporting environmentalism, ending aid, increasing civil society participation, and understanding issues through a post-colonial lens.
This document summarizes an article from the African Human Mobility Review about upholding refugee rights in the context of the cessation clause. The key points are:
1. The cessation clause in the 1951 Refugee Convention allows for refugee status to be revoked if the circumstances causing a person to flee their home country no longer exist. However, applying this clause risks infringing on refugees' human rights.
2. Examining the controversial application of the cessation clause to Rwandan refugees shows how it led to rights violations by forcing repatriation. It also highlights the problem of prioritizing institutional perspectives over refugees' own knowledge and experiences.
3. There are debates around how to interpret
The document discusses alternative approaches to development in Africa. It outlines 7 prominent debates: 1) restructuring global economic arrangements to unchain Africa from exploitative relations, 2) increasing financial transparency and ending the looting of Africa's resources, 3) promoting better political leadership through initiatives like the Ibrahim Prize, 4) supporting sustainable environmental development and environmentalism of the poor, 5) ending foreign aid to promote self-development, 6) promoting civil society participation, and 7) understanding African issues through a post-colonial lens that reverses traditional Western perspectives.
For Africa to achieve transformative progress, policy solutions must come from African sources. The Africa
Growth Initiative brings together African scholars to provide policymakers with high-quality research,
expertise and innovative solutions that promote Africa’s economic development. The Initiative also
collaborates with research partners in the region to raise the African voice in global policy debates on
Africa. Our mission is to deliver research from an African perspective that informs sound policy, creating
sustained economic growth and development for the people of Africa.
Today I am uploading the second presentation I have shown to my students. As I could observe, they were very much interested in the topic of economic diplomacy, especially due to being business- and international employment-oriented. What I can say from this experience is the fact that international students, young, hard-working people coming in a huge majority from developing countries, now very well what they want to get from their higher education - practical knowledge is key. There is, however, also another field they understand very much about and these are global challenges they benefit or suffer from. Here we have had an opportunity to discuss changes in global economy and their impact on regional economic environments. Hope another piece of my teaching material will gain your interest. Thank you in advance for any feedback you'd be willing to share.
This issue of the Journal of International Relations features 10 articles on various topics in international relations written by undergraduate students, as well as a featured article by Dr. Henry Kissinger. The articles cover topics such as China's participation in UN peacekeeping missions and its ties to Africa, changes in state sovereignty from globalization, nuclear proliferation concerns in Iran, Egypt and Saudi Arabia, and increased US-Nigeria military cooperation after the Chibok school kidnapping. Other articles examine female suicide bombers in Palestine, political protest in Turkey, US policy toward Taiwan, the role of women in peacemaking, intersections between liberal feminism and identity, and Ottoman cultural influence in Europe. Dr. Kissinger's article reflects on foreign crises representing
This document discusses the concept of China's "community of common development" with other developing nations. It examines China's relationship with Africa in particular. While China and African nations share some developmental interests and aspirations for growth, their economic trajectories may not be fully aligned as China continues its rise. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation aims to strengthen ties but risks raising African leaders' expectations for support beyond what China can provide. Overall the idea of a community represents solidarity between China and other developing states but may not reflect identical paths of development.
Poverty in Africa is multifaceted with no single cause. Some key causes discussed include corruption from weak leadership, conflicts draining resources, and unfavorable trade policies. Potential solutions proposed are tackling corruption through strong institutions and governance, building infrastructure to support economies, implementing sound economic policies, and promoting regional integration. Addressing the complex causes of poverty in Africa will require sustained efforts across many areas.
The document discusses a draft concept note for a World Conference on Youth in Sri Lanka. It provides background on youth populations globally and in developing regions, noting that many youth face challenges accessing employment, education, and decision making opportunities. It outlines Sri Lanka's commitment to youth development and participation, including establishing a Youth Parliament. The concept note argues that youth must be actively involved in shaping the post-2015 development agenda to ensure it meets their needs and priorities, such as education, health, employment, and equality.
This document provides an overview of a study conducted by American Express Meetings & Events on the meetings and events market in Africa. Key findings from the study include:
- While total meetings activity in Africa is low compared to other regions, around 40% of survey respondents hold some meetings in Africa, totaling over 9% of their meetings. The majority of these are in Southern and North Africa.
- Respondents see increasing interest in Africa as a meetings destination over the next two years, with demand expected to rise most for resort properties and non-traditional meeting facilities.
- Perceptions of and familiarity with different African regions varies greatly, with only North and Southern Africa having over 50% familiarity among
This document summarizes tourism in Africa and its potential for economic growth. It finds that tourism currently contributes over $36 billion to Africa's GDP and is responsible for millions of jobs. However, Africa faces constraints like inadequate air and road transport that hamper tourism. If these constraints are addressed, tourism could be a significant driver of economic development across Africa by harnessing the region's natural and cultural assets. The document outlines opportunities and constraints to expanding Africa's tourism industry.
This document summarizes key highlights from the UNWTO's 2015 Tourism report. It finds that international tourist arrivals grew 4.3% in 2014 to reach 1.13 billion, marking the fifth consecutive year of robust growth above the long-term average. Growth was strongest in the Americas at 8% while Asia and the Pacific and the Middle East also saw increases of 5%. International tourism receipts grew 3.7% in 2014 to $1.245 trillion. The report forecasts continued growth of 3-4% in international tourist arrivals in 2015 and estimates arrivals will reach 1.8 billion by 2030.
The Contested Areas of Myanmar: Subnational Conflict, Aid, and Development-လက...MYO AUNG Myanmar
The Contested Areas of Myanmar: Subnational Conflict, Aid, and Development-လက္နက္ကိုင္ပဋိပကၡ ေဒသမ်ား
https://asiafoundation.org/publication/contested-areas-myanmar-subnational-conflict-aid-development/
The Contested Areas of Myanmar: Subnational Conflict, Aid, and Development
https://burmese.voanews.com/a/current-affairs-armed-forces-and-conflicts-in-myanmar/4163817.html?ltflags=mailer
လက္နက္ကိုင္ပဋိပကၡ ေဒသမ်ား (၁)
Africa is Rising - Presentation at IMANI Ghana annual lecture -SYPALA 2015metisdecisions
Africa is rising- where is the evidence? This presentation provides just that; evidence, to support the proposition that indeed, Africa has made progress, albeit more needs to be done several fronts. The text also focus on what the roe of entrepreneurship ought to be given the stark evidence of inequality and poverty that still pertains.
This document summarizes the special issue of the African Human Mobility Review focused on migration in West Africa. It provides an introduction to the topics covered in the issue's research papers. The introduction discusses key trends in intra-regional and international migration patterns in West Africa. It notes that while much migration from the region is to destinations within West Africa, there are also significant flows to Europe and more recently Asia. The introduction provides context on the ECOWAS free movement protocol and its role in facilitating intra-regional mobility. It previews the five research papers in the issue, which examine challenges in implementing the ECOWAS protocol, experiences of migrants during the 2011 Libyan crisis, Ghanaian traders' networks in China, cultural ties
UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2014 . Why Tourism Matters? . Tourism as a long term global sector for development. Main trends 2013-2014 and future. Where do Tourism go towards?
The potential-for-public-private-partnership-(ppp)-in-ethiopiaDr Lendy Spires
This document provides an assessment of the potential for public-private partnerships (PPPs) in Ethiopia. It begins by defining PPPs and discussing their benefits. PPPs can bring private sector efficiencies and access to capital to public infrastructure and service provision. The document then analyses Ethiopia's economy and private sector, identifying several potential PPP projects and constraints. These include opportunities in agriculture, manufacturing, and renewable energy. However, Ethiopia faces challenges like underdeveloped legal and regulatory frameworks for PPPs. The document also examines PPP case studies from countries like Ghana, Namibia, South Africa, Nepal, and India. It concludes by recommending the Ethiopian government establish clear PPP policies, laws,
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
Industrialisation and industrial policy in africa is it a policy priorityDr Lendy Spires
This document summarizes an academic research paper on industrialization and industrial policy in Africa. It begins by outlining the importance of industrialization for economic development and Africa's historically low levels of industrialization. It then discusses Africa's post-independence import substitution industrialization policies and subsequent structural adjustment policies promoted by international financial institutions. The document reviews major continental and regional industrialization initiatives in Africa since the 1970s. Finally, it previews the national industrialization policies and trends in eight African countries that will be analyzed in the full paper.
Centre on Housing Rights & Evictions Community GuideDr Lendy Spires
Combating poverty is one of the major challenges the world faces. Today, between 1.5 and 2 billion people are trapped in extreme poverty, with less than a dollar a day to provide for their needs. In many countries, including Nigeria, poverty is deeply entrenched, preventing the vast majority of people in the developing world from realizing their economic and human potential. The majority of Nigeria’s 140 million people live in squalor, with 16 million Nigerians either landless, inadequately housed, or living in shacks and slums due to a huge housing deficit.
Hundreds of thousands of people have been displaced from their homes and farms annually to make way for development projects, city “beautification,” road expansion and infrastructural upgrading, urban renewal, implementation of development master plans etc— thereby pushing people further into chronic poverty. Sometimes projects are for the benefit of the country, but often the main benefits go to the powerful individuals and companies that take the land. Frequently, the people living on and using the land do not have secure rights to their land because the procedures for obtaining legal titles are so cumbersome, expensive, and laden with irregularities and deceit that ultimately they are forced to abandon the process or not engage in it at all.
Similarly, people are not given the opportunity to participate in decision-making about development projects that implicate them. However, due to efforts by international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs), there is a growing “Today, between 1.5 and 2 billion people are trapped in extreme poverty.„
Enabling Poor Rural People to Overcome Poverty Dr Lendy Spires
Agriculture can provide a robust pathway out of poverty, today and in the future, for many smallholder farmers and livestock producers. IFAD’s strategic framework for 2011-2015 is guiding our efforts towards realizing that future. IFAD prepared its fourth strategic framework in response to a global context characterized by persistent challenges and major changes. The challenges include massive rural poverty, and a high prevalence of food insecurity and hunger in some regions.
The changes include increasingly diverse rural livelihoods;
accelerating natural resource degradation and climate change;
growing economic importance of agriculture and rising demand for food, biofuels and other agricultural goods and services;
higher and more volatile food prices; and growing private-sector investment in agriculture.
As we move towards 2015, we continue to build on what we have learned about small-scale agriculture and rural poverty reduction in more than 30 years. At the programme and project level, this involves stepped-up efforts to:
• enhance environmental sustainability and resilience in small-scale agriculture
• promote win-win contractual arrangements to help small agricultural producers seize opportunities in agricultural value chains at lower risk
• support the development of technologies for sustainable intensification of small-scale agriculture
• increase the capacity of financial institutions to provide a broad range of inclusive services to poor rural people
• promote the capabilities of rural women and men, including young people
• capitalize on opportunities to use renewable energy sources, and promote low-cost technologies using local resources to provide energy. In terms of thematic engagement, IFAD continues to focus on:
• natural resources – land, water, energy and biodiversity .
• climate change adaptation
• improved agricultural technologies and effective production services
• a broad range of inclusive financial services
• integration of poor rural people within value chains
• rural enterprise development and non-farm employment opportunities
• technical and vocational skills development
• support to rural producers’ organizations.
Each of these areas addresses gender equality and social inclusion as cross-cutting themes, as well as household strategies to improve food security and nutrition. In delivering on strategic framework objectives, we continue to strive to improve quality and efficiency, strengthen our ability to work effectively with the private sector, step up our advocacy, and amplify the voices of poor rural women and men in decisions that affect their lives. IFAD Strategic Framework 2011-2015:
Guidelines for resilience systems analysis - facilitation guideDr Lendy Spires
Everybody is talking about resilience. The idea that people, institutions and states need the right tools, assets and skills to deal with an increasingly complex, interconnected and evolving risk landscape, while retaining the ability to seize opportunities to increase overall well-being, is widely accepted.
In reality, however, it has not been easy to translate this sound idea into good practice, mostly because people in the field don’t yet have the right tools to systematically analyse resilience, and then integrate resilience aspects into their development and humanitarian programming.
This guidance aims to fix that problem
In this document you will find a step by step approach to resilience systems analysis, a tool that helps field practitioners to:
• prepare for, and facilitate, a successful multi-stakeholder resilience analysis workshop
• design a roadmap to boost the resilience of communities and societies
• integrate the results of the analysis into their development and humanitarian programming
The document summarizes news from UNEP in Europe in January 2014. Key points include:
- UNEP launched a new online platform called UNEP Live to facilitate sharing of environmental data between providers and users.
- A new web platform was also launched by the Green Growth Knowledge Platform to accelerate the transition to a green economy by sharing knowledge and policies across countries.
- Other articles summarized the political changes in Ukraine, Greece taking over the presidency of the European Union and setting environmental priorities, and the European Commission proposing a new 40% emissions reduction target by 2030.
The document is a Kenya Population Situation Analysis report published in July 2013 by the Government of Kenya supported by the United Nations Population Fund and the National Council for Population and Development. It provides a comprehensive analysis of Kenya's population dynamics, structure, fertility, health, mortality, youth status, migration trends, and development challenges. The report is meant to inform policymakers and development partners on priority areas for economic growth and improving population well-being in Kenya.
Extractive Sectors and Illicit Financial Flows: What Role for Revenue Governa...Dr Lendy Spires
This document discusses illicit financial flows (IFF) from extractive sectors and initiatives to address them. It finds that extractive industries are prone to generating large IFF due to factors like political control over resources, blurred public/private interests, limited competition, complex operations, and integration into the global economy. The three main sources of IFF are proceeds from corruption, revenues from illegal resource exploitation where states do not receive their share, and tax evasion including smuggling and transfer mispricing. While transparency initiatives have increased openness, they have not significantly reduced IFF, which current efforts need to prioritize further.
When Legal Worlds Overlap Human Rights, State and Non-State Law Dr Lendy Spires
This report is written for human rights advocates and policy-makers who find themselves in contexts where a specific dispute or subject matter is governed by multiple norms, laws or forums that co-exist within a single jurisdiction. Plural legal orders occur in numerous circumstances: for example, where different family laws apply to specific ethno-cultural groups, where customary dispute resolution mechanisms operate without state sanction, where non-state legal orders (such as chiefs’ courts) are officially recognised, or where quasi-state legal orders (such as alternative dispute resolution mechanisms) are When Legal Worlds Overlap: Human Rights, State and Non-State Law iii established.
Given the concerns surrounding the failure of most state legal systems to ensure effective access to justice, particularly for marginalised and vulnerable communities, a range of actors – using a range of arguments – have encouraged or demanded the introduction or recognition of plural legal orders. These claims in turn have led legal and human rights organisations, but also other actors, to express concern at the human rights implications of recognising and extending forms of legal plurality. When Legal Worlds Overlap: Human Rights, State and Non-State Law aims to provide human rights and other actors with tools that will enable them to evaluate whether a plural legal order is likely to enhance access to justice, and to identify human rights risks that are associated with the plural legal order in question.
While it is widely recognised that plural legal orders generate many human rights conflicts and dilemmas, discussion of them has generally created more heat rather than light. This is no doubt partly because, though a large body of research exists on the subject, drawing on law, anthropology, sociology, political science, and development and environment studies, surprisingly little specific work has focused on their human rights impact. Besides, theoretical and conceptual discussions have seldom connected with experiences of human rights practice in plural legal contexts. The aim of the report is therefore to lay the groundwork for a more careful and inclusive discussion of the issues involved, with the aim of improving practical policy responses on the ground. It must be said at the outset that this task is not straightforward. Plural legal orders exist in every part of the world and in all types of political systems. They vary enormously in jurisdiction, procedure, structure and degree of autonomy.
The document is a summary for policymakers from the IPCC's Working Group II on the impacts of climate change. It assesses observed and future risks from climate change, and options for adaptation. Key findings include:
- Climate change is occurring due to human activity and poses risks to human and natural systems.
- Observed impacts include effects on lives, livelihoods, health, ecosystems, economies, and infrastructure from extreme weather events and climate change.
- Future risks will involve complex interactions and changing likelihoods of impacts across sectors and regions. Adaptation can reduce vulnerability and exposure to climate risks.
Human Mobility, Natural Disasters and Climate Change in the PacificDr Lendy Spires
This document provides background information on a regional consultation regarding human mobility, natural disasters, and climate change in the Pacific. It discusses the complex issues facing Pacific Island countries from increased natural disasters and climate change impacts. While most current displacement in the region is internal and temporary, international migration is common and increasingly linked to environmental factors. The consultation will examine challenges like cross-border displacement, planned relocation of at-risk populations, and developing protections for environmentally-motivated migrants. Representatives from Pacific nations will discuss these issues and their country-specific challenges to inform policy discussions on assisting populations impacted by climate change.
This document provides an abstract for a research paper that analyzes China and Western engagement with Africa. The paper seeks to determine which partner, China or Western countries, may be better for Africa's development goals. It will use a comparative analysis based on criteria like equitable relations, sovereignty, financing development, shared experiences, and history. The abstract outlines the paper's sections, which will cover stakeholders and definitions, the partners' historical and ideological perspectives, their development policies and projects, investment facts, private sector involvement, and recommendations for selecting and managing a development partnership. The major finding is that China and the West have fundamentally different aid approaches and development concepts.
African Regional and Sub-regional Organizations:Assessing their contributions...African Affairs
The document discusses a conference that examined the role of African regional organizations in promoting economic integration and managing conflicts. Key points from the conference include:
1) Regional organizations in Africa can play an important role in economic growth by promoting regional market integration, developing cross-border infrastructure projects, and establishing stable regional governance frameworks. However, many African governments remain hesitant to increase economic dependence on neighbors.
2) Regional approaches are well-suited to conflict prevention and resolution in Africa given the arbitrary borders and frequent spillover of conflicts across borders. While the African Union has contributed to reduced conflicts, challenges remain around addressing root causes, long-term peacebuilding, and coordination among actors.
3) Conference panels debated
The document summarizes the first ever U.S.-Africa Leaders' Summit that was hosted by President Obama in 2014. The summit aimed to strengthen economic and diplomatic ties between the U.S. and African countries. It discussed increasing trade, investment, development, security cooperation, and addressing issues like the Ebola outbreak. The U.S. committed $33 billion in aid and American companies planned $14 billion in investments in Africa. Key topics included power access in Africa, security issues like Boko Haram, and the Ebola situations in West Africa.
The document discusses recapturing the South African narrative through a brand summit and awards. It provides background on South Africa's history, from the end of apartheid to the current day. The summit aims to understand South Africa's current brand image, identify factors impacting its brand, discuss brand narratives and benchmark South Africa against other countries. It will recognize brands helping South Africa shine and facilitate discussions on South Africa's ideal brand identity. The summit includes panels on business, politics, communities and global benchmarking to discuss these topics from a nation brand perspective.
Conflict and the Post 2015 Development Agenda South AfricaDr Lendy Spires
This document discusses the post-2015 development agenda and its importance for South Africa and Africa. It provides context on the Millennium Development Goals and outlines the current global process underway to define new development goals. Key points include:
- The MDGs expire in 2015 and a single framework of universal goals is being negotiated for adoption in 2015.
- Sustainable Development Goals will be proposed in 2014 and will influence the post-2015 development agenda.
- An African Common Position is being drafted through the African Union to present African priorities and perspectives in the post-2015 negotiations. This process aims to ensure the new development framework meets the needs of Africa.
This thesis explores the relationship between China and Africa through China's investments on the African continent. The author conducted a study to understand how Chinese investment impacts African economies, politics, and people. They surveyed Chinese citizens to learn about their attitudes towards Africa and how that might shape investment approaches. The thesis also examines the Chinese model of development to identify strategies Africa could adopt to better leverage investment and ensure mutually beneficial relationships. The goal is to determine if Sino-African relations constitute a "win-win" partnership that is symbiotic, or mutually beneficial, for both sides.
Foreign aid trade and development form the SIIAZoely Mamizaka
This document provides an overview of East Asian engagement in sub-Saharan Africa, with a focus on China, Japan, and South Korea. It examines how their increasing presence through foreign aid, trade, and investment affects local politics, civil society, and efforts toward good governance and sustainable development. Through interviews with stakeholders in Zambia, Mozambique, and Uganda, the document explores perceptions of Asian engagement and its alignment with international agreements. A case study also analyzes South Korea's new cooperation strategy in Africa. The findings seek to provide insight into both the opportunities and challenges of Asia's rising strategic influence in the region.
This presentation is a simple overview of the African union, featuring its main objectives and some of the major challenges it is facing as a union. it helps to answer the question; who truly drives the sole African agenda?
Us Africa Leaders Summit Social Media Guide ShareDAWN
This document provides resources and guidelines for civil society organizations to participate in a social media campaign around the upcoming US-Africa Leaders Summit through the hashtag #TheAfricaWeWant. It outlines example tweets, lists participating organizations, and maps the social media accounts of relevant African governments and US officials. The goal is to remind leaders that civil society is key to the summit's success and to provide specific policy recommendations on issues like gender equality, extractive industries, and development assistance.
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The International Relations Discussion Document reflects on the ANC’s historic mandate of progressive internationalism that shaped South Africa’s current foreign policy outlook
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This document provides a course description for a class on Government and Politics in Africa. The class is intended to introduce students to contemporary African politics and the development of the post-colonial African state. It will examine the process of decolonization, independence periods, and recent political developments. Some of the major challenges discussed include responses to issues like globalization, natural resource management, and corruption. The course will also consider thematic issues such as health, migration, climate change, and the role of non-state actors. It will evaluate efforts towards sustainable development and examine specific country case studies from different regions.
This document is an introduction to a collection of papers on decentralization and urban development in West Africa. It provides context on urbanization trends in Africa, noting that West Africa in particular is urbanizing rapidly, with over half the population expected to live in cities between 2015-2020. Though urban growth has occurred, economic growth has not always kept pace. The introduction argues that while decentralization has been discussed in Africa for some time, its implications for urban policy and governance have been underexplored topics in both academic and practical terms. The collection aims to further understanding in this area.
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Putin and Xi Jinping discussed using the Chinese yuan instead of the US dollar for settlements between Russia and countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. This move challenges the dollar's dominance in global trade and finance. While the dollar currently gives the US significant economic and political power through sanctions, Russia and China are trying to reduce reliance on it by increasing yuan use and reserves.
This document discusses how transnational aid and faith-based organizations (FBOs) have undermined African governance. It argues that foreign aid has weakened accountability, democracy, and rule of law in African countries by making them dependent and responsive to external pressures. FBOs are analyzed as part of the transnational aid industry. While FBOs provide important services, the document contends they have failed to strengthen governance by enforcing rules and effectively delivering services. Their nature of operation, roles, and autonomy have misled them and weakened African governance in unintended ways. The motives of imperialist countries to exploit weaker nations for profit and domination have changed little over time, and the transnational aid industry serves these same motives by fostering dependency
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1. Africa in the
Wider World
A Report of the CSIS Africa Program
JULY 2014
editor
Richard Downie
1616 Rhode Island Avenue NW | Washington, DC 20036
t. 202.887.0200 | f. 202.775.3199 | www.csis.org
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD
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t. 800.462.6420 | f. 301.429.5749 | www.rowman.com
Cover photo: Shutterstock.com.
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ISBN 978-1-4422-4026-1
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3. Africa in the Wider
World
Editor
Richard Downie
A Report of the CSIS Africa Program
July 2014
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD
Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
5. Contents
Preface IV
1. Africa Diverging: The Struggle to Keep Pace with a Fast-Evolving Continent 1
Richard Downie
2. African Security: Time for a Change in Doctrine? 4
William M. Bellamy
3. The Unfinished Health Agenda in Africa 7
J. Stephen Morrison and Talia Dubovi
4. Linking Trade and Development in Africa 10
Daniel F. Runde and Conor M. Savoy
5. China and Africa: Is the Honeymoon Over? 12
Jennifer Cooke
6. India’s Africa Story 15
Richard M. Rossow
7. The Three Faces of African Energy 18
Sarah O. Ladislaw
8. Europe and Africa: Where Demographics and Insecurity Collide 21
Heather A. Conley and Jean-Francois Pactet
9. State Building Challenges in Africa 24
Robert D. Lamb
10. Africa and the Americas: Historic Ties, Future Opportunities 26
Carl Meacham
11. The Maghreb Looks South 29
Haim Malka
12. Banking on Africa’s Youth 31
Nicole Goldin
13. Africa Opening or Closing? 34
Sarah Mendelson
About the Editor and Authors 37
| III
6. Preface
The U.S.-Africa Leaders’ Summit, hosted by President Barack Obama in August 2014,
acknowledges the increasing strategic, economic, and diplomatic importance of Africa
and signals a desire by the United States to step up its engagement with one of the
world’s fastest-growing regions.
The summit provides a timely opportunity to take stock of some of the dynamic changes
that have been taking place in Africa’s 54 countries and examine the shifting contours of
its relations with the rest of the world.
In this collection of essays, regional and functional experts from CSIS consider the main
themes of the summit, including trade and investment, peace and security, and
democracy and good governance. They consider how Africa’s transformation is
changing the way the continent is viewed externally and driving new types of
engagement on security, development, and economic issues.
IV |
7. 1 | Africa Diverging
The Struggle to Keep Pace with a Fast-Evolving
Continent
Richard Downie
The U.S.-Africa Leaders’ summit, to be hosted by President Obama in Washington, D.C.,
from August 4 to 6, will bring welcome, high-profile attention to a continent that has
always struggled for sufficient attention from U.S. policymakers. More than 40 heads of
state have been invited for a series of discussions organized around the themes of
boosting trade and investment, peace and security, and development. The big emphasis
will be on showcasing the investment climate in Africa and building links between U.S.
companies and prospective new business partners on the continent. The summit is not
intended to rival the likes of China’s Forum on China-Africa Cooperation and Japan’s
Tokyo International Conference on African Development, regular gatherings that
generate splashy new aid pledges and offer African leaders one-on-one audiences with
their hosts’ heads of state. Instead, the Washington summit has the more general aim of
profiling the rising importance of Africa to the United States and signaling a commitment
(without dollar amounts attached) to increase the frequency and level of engagement.
These are laudable objectives but the summit has faced criticism for trying to tackle too
much in too short a space of time, instead of focusing on the trade and investment
agenda that was originally proposed following President Obama’s trip to Africa last
summer. Similar criticisms have been leveled at the Obama administration’s policy
toward Africa for lacking a grand narrative, an overarching framework for engaging
with the continent.1 However, the idea of fashioning a policy that is relevant to an entire
continent—never mind the most diverse continent in the world—is increasingly
redundant. Sweeping statements about Africa, or continental summits for that matter,
must be accompanied with caveats and qualifiers. The summit guest list reflects this.
Invitations have been withheld from nations currently suspended from the African
Union, although Morocco, which is not even a member of the African Union, will be
welcomed. Leaders including Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe and Omar al-Bashir of Sudan
have been excluded because they are not “in good standing” with the United States.2
Democracy and human rights activists have asked why value judgments have been
suspended for a set of other authoritarian leaders who have received invitations.
1
See, among others, John Norris, “Does Obama Have a Strategy for Africa?,” Foreign Policy, June 19, 2012,
http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/19/obamas_africa_strategy?page=0,1; Todd Moss, “Missing in
Africa: How Obama Failed to Engage an Increasingly Important Continent,” Foreign Affairs, October 2, 2012,
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138158/todd-moss/missing-in-africa; Richard Joseph, “President
Barack Obama and Africa’s Uncompleted Journey, Part I,” AfricaPlus, February 19, 2013,
https://africaplus.wordpress.com/2013/02/19/president-barack-obama-and-africas-uncompleted-journey-part-
i/; and Richard Joseph, “President Barack Obama and Africa’s Uncompleted Journey, Part II,” AfricaPlus,
March 13, 2013, https://africaplus.wordpress.com/2013/03/13/obama-and-africa-part-ii/.
2
White House Office of the Press Secretary, “Africa: White House on U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit,” allAfrica,
January 21, 2014, http://allafrica.com/stories/201401220001.html.
| 1
8. The reality is that Africa in 2014 is becoming more, not less, diverse, and the region—and
U.S. interests in the region—harder to pigeonhole than ever before. Africa is neither the
“hopeless continent” dismissed by the Economist magazine at the turn of the century; nor
is it “rising” in the uniform way the current froth from some media commentators and
investors would suggest.
Africa is diverging along all the key trajectories:
Economically: Speeches by U.S. officials on Africa invariably include the line that
7 of the 10 fastest-growing world economies are in Africa. Some countries, like
Kenya and Rwanda, are indeed doing well, and will continue their growth surge
thanks to smart fiscal stewardship and efforts to improve their investment
climates. Others, such as Angola and Equatorial Guinea, are recording impressive
growth built on shaky foundations, based overwhelmingly on the performance of
their natural-resource sectors. Others still, such as Uganda and Zambia, are
growing at a steady pace but failing to make the economic and governance
reforms to keep pace with growing populations. A final group including
Zimbabwe, South Sudan, and Central African Republic are falling farther and
farther behind due to factors including economic mismanagement, corruption,
and conflict.
Governance: Some African states enjoy increasingly solid, technocratic
governance, particularly in the economic realm. But institutional performance
across the continent is patchy, with weak legislatures and judiciaries failing to
stand up to over-powerful executives. Civil society, increasingly under pressure, is
nevertheless finding and using its voice more effectively. While Africa remains on
a democratic trajectory, progress has stalled in recent years. The annual Freedom
In the World Survey for 2014 ranks 10 countries as “free,” 22 as “partly free,” and
another 22 as “not free.”3
In some countries, such as Ghana and Senegal,
democratic governance has been consolidated and governments alternate
between rival parties at election time. At the other end of the spectrum, autocratic
leaders in countries like Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, and Cameroon cling to power
at all costs. In between, many countries fumble their way through the messy,
contentious process of democratization. Most of these countries hold elections,
but in too many, they are mere window-dressing for continued rule by the
incumbent or an anointed successor. Frustrated losers instinctively challenge
electoral outcomes, often with justification.
Security: While parts of the continent have enjoyed long periods of peace,
particularly in southern Africa, other regions have seen a regression. State-on-
state conflict is no longer an African problem; instead conflicts are subnational,
pitting nonstate armed groups of insurgents, terrorists, and criminals against
central governments or each other. Civilians bear the brunt of the casualties. The
Sahel is a particularly vulnerable region where weak, under-resourced
governments struggle to contain armed opponents.
3
Note that five North African countries are included in the Middle East and North Africa regional section.
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2014: The Democratic Leadership Gap (Washington, DC: Freedom
House, 2014), http://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Freedom%20in%20the%20World%202014%
20Booklet.pdf.
2 | RICHARD DOWNIE
9. Given this bewildering diversity, is it even possible to classify Africa as a meaningful unit
for policy engagement, or is it simply too unwieldy? Certainly the task is becoming
harder, but at the same time, there are some common challenges and opportunities
worth noting that should help guide the choices policymakers make as they consider
their engagement in Africa:
Poor governance is Africa’s Achilles’ heel, a shortcoming that is at the heart of
virtually all the continent’s problems. African governments from the national
down to the local must approach leadership with more seriousness and
dedication or face growing challenges from their increasingly emboldened,
empowered, and interconnected citizens. The United States can assist
governments that are serious about reform; and in those that are not, help civil
society improve its ability to hold leaders to account.
Wealth inequality is a looming concern, particularly in resource-rich, poorly
governed states. Impressive headline GDP growth figures in many countries fail to
capture the anger and desperation rising among the have-nots.
African-led solutions to the continent’s problems are desirable but the capacity to
provide them is still lagging. This is particularly true in the security sector, where
too few African countries have the desire, the professionalism, or the ability to
meet the challenges of terrorism, insurgency, and organized crime. At the
subregional and continental level, governing institutions like African Union must
step up to the challenge or face growing irrelevance.
Africa’s fast-growing youth population will define Africa’s path in the coming
decades, becoming the dynamo for transformative growth in some countries and
a locus for instability where governments are unable to meet their aspirations for
jobs and opportunities.
For the United States to be relevant in Africa, a long-term, sustained commitment will be
required to meet the headline challenges and capitalize upon the opportunities. This
commitment must not only be a “whole of government” one, involving the deployment of
skilled diplomats (sorely lacking right now in the State Department’s under-resourced
Bureau of African Affairs), development professionals, and security personnel. More
importantly, it must be a “whole of society” approach that brings in U.S. businesses large
and small, professionals, academics, and skilled Americans of all stripes to give Africa
the sustained attention and seriousness its growing global importance merits. For one
thing is clear: Africa is not short of suitors. Plenty of other countries have long-
recognized Africa’s importance and are lining up to offer partnership. As the continent
surges forward in the coming decades, the United States must keep pace with Africa’s
dynamism and diversity or risk being sidelined. By avoiding the temptation to paint
grand narratives and by instead devising nimble, flexible, multifaceted policies, the
United States can position itself to grasp the opportunities and face down the challenges
of this complex, diverse continent.
AFRICA DIVERGING | 3
10. 2 | African Security
Time for a Change in Doctrine?
William M. Bellamy
Africa’s robust economic growth will be a cause for celebration at the U.S.-Africa
Leaders’ summit in August. Only East and South Asia have grown faster than sub-
Saharan Africa since 2002. Surging commodity prices, new resource discoveries, long-
overdue improvements in infrastructure, a telecoms boom, and the emergence of new,
consumption-minded middle classes have sparked unprecedented investor interest in
the continent. During a visit to Africa last May, Secretary of State John Kerry hailed this
progress and promised the United States would be a “catalyst in this continued
transformation.”
Yet there is darker side to Africa’s economic modernization, and one of its most
worrisome features is an escalation of political violence. While big wars causing huge
civilian losses are rarer in Africa today than before, smaller conflicts involving rebels,
insurgents, and jihadists have proliferated in recent years. Alongside Africa’s older,
seemingly intractable conflicts in places like the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Sudan/South Sudan, newer armed movements are generating insecurity even in Africa’s
most democratic and prosperous states.
A short list of Africa’s most pressing conflict situations today includes:
South Sudan, where the government fractured in December 2013 along ethnic
lines, leading to an ongoing civil war with heavy humanitarian costs.
The Central African Republic, whose feeble government collapsed in 2013 under
attacks from rebel and mercenary bands and where exceptionally violent
sectarian fighting has ensued, creating another major humanitarian crisis.
The Democratic Republic of Congo, whose eastern provinces remain largely
ungoverned and where civilians remain prey to roving militias and ill-disciplined
government forces.
Mali, where a weak government supported by French forces has been struggling
to wrest control of half the country from Islamist and separatist militants.
Somalia, where Al-Shabaab insurgents have retreated from population centers
but remain a potent terrorist threat for an ineffective government and for
neighboring states.
Kenya, one of Africa’s stronger and more prosperous democracies, where a wave
of Al-Shabaab terrorist attacks have triggered heavy-handed, and largely
ineffective, security force responses that many predict will only further radicalize
Muslim youth.
4 |
11. Nigeria, Africa’s largest economy, where the Boko Haram insurgency has killed
perhaps 5,000 and displaced 300,000 civilians since 2009, turning northeastern
Nigeria into a virtual war zone bereft of functioning government institutions.
Nigerian forces have both failed to contain the rebellion and alienated many
communities with their scorched-earth counterinsurgency tactics.
One troubling conclusion from these conflicts is that violent nonstate actors are
increasingly better armed, more mobile, more motivated, and at least as well networked
internationally as the government forces opposing them. A spectacular example was the
quick defeat in 2012 of Mali’s Western-trained army by fast-moving, well-equipped, and
multinational Tuareg rebels and Islamist forces. Likewise, the battle of relatively wealthy
and well-armed states like Nigeria and Kenya to contain rapidly metastasizing terrorist
threats on their territory shows violent nonstate actors are evolving the capacity to
disrupt and terrorize faster than states are learning to defend their territory and
populations.
Alarmed by the spread of insurgencies and government breakdowns, the African Union
(AU) has redoubled its call for Africa to develop its own intervention capabilities. And
while AU military forces have performed well in Somalia, the overall record of member
states responding to AU calls for concerted action is not promising. The AU is years
behind its original 2010 target date for creating regional intervention brigades to address
crises such as those in Mali and the Central African Republic, where only France’s
intervention prevented outright state collapse.
Building Africa’s defensive capacities is a longstanding U.S. priority. President Obama’s
June 2012 Africa strategy again highlighted this goal, noting that the United States would
“expand efforts to build African military capabilities through low-cost and small-
footprint operations.” From its base in Djibouti and through stepped-up, brief visits by
Special Forces personnel, the U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) has made training of
African militaries the centerpiece of its strategy. In addition, the State Department has
funded and the Department of Defense has executed military support operations in
Africa ranging from training, equipping, and paying the salaries of AU forces in Somalia,
to airlifting African troops to crisis zones such as the Central African Republic and Mali,
to sharing with African and European partners intelligence on hostile forces such as Al-
Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). A small contingent of U.S. Special Forces has
supported Ugandan and other forces attempting to hunt down the remnants of the Lord’s
Resistance Army.
President Obama’s recent promise at West Point to add another $5 billion to worldwide
counterterrorism partnerships means the United States will likely be further ramping up
military support programs in Africa. What will not change, however, is the fundamental
principle of keeping U.S. forces out of direct combat roles in Africa except for infrequent,
brief interventions where U.S. lives or vital interests are at stake.
Regardless of how much security assistance is poured into Africa, near-term prospects
for containing rebel and insurgent violence are uncertain at best. Across Africa, the
critical missing ingredient is not a lack of funding, training, or equipment. Of course,
many African militaries (and police forces) are chronically under-resourced and staffed
by underpaid and demoralized personnel. But these shortages are symptoms of a deeper
AFRICAN SECURITY | 5
12. flaw, which is the reluctance of many African governments to undertake urgently
needed reforms of their security forces.
Whether it is tight budgets, or high-level corruption, or institutional fears of powerful
armies, or just official indifference, far too many African governments have for years
dodged the need to align their security forces with the actual threats their nations face.
Thus most African military and police forces continue to focus exclusively on regime
protection and maintenance of public order. Protecting civilian populations—against
armed gangs, insurgents, or even ordinary criminals—is a secondary mission, and one
few African security forces perform well.
This is why Nigeria’s military, for years considered one of Africa’s strongest, has been
completely outmatched by an elusive and ruthless Boko Haram. Embattled civilians in
northern Nigeria have come to fear the indiscriminate rampages of Nigerian troops
almost as much as the attacks of Boko Haram. Kenya’s police forces, for whom the Kenya
public has low regard, lack the capacity to investigate even ordinary crime, much less
comprehend and counter growing terrorist attacks inside Kenya. The Democratic
Republic of the Congo’s armed forces, despite years of training by Western militaries, are
rightly viewed by Congolese civilians as ill-disciplined predators, not protectors.
Where publics distrust governments, fear security forces, and are reluctant to cooperate
with authorities, rebellions and insurgencies take root more easily. For historically
“strong” African states like Nigeria and Kenya this is a painful discovery in a time of
crises.
At the August summit American officials are not likely to lecture their African guests on
their shortcomings as security providers. However, the urgency of Security Sector
Reform, especially in those states facing acute crises, is worth more than just a passing
mention. Without changes in doctrine to make civilian protection their highest security
priority, many African states will be hard pressed to counter violence from increasingly
sophisticated and determined nonstate actors.
6 | WILLIAM M. BELLAMY
13. 3 | The Unfinished Health Agenda in
Africa
J. Stephen Morrison and Talia Dubovi
Some of the United States’ most vital and impactful relationships with African nations
are in the health sector. In the past decade, over $50 billion has been committed to
addressing HIV/AIDS through the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR),1
and the investment of significant additional resources has led to dramatic advances in
the prevention and treatment of infectious disease; improvements in maternal, newborn,
and child health; better training of health workers and management of health systems;
and progress on outbreak control. This expansive, historic engagement has earned the
United States considerable good will, and it has prompted partner governments,
international institutions, foundations, and other donors to increase their own
commitments to health. It has also put a spotlight on the considerable unfinished health
agenda in Africa and the need for the United States and others to look for new and
innovative ways to expand affordable, equitable health services on the continent,
including better leveraging the potential of the private sector to achieve future
substantial gains in health in Africa.
The tenor of recent discourse in U.S. policy circles regarding the future of U.S.
development assistance—and health in particular—might give the impression that a
transition to African countries taking predominant responsibility for managing,
financing, and delivering health services is imminent, and that the United States will
soon be able to substantially draw down its investments in the health sector. However,
this proposition is mistaken and misses one critical question: will African states
realistically acquire the capacity in the near to medium term to take ownership of their
health systems? In a very few instances—South Africa, Botswana, Namibia—there is
reason to be hopeful; in the majority of cases, there is much more work to be done, and a
true transition to country ownership remains a distant aspiration.
The question of capacity has many facets. The first and most obvious is funding. While
levels of U.S. and international development assistance for health have been resilient—
and have in fact grown slightly between 2011 and 2013 in spite of the global financial
crisis and austerity measures—there is general consensus that future aid budgets will be
flat at best.2 Expansion of services—to reach more people, address additional diseases,
improve infrastructure and technology, and expand training—will have to come from
increased efficiencies, enhanced private-sector participation, and higher budgetary
commitments by national governments. Economic growth on the continent is promising,
but it is not universal. And even in countries that have experienced 3–6 percent growth
1
U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), “Shared Responsibility-Strengthening Results For
An AIDS-Free Generation: Latest PEPFAR Funding,” June 2014, http://www.pepfar.gov/documents/
organization/189671.pdf.
2
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), Financing Global Health 2013: Transition in an Age of
Austerity (Seattle, WA: IHME, 2014), http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/policy_report/2014/
FGH2013/IHME_FGH2013_Full_Report.pdf.
| 7
14. over the past decade, there has not been in most cases a commensurate expansion of
health budgets.3 Former prime minister Raila Odinga of Kenya recently highlighted how
African leaders must always balance health needs with other competing priorities, from
infrastructure and transportation to public safety and education.4
The United States and
other international donors cannot assume that economic growth will automatically lead
to robust investments in health systems.
In the meantime, African nations also face the growing economic and health burden of
noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), such as diabetes, hypertension, respiratory ailments,
and cancer. Dr. Thomas Frieden, director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, has called NCDs the “unstarted agenda”—a formidable challenge that has yet
to be addressed meaningfully by national governments or international donors.5
Driven
by obesity, dietary and lifestyle changes, tobacco and alcohol use, and environmental
contamination, NCDs have the potential to derail economic gains while dramatically
increasing the demands on health systems. Transitioning to country ownership will thus
require not only assuming responsibility for managing the infectious disease and
maternal, newborn, and child health infrastructure created by international donors but
also expanding systems to be able to prevent, diagnose, and treat NCDs. It requires
changing public behavior, and better engaging the private sector to address chronic
illnesses.
A second facet is human capacity. The World Health Organization estimates that there is
a global shortage of 7.2 million health care workers who are needed to adequately
address the health needs of the population.6
Countries that have tried to address this gap
through voluntary health worker programs face serious questions about how long
volunteers can be expected to stay on the job, and paid programs, such as Ethiopia’s
Health Extension Program, face equally serious questions about how long funding can be
sustained. In addition, health workers need to be educated and trained, and countries
must address longstanding problems with the quality of work environments that
threaten retention rates. Building the necessary workforce will require serious political
dedication along with significant budgetary commitments.
Third, a lack of adequate infrastructure limits many countries’ health-sector capacity.
This shortfall takes two forms: the need for physical infrastructure, including roads,
electricity, and water, and a lack of public health infrastructure. Power Africa, the
Obama administration’s major development initiative on the continent, was created
because two-thirds of sub-Saharan Africans lack reliable electricity supplies.7 Basic
reporting and surveillance systems that allow for decisionmaking, health monitoring,
evaluation, and accountability are severely lacking.8
Combined, these gaps in
infrastructure pose significant challenges to building sustainable health systems.
3
Ibid.
4
Raila Odinga, keynote speech at “Health in Africa: The Unfinished Agenda,” conference hosted by CSIS,
CARE, and World Affairs Council of Atlanta, Atlanta, May 19, 2014.
5
Thomas Frieden, keynote speech at “Health in Africa: The Unfinished Agenda,” conference hosted by CSIS,
CARE, and World Affairs Council of Atlanta, Atlanta, May 19, 2014.
6
World Health Organization (WHO), A Universal Truth: No Health Without a Workforce (Geneva: WHO,
November 2013), http://www.who.int/workforcealliance/knowledge/resources/GHWA_
AUniversalTruthReport.pdf.
7
White House Office of the Press Secretary, "FACT SHEET: Power Africa," June 30, 2013,
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/06/30/fact-sheet-power-africa.
8
Frieden, keynote speech at “Health in Africa.”
8 | J. STEPHEN MORRISON AND TALIA DUBOVI
15. Finally, governance and leadership are the ultimate arbiters of the future. When
corruption siphons health dollars into off-shore accounts,9 when laws against
homosexuality impede access and threaten the safety of entire populations,10
and when
failures in governance lead to governments that are not responsive to the needs of their
citizens, health outcomes suffer.11
This is not to undermine the real and important gains that have been made or the
potential of countries across the continent to eventually take full ownership of their
health systems. But prematurely transitioning to country ownership threatens to roll
back the important health gains that have been achieved in the last decade.
The United States and the international community can and should play a role in
addressing these barriers and helping African governments develop the capacity to
assume the cost and management of providing health care to their citizens. The Obama
administration should use the occasion of this summit to emphasize the role that the
private sector can play in health, and to push hard for corporate leaders to engage more
fully to find new ways to bring affordable, quality services on an equitable basis to all
African citizens.
Most importantly, it is the African leaders gathering in Washington who must decide if
they have the political will to advance the health agenda. Without their commitment—to
expand budgets, end corruption, engage the private sector, build and sustain
community-level primary health care delivery, improve conditions for health workers,
and delegitimize homophobia and human rights violations—countries cannot progress
toward sustainable health systems. The future of health in Africa is in their hands.
9
Odinga, keynote speech at “Health in Africa.”
10
Richard Downie, Revitalizing the Fight against Homophobia in Africa (Washington, DC: CSIS, May 2014),
http://csis.org/files/publication/140506_Downie_HomophobiaAfrica_Web.pdf.
11
Odinga, keynote speech at “Health in Africa.”
THE UNFINISHED HEALTH AGENDA IN AFRICA | 9
16. 4 | Linking Trade and Development
in Africa
Daniel F. Runde and Conor M. Savoy
The U.S.-Africa Leaders’ Summit will focus on trade and investment opportunities in
Africa, while highlighting America’s commitments to security and democratic
governance on the continent. Although the administration has prioritized relations with
sub-Saharan Africa, it remains unclear what “deliverables” will be offered up at the
summit; this can be rectified and there is a big opportunity at the nexus of trade and
development for the United States to transform its relationship with Africa from one
based primarily on assistance into a true economic partnership of equals. This can be
achieved with the deployment of some focused resources and by renewing—and
reenergizing—the flagship trade agreement between the United States and Africa, the
African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).
The August summit takes place at a critical moment for the United States and its trade
and development relationship with the continent. This relationship is defined by two
critical, but at the moment unlinked, agreements: AGOA and the recently concluded Bali
agreement on trade facilitation. AGOA provides duty-free, quota-free entry for more than
6,000 products into the United States, although, in practice the vast majority of goods that
enter the United States under AGOA have been oil and other petroleum products. AGOA
eligibility is determined annually for sub-Saharan countries based on improvement of
labor rights and movement toward a market-based economy. Currently, 39 Africa
countries are included in the program. AGOA is due for renewal when it expires in
September 2015; it was renewed in 2004 with relatively few changes. Simply renewing
AGOA as it currently stands would be a missed opportunity that would fail to advance
U.S.-Africa trade and economic relations; rather, the administration must explore ways
to link a new agreement with the recently concluded Bali agreement.
The Bali agreement on trade facilitation, reached in December 2013 following nine years
of negotiations, offers significant potential for both developing and developed countries.
Trade facilitation, as defined by the Doha Agreement, is “further expediting the
movement, release, and clearance of goods, including goods in transit, and the need for
enhanced technical assistance and capacity building in this area.” It is estimated that
trade facilitation could provide the world economy with more than $1 trillion of
additional trade, evenly split between developed and developing countries. USAID
estimates that reducing global trade costs by just 1 percent will lead to an approximately
$40 billion increase in world income.
Bali seeks to finish the job of earlier agreements by identifying what needs to be done to
help countries meet their obligations to remove bottlenecks to trade. By signing the Bali
agreement, countries committed themselves to making the necessary reforms and
improvements to meet trade facilitation obligations. Countries must designate which
10 |
17. parts of the agreement they can implement immediately, after a transition period, and
after a period during which they receive technical support and capacity-building
assistance. Some African countries are already pursuing implementation through
existing programs, but far more will need technical assistance from donors to become
fully compliant with the agreement. Implementation costs of the agreement will vary
from country to country and there will of course be an initial burden on all involved
including regulatory, institutional, coordination, training, and infrastructure costs,
among others.
The Obama administration should use the opportunity presented by the visit of so many
African heads of state in August to pursue a multipronged strategy around the Bali
agreement. First, it must have an expansive conversation with African leaders about the
kinds of assistance they require to become compliant with the Bali agreement. This
discussion should then lead to a convening by Washington of bilateral and multilateral
donors to determine how to meet these requests. Additionally, the summit offers an
opportunity for the administration to host a broad discussion with African leaders on
how to shape a new AGOA that would be of mutual benefit to both parties. President
Obama should begin work with the U.S. Congress as soon as possible to identify funding
to support a new trade facilitation program that could be integrated into the AGOA
renewal.
The Obama administration has the opportunity to fundamentally transform U.S.-Africa
relations. Since decolonization the primary means of interaction between the United
States and Africa has been foreign assistance, but this is an outmoded approach that does
not reflect present-day realities. U.S. companies see the economic potential that exists in
sub-Saharan Africa and foreign direct investment has grown in recent years, yet
significant barriers remain to further trade with, and investment in, the region.
Overcoming these barriers will require efforts to transform AGOA from a trade
preference program to one that seeks to improve trade facilitation and ultimately build
trade capacity across Africa. This summit offers the best opportunity to begin this
process.
LINKING TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA | 11
18. 5 | China and Africa
Is the Honeymoon Over?
Jennifer Cooke
China’s commercial and diplomatic surge into Africa some 15 years ago was greeted by
many in Africa with exuberant expectations of what expanded engagement could bring
to the continent in trade, investment, and growth. The China-Africa partnership has
delivered on many fronts, and for many African economies the relationship has been
truly transformative. But as Chinese engagement with Africa grows broader and more
diverse, the initial euphoria has begun to subside. African governments and citizens are
taking a more skeptical and pragmatic look at the costs and benefits of their partnerships
with China. And the Chinese government is recognizing that it will need a more nuanced
and differentiated approach to its African partners if it is to maximize the political and
economic opportunities of engagement.
The initial exuberance around China’s expansion was understandable. African
governments welcomed an economically powerful alternative to traditional Western
donors. The package deals of aid, loans, and investment that China brought to many of
its new commercial partners were equally welcome, and China was in a number of cases
willing to pay premiums well over market price to seal deals and secure its foothold. The
high-visibility construction projects—stadiums, hospitals, ministries—that China was
willing to build (albeit most often with Chinese labor) were likewise happily accepted.
And China’s “respect for sovereignty” and policy of noninterference in domestic African
affairs didn’t hurt either.
For China, Africa is a relatively low priority in the country’s broader foreign policy
agenda, but expansion into the continent was an important part of its global “Going Out”
strategy and its aspirations as a rising global power. Access to new energy sources was a
critical driver of China’s push, and today 16 percent of China’s oil imports come from
Africa (largely Angola, with a smaller portion from Sudan). Crude oil makes up 64
percent of China’s overall imports from Africa. Africa is the source of 6 percent of
China’s iron ore imports (largely from South Africa) and 8.3 percent of its imports of
copper (mostly from Zambia). Beyond commodities, Africa is seen as a market for
relatively low-cost goods and textiles that have been at the heart of China’s export
strategy. Concessional loans to African governments have often been structured to
provide Chinese contracting companies with privileged access to lucrative construction
and infrastructure deals. On the political front, Africa’s 54 states offer the possibility of a
powerful bloc of support for China’s positions in global institutions and debates.
The China-Africa partnership has remained strong and the benefits that the relationship
has brought to African economies are widely acknowledged. Chinese lending has
allowed many African countries to build sorely needed infrastructure, and Chinese
commodity demand has driven high average growth rates in Africa for more than a
decade. These new revenues have in turn opened up possibilities for diversification into
12 |
19. other sectors. Chinese trade with Africa—$210 billion in 2013—now exceeds that of the
United States.
But as the relationship has matured and the realities of more protracted interaction set
in, both China and African governments are stepping back from a largely uncritical
embrace toward a more pragmatic and realistic assessment of the costs and benefits of
partnership.
For African governments a number of factors are behind the shift.
First, domestic constituencies, including civil society groups, unions, and business
owners, have increasingly pressed their respective governments on the more
controversial aspects of China’s commercial engagement, including environmental
damage, worker compensation and safety standards, the glut of Chinese textiles that
have undercut African textile producers, employment quotas, and local content
requirements.
Second, African governments are thinking more strategically about their global
engagement and commercial diplomacy. Countries like Angola have recognized the need
to maintain a diverse portfolio of investment partners, and are aware that a slow-down
in China’s growth could have serious repercussions on their own economic prospects. A
number of governments, including South Africa, have become more vocal in protesting
the lopsided nature of their trade relationship with China, and many are beginning to
chafe at the extraction of natural resources (by China and others) without benefit of local
processing or value addition.
Third has been the expanding presence of a broad swathe of private Chinese citizens in
Africa—over 1 million, by some estimates—including small traders, private businesses
and entrepreneurs, and workers. Many have successfully set up shop and are integrated
into local economies. But instances of worker safety violations, bribes to local officials,
and tensions with local communities have tainted perceptions of China and pose a
reputational risk to the Chinese government (although it has very little control over these
diaspora populations). In 2013, Ghana expelled more than 4,500 Chinese nationals
accused of operating in illegal gold mines. A growing area of controversy has been
unabated popular demand in China for ivory and rhinoceros horn, which has fueled a
poaching pandemic across Africa. Wildlife trafficking has generated increasingly
sophisticated criminal syndicates operating across the continent.
For its part, China is beginning to acknowledge the limitations of its noninterference
policy. After investing more than $20 billion in Sudan’s oil sector, it saw the bulk of the
country’s oil assets ceded to the newly independent South Sudan, and then watched as
South Sudan disintegrated into civil war, reducing production by more than one-third.
With its commercial interests seriously at risk, China has taken on a far more direct
diplomatic role in supporting regional mediation efforts. In Zimbabwe, China’s long-
standing relationship with the government is beginning to fray, as corruption,
mismanagement, and uncertainty around presidential succession have caused the
Chinese government to reconsider the wisdom of its unconditional support for Mugabe
and the Zimbabwe African National Union–Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) regime. In April,
the Chinese government rebuffed the Zimbabwe government’s plea for a $10 billion
economic rescue package, citing high political risk and an uncertain commercial return.
As China’s investments expand, so too does its stake in protecting those investments
CHINA AND AFRICA | 13
20. against insecurity. China has for the first time deployed combat troops to Africa to join
the UN peacekeeping operation in Mali, a departure from its usual contribution of
engineers and noncombat personnel.
China is also beginning to appreciate the importance of public opinion in building long-
term partnerships in Africa. In 2013, President Xi Jinping sought to reassure his
Tanzanian audience that China would continue to help African countries “transform
their advantages in energy resources into advantages in development.” Prime Minister Li
Keqiang has acknowledged “growing pains” in the relationship, and was careful to
emphasize the importance of “inclusive growth” during his 2014 Africa tour.
Areas of friction in the China-Africa relationship are important, but they are unlikely to
fundamentally derail China’s expanding engagement within Africa. China’s demand for
energy resources will only rise over the long term, and some of its partnerships may
shift, as new natural gas producers in East Africa come on stream. Rather, the tensions
reflect a relationship that is becoming less infused with hyperbole and hope and more
grounded in economic and political realities. African governments are beginning to
demand more from their Chinese partnerships, and China appears more attuned to
public perceptions and the need to extend beyond its traditional government-to-
government engagement.
A bigger challenge to the relationship may be approaching, as China’s economic growth
slows and as its economy moves beyond the frenzy of construction that has sustained
high commodity demand. Already, China’s demand for iron ore has waned, with
stockpiles at Chinese ports at a record high. A series of recent financing scandals,
involving the use of imported minerals to secure loans, may suggest that Chinese
commodity demand has been artificially inflated, and the scandals may make
commercial banks more cautious in financing Chinese mining investments. A drop in
China’s mineral commodity demand would be a major setback to a number of China’s
African partners and underscores the urgency of broadening their economic base and
capitalizing on the opportunities that Chinese engagement has delivered.
14 | JENNIFER COOKE
21. 6 | India’s Africa Story
Richard M. Rossow
One hundred years ago Mahatma Gandhi left South Africa, returning to India to the
movement for Indian independence. Today, India’s largest companies are reversing this
course and beating a path back to sub-Saharan Africa, flush with capital and expertise in
creating opportunity in uncertain conditions—skills honed through dealing with a
similar environment at home. There will be growing competition with American firms
for business success in Africa, but also some potential areas for collaboration.
There is a colloquial Hindi word—jugaad—which roughly translates into “workaround.”
Jugaad is the overriding principle of doing business in India. The system for launching
and operating a business has many obstacles, and the most successful businesses are
those that have been able to find ways to work around the existing system. This frame of
mind for building a business will make India’s multinationals—of which there are
many—poised for success in emerging markets. In fact, India is already one of the largest
investors into, and traders with, sub-Saharan Africa.
By most measures, India ranks among the top five investors into Africa. Between 2003
and 2012 Indian firms concluded 133 deals valued at around $15 billion.1
In 2013, India
invested in 49 projects in Africa, up from 41 the previous year.2
This represented the
largest percent-growth in new investment projects of any of the top six investors in
Africa. More importantly, India’s investments have punched above their weight in terms
of job creation. While India ranks as the fourth-largest investor, it is the third-largest job
creator in Africa of any foreign investor, accounting for 7.1 percent of all jobs created
through foreign investment in the last five years.3
Over the last 25 years, India’s trade with Africa has increased nearly 6,000 percent. That
growth rate is a bit behind its trade increase with Latin America or Asia, but well ahead
of its trade growth with Europe and North America. Total trade between India and Africa
in fiscal 2013 was about $43 billion, compared to $65 billion with North America, $103
billion with the European Union, and $204 billion with the rest of Asia.4
There are key reasons why Indian firms gravitate toward Africa. There are some natural
affinities, particularly with Anglophone Africa, where a shared language and elements of
retained British influence on society and governance serve to create a basic comfort
level. In addition, some of the difficulties of doing business in sub-Saharan Africa—
1
Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP, “A Decade of Growth: Foreign Investment in Africa,” July 2013,
http://www.freshfields.com/uploadedFiles/SiteWide/News_Room/Insight/Africa_MandA/A%20decade%20of%
20growth(1).pdf.
2
EY, Africa 2014: Executing Growth, EY’s 2014 Africa Attractiveness Survey (Johannesburg: EY, 2014),
http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY-attractiveness-africa-2014/$FILE/EY-attractiveness-africa-
2014.pdf.
3
Ibid.
4
Trade data from Reserve Bank of India, “Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy,” September 2013,
http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AnnualPublications.aspx?head=Handbook%20of%20Statistics%20on%20Indian
%20Economy&fromdate=09/15/2013&todate=09/17/2013.
| 15
22. getting approvals, poor infrastructure, and weak contract enforcement—are prominent
features of doing business in India, and many Indian companies have devised methods
to work around such obstacles.5
A third reason is that Indian firms have witnessed a
deterioration in the business environment in their own country over the last 10 years
and been looking for high-growth opportunities outside their border.
The United States also ranks among the largest investors in Africa, typically ranking
either first or second in terms of total number of projects. Much like India, it is often less
of a resource grab, and more about becoming deeply involved in a high-growth part of
the world. The United States has created the second-highest number of jobs in Africa
since 2007 through its investments, at 8.3 percent of the total.6
Overall, investment from
all U.S. sources in Africa is expected to increase to $60.4 billion in 2014, up from $56.6
billion in 2013.7
For U.S. policymakers and business leaders, this leads to a critical question: will the
United States and India become direct competitors in Africa? Both sides have strengths—
while the United States has powerful global brands and deep pockets, Indian firms are
more acclimated to this type of business environment, and have already created
products and services that target large consumer segments found both in their home
market as well as Africa. Only time will tell which model will prove more successful.
But there is another lesson to be learned here—there is likely going to be a high degree of
complementarity between American and Indian firms. These potential
complementarities should be targeted by business leaders, and accentuated by
government leaders to maximize the economic benefits for both countries as well as
African consumers. EY paints an excellent portrait of how this may work. IBM has had a
presence in Africa for decades, but revenue from Africa was only a fraction of the
company’s global revenue.8 In 2010, a major Indian client of IBM, Bharti Airtel, acquired
an African telecommunications provider and promptly contracted IBM to oversee
infrastructure and systems integration across 16 markets in Africa. This one deal helped
expand IBM’s footprint and investment activities in Africa.
There are similar examples of American and Indian firms collaborating to find new
markets. One famous example is the American pharmaceutical firm Gilead. Through its
novel access program, it has contracted with 17 low-cost pharmaceutical producers—16
of them in India—to reduce prices by 80 percent, and dramatically expand the
availability of Gilead’s HIV therapy (the other producer is based in South Africa). The net
result—about 5.4 million people9
in low-income countries are taking Gilead’s HIV
therapies produced by these licensing partners. This type of innovative partnership can
mean more than profits and enables greater access to life-saving medicines in places like
sub-Saharan Africa, home to two-thirds of the world’s HIV-positive population.
5
World Bank, “Doing Business: Economy Rankings,” http://doingbusiness.org/rankings.
6
EY, Africa 2014.
7
African Development Bank, African Economic Outlook 2014 (Abidjan: African Development Bank, 2014),
Chapter 2: External Financial Flows and Tax Revenues for Africa, http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/
fileadmin/uploads/aeo/2014/PDF/Chapter_PDF/02_Chapter2_AEO2014_EN.light.pdf.
8
EY, Africa 2014.
9
Gilead Sciences Inc., “HIV/AIDS,” http://www.gilead.com/responsibility/developing-world-access/
hiv%20aids.
16 | RICHARD M. ROSSOW
23. Africa is no longer simply the “market of the future.” Indian companies view the region
as a natural market for their products and services, and have some familiarity with its
business practices. As the United States expands its own investments into Africa, there
will certainly be a growing competition between American and Indian firms, but also
some important synergies that can hopefully lead to success for all parties—particularly
Africans themselves.
INDIA’S AFRICA STORY | 17
24. 7 | The Three Faces of African Energy
Sarah O. Ladislaw
Africa’s place in the energy world is defined by its growing population and energy
consumption, its legacy and new resource endowment, and its strategic location. In
recent years excitement over newfound natural gas resources in East Africa has
dominated headlines, heralding speculation about an emerging age of African energy. At
the same time, however, increasing discoveries and development of U.S. shale gas and
tight oil resources and the reality of the continued turmoil in historically large producing
areas like Nigeria and Libya have put a damper on the “rise of Africa” narrative. As a
consequence, Africa’s energy landscape is far more complicated than any one narrative
might suggest. In fact, there are at least three faces of African energy that will have
strategic implications for the continent’s place in the global energy landscape for the
next several decades. Each one requires careful public, private, domestic, and
international attention.
Traditional Oil Exporters: Production Challenges and Changing
Patterns of Trade
Several African suppliers have been and remain important contributors of energy
resources to the global market. In 2012, the North and West Africa regions together were
responsible for around 13 percent of total crude and product exports.1 Nigeria, Angola,
Algeria, and Libya all ranked among the top 15 oil-exporting countries in the world.
Together they represented 9 percent of global oil production. However, production in all
four countries has been flat or declining since 2010. Libya has experienced the most
dramatic fluctuations, due in large part to ongoing political turmoil. Current production
is estimated at less than 200,000 barrels per day.2
In Nigeria, theft and sabotage continue
to hold production below 2 million barrels per day. Algerian and Angolan production are
in a state of marginal decline with both countries needing more investment to bring on
greater supplies. These major African oil producers and exporters all traditionally
serviced U.S. and European markets. With the onset of domestic tight oil production, U.S.
imports of African crude oil have declined. Looking forward, African oil producers also
see challenging and declining markets for their crude in Europe as well. Increasingly
these supplies will likely find their way to markets in Asia.
New Resource Development: Big Finds, Uncertain Future
Several promising oil and natural gas resource discoveries in recent years have created
optimism about Africa’s overall resource potential. In West Africa, Angola, Equatorial
Guinea, and other countries have undertaken significant offshore development
programs to assess the resource potential of their deepwater resources. According to the
1
BP, BP Statistical Review of World Energy (London: BP, June 2014), http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/
Energy-economics/statistical-review-2014/BP-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2014-full-report.pdf.
2
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), “Short-term Energy Outlook: Table 3c: OPEC Crude Oil
Supply,” June 10, 2014, http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/tables/?tableNumber=7#endcode=201512&
periodtype=m&startcode=201001.
18 |
25. U.S. Geological Survey, Western Africa’s offshore deepwater could hold 71.7 billion
barrels of oil, 187.2 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and 10.9 billion barrels of natural
gas liquids.3
Given the right investment frameworks this potential could be attractive
compared to other international investment opportunities. On the east coast of Africa in
Mozambique and Tanzania, major world-class natural gas finds have created a great deal
of excitement and investor interest. So far three notable oil and gas finds in these two
countries alone have revealed an estimated 127–160 trillion cubic feet of recoverable
natural gas resources.4 That said, the development of these resources faces significant
challenges, notably the immature and uncertain investment terms over the long run, the
lack of domestic capacity and infrastructure to develop, transport, and utilize these
resources, as well as governance and institutional capacity issues. All of this is on top of
the very dynamic international gas market investment landscape that makes
development of costly greenfield projects all the more uncertain.
Finally, several African countries are home to potentially significant unconventional oil
and gas resources. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, and South Africa were all
assessed as part of a recent global Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale Gas study
commissioned by the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Of the 137 shale
formations assessed in 41 countries, Libya ranked fifth in terms of shale oil potential and
Algeria and South Africa ranked third and eighth respectively in terms of shale gas
potential. Resource potential by no means guarantees development, and each country is
at the very early stages of evaluating the possible commercial opportunities.
Development of these prospective resources can be an important contributor to African
economic growth but also the global oil and gas market picture. Africa is expected to
account for 10 percent of global oil and 9 percent of global gas production by 2035, as
well as 23 percent of interregional gas exports and 10 percent of interregional oil exports
in that same year.5
Africa the Energy Consumer
Africa’s energy demand is growing faster than any other region of the world and its
share of energy exports is expected to decline from 51 percent of production today to 36
percent by 2035 as demand for energy on the continent grows by over 90 percent over
that same time period.6
Sub-Saharan Africa is home to half of the 1.2 billion people who
lack electricity, and 17 of the 20 countries with the lowest electricity consumption in the
world are in Africa. Addressing this gap is not only important for meeting broader
societal development goals but it can also provide enormous investment and
technological opportunities for investors. Countries around the world are
simultaneously investing in the development of African energy resources and the
modern infrastructure (transportation, telecommunications, and electricity)
requirements that will underpin future economic growth and investment opportunities.
The U.S. government launched its own strategic Power Africa Initiative in 2013 designed
as a multigovernment agency, public-private partnership to catalyze investment
opportunities starting in six key countries in the region. The initiative brought together
3
U.S. Geological Survey, “Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas Resources of Four West Africa Geologic
Provinces,” February 2010, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3006/pdf/FS10-3006.pdf.
4
EIA, “Emerging East Africa Energy,” May 23, 2013, http://www.eia.gov/countries/regions-topics2.cfm?fips=
EEAE.
5
BP, “Energy Outlook 2035: Africa,” http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/Energy-economics/Energy-
Outlook/Country_insights_Africa_2035.pdf.
6
Ibid.
THE THREE FACES OF AFRICAN ENERGY | 19
26. 35 partners from various regions to commit $14 billion of funding (not all of it new) to
investments that will increase generation capacity, improve electricity connection, boost
cross-border electricity trade, and enhance domestic resource management capabilities.7
The energy infrastructure investment need in Africa far exceeds any single country’s
efforts or capabilities but it does appear that a new strategic game is afoot to capture not
only the resource-development potential in Africa but also the new market for
consumption of goods and services.
Conclusion
Africa’s energy landscape is dynamic and important to regional and global supplies. Part
of the exuberance over Africa’s economic rise has focused on the new energy discoveries
that could serve as engines for growth and sources for energy if developed in a profitable
and sustainable manner—big “ifs” over the near to medium term. But African countries
without significant energy resources are growing as well, such as Ethiopia, Rwanda, and
Zambia. Moreover, energy development is not necessarily a guarantor of a sustainable
economic growth and development trajectory and, if mismanaged, can actually serve to
undermine economic and political stability goals.
This growth and its implications have garnered a great deal of attention. As the world
economy is “shifting east,” eastern focus is shifting west. The growing interest of Asian
nations—including China and India, but also Middle Eastern countries—in both Africa’s
resources and growth opportunities is making the Indo-Pacific region one of the most
interesting geopolitical areas of growth, opportunity, and possible tension going forward.
The competitive field for Africa’s natural resources is well trodden by global
entrepreneurs and governments from around the world. The key for many African
nations is to encourage development of a natural resource base to fuel an era of
sustainable economic growth and development.
7
Earl Gast, “Powering Africa’s Future: Examining the Power Africa Initiative,” testimony before the Senate
Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Africa, March 27, 2014, http://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/
doc/REVISED_Gast_Testimony1.pdf.
20 | SARAH O. LADISLAW
27. 8 | Europe and Africa
Where Demographics and Insecurity Collide
Heather A. Conley and Jean-Francois Pactet
When one thinks of the relationship between Europe and Africa today, two images that
come to mind are of French military forces intervening in the Sahel region and Libyan
immigrants attempting to reach the Italian island of Lampedusa on unnavigable vessels.
While increased instability in Africa and migration from Africa to Europe are important
dynamics, perhaps an even more profound driver of today’s evolving European-African
relationship is the dramatically shifting demographic picture in both continents.
When African countries became independent in the 1960s, Africa’s entire population was
half the size of Europe’s, which stood at 277 million. Today, the proportion is now the
exact opposite. Africa has twice as many inhabitants as Europe, and its population is
expected to increase to 1.9 billion people by 2050. As Africa’s population explodes,
Europe’s is set to decline from 740 million to 726 million within that same timeframe.
This population reversal has and will continue to shape all aspects of the relationship,
including security, development, and migration issues, with consequences—both positive
and negative—that will influence both continents.
On the positive side of the ledger, Africa’s population growth will elevate its future geo-
economic importance and potential, as the continent has experienced an average GDP
growth of 5.2 percent over the period 2003 to 2011. In the last decade alone, six of the
world’s fastest-growing economies have come from Africa (Angola, Nigeria, Ethiopia,
Chad, Mozambique, and Rwanda). Due to its proximity and historical ties, Europe has
traditionally been a strong economic partner to Africa in terms of both trade
(responsible for 28 percent of African imports and 31 percent of African exports) and
official development assistance (representing 45 percent of ODA to Africa). Europe
remains Africa’s top trading partner and its volume of trade has increased.
Yet Europe is not alone in its increased interest in strengthening economic ties with
Africa. China’s increased economic engagement in Africa has progressively reduced
Europe’s share in African markets. Trade between China and the continent surpassed
US$200 billion in 2013, up from $10 billion in 2000. This trend is expected to persist in
the coming years as Europe faces increased global economic competition in Africa, and
African countries expand their economic ties with a broader set of trading partners,
some of whom place less emphasis in their relationships on human rights, transparency,
or good governance.
Africa’s dramatic population spike—combined with increased political and sectarian
unrest and climate change-related stresses—have contributed to an increase in
migration to Europe. Although most African migrants remain in Africa as they move
from one country to another, beyond Africa European countries are their most sought-
after destinations abroad. It is estimated that 7 million African migrants currently reside
| 21
28. in Europe, providing their countries of origin with a vital source of income through
remittances. Remittance flows in fact have become so great that in 2012, they constituted
the largest wealth flows to Africa ahead of foreign direct investment and official
development assistance.
While European remittances have been a financial boon for Africa, the presence of
increasing numbers of migrants has created a significant political backlash in Europe.
Europe’s ongoing economic woes have caused a growing number of Europeans to blame
immigrants for the lack of jobs (unemployment in some countries has exceeded 25
percent, with youth unemployment hovering near 60 percent in countries such as Greece
and Spain). As migration issues rise to the forefront of political debate, xenophobic
parties are on the rise, as evidenced by the outcome of recent European Parliamentary
elections. Greece’s neo-fascist Golden Dawn Party won an impressive 9.4 percent of the
vote; however, the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) and France’s Front
National earned the most votes, with 26.8 percent and 24.9 percent respectively, soundly
defeating parties currently in government.
Changing demographic dynamics, economic insecurity, and rising anti-immigrant
sentiment in Europe have led some governments to call for enhanced border controls in
recent years. Many European leaders blame the European Union for failing to develop a
pan-European immigration policy, and in 2012 the EU home affairs ministers
unanimously voted to allow countries to temporarily reinstate border restrictions in the
face of extreme security risks. At the present time, the EU country through which the
immigrant first enters the bloc must provide humanitarian and refugee assistance,
placing an extraordinary burden on southern European states that have been most
deeply impacted by the ongoing economic crisis. Immigrant reception centers,
particularly in the economically devastated south, are overcrowded well beyond their
maximum capacity. Spain’s immigrant reception facility in Melilla, for example, houses
nearly 2,000 people, four times the number it was designed to accommodate. Meanwhile,
Italy has received approximately 50,000 refugees in the first six months of 2014 alone,
well in excess of the 40,000 it counted over the whole of the preceding year.
Political unrest, terrorism, and sectarian strife that stretch from North Africa, sub-
Saharan Africa, and the Middle East have significantly contributed to these migration
outflows. In part to counter this trend, the European Union and several other European
nations have concentrated their efforts on development and security cooperation with
countries that are considered the primary sources of these migration flows. The task is
daunting as many of these countries or regions contain “gray zones” that harbor
criminal networks, drug and human traffickers, and, in some cases, terrorists.
Nonetheless, the European Union has conducted 15 peacekeeping missions and invested
more than €1.2 billion in peace support operations in Africa through the African Peace
Facility (APF). France in particular has played a leading role in several of these crises by
sending 4,500 and 1,600 ground troops to Mali and the Central African Republic,
respectively, under the auspices of a UN mandate; providing €976 million in
development assistance; and rallying support from other European countries. The
French and European military and development response is grounded in the conviction
that allowing extremists and terrorists to establish safe havens in these gray zones will
lead to the progressive expansion of these areas of instability, creating even larger
outflows of migrants to Europe and ultimately posing a direct security threat to Europe.
22 | HEATHER A. CONLEY AND JEAN-FRANCOIS PACTET
29. As violence has spread across the Sahel and parts of the Horn of Africa, security issues
have come to dominate the EU-Africa agenda. In April 2014, leaders from over 60
European and African nations agreed to expand cooperation between EU and African
institutions and to operationalize the African Standby Force that is designed to enhance
the African Union’s ability to internally respond to conflicts. Similarly, at the December
2013 Paris Summit on Peace and Security in Africa, the European Union and its African
partners committed to increase their cooperation toward addressing the root causes of
conflict, including poverty, radicalization, and trafficking; and supporting international
and African efforts to combat them. In particular, European heads of state and
government called for a major international mobilization to increase the level and
predictability of financing for African peacekeeping operations.
The kidnapping of more than 200 girls in Nigeria by Boko Haram, the shelling of
innocent civilian enclaves by militias in Libya, and Al-Shabaab attacks in Kenya serve as
important reminders of the high costs paid by African civilians caught in the midst of
conflict as well as the causal links between regional instability and immigration outflows
to Europe. In order for Europe to both reap the economic benefit of a growing Africa
while confronting growing security challenges in the region, future European policy
toward Africa must better integrate the interdependency between security, development,
demography, and good governance. As Africa increasingly opens itself toward a more
globalized and networked world, Europe has the tools to contribute to African security,
encourage human development, and foster economic prosperity in Africa. Should
rampant anti-immigrant sentiment and political demagoguery in Europe remain
unchecked, however, Europe may seek to limit its engagement with Africa while still
being forced to confront the humanitarian and security consequences of African
instability via increased immigration and amplified security threats.
EUROPE AND AFRICA | 23
30. 9 | State Building Challenges in
Africa
Robert D. Lamb
Many in the United States consider much of sub-Saharan Africa to be outside of U.S.
strategic interests. Yet the United States often finds itself drawn into conflicts associated
with what is often called Africa’s “state failure” problem. But it is increasingly
questionable whether the standard approaches to strengthening fragile states and
preventing state failure are based on sound assumptions. The natural response is to try
to strengthen state institutions. But when the groups in control of those institutions are
part of the problem, the standard approaches would seem inadequate to the task at
hand.
Two years ago, a half-hour documentary, “Kony 2012,” was viewed by more than a
hundred million people in a week, as individual recommendations to watch it grew
exponentially through social networks worldwide. The documentary was criticized for
oversimplifying a complicated issue, but it had the effect of raising awareness of the
atrocities perpetuated by Joseph Kony and the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) against
innocent people in significant parts of central Africa. U.S. military personnel were
already working with Uganda in the hunt for Kony, but in 2012 that effort was escalated
and incorporated into an African Union regional task force, which today the United
States supports with personnel, aircraft, advice, and aid.
This international effort—to find and neutralize a shadowy group operating in areas
with little or no state presence—has met with some success, as LRA activities have
receded. But even as progress was being made there, another shadowy group operating
in areas outside of state control in Africa was on the rise. An Islamist group called Boko
Haram has increased its activities against targets mainly in northern Nigeria and the
surrounding region. Most notoriously it kidnapped nearly 300 schoolgirls in April 2014,
shocking news that raised awareness worldwide about this insurgent group that the
United States designates as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. The girls’ whereabouts
remain unknown and Boko Haram continues to operate in remote regions.
In the Central African Republic, a rebel coalition took the capital city and deposed the
president last year in a civil war that continues today. South Sudan earned hard-won
independence from its northern neighbor in 2011 but later fell to in-fighting that resulted
in civil war. Mali saw armed conflict break out in its north in early 2012, followed a
couple of months later by a coup in the capital (in the south) and further conflict, to
which French troops eventually responded.
What all of these events have in common is violence emerging from areas that are not
controlled by any state entities. Such areas are sometimes called “ungoverned” but that
is not often an accurate description. Certainly national governments are not in control.
But in many such places, local authorities have always existed—they just have not been
24 |
31. incorporated into national institutions. In fact, an important reason there is such a weak
state presence in such areas is the historically fraught relationships between the groups
that control the capital city (and therefore enjoy international recognition as state actors)
and the groups that control territories far removed from the capital (and therefore are
afforded no such recognition, dismissed as “nonstate” actors). Partnering with the
Ugandan and Nigerian militaries might seem a reasonable way to counter the LRA or
Boko Haram, but strengthening those militaries cannot resolve the underlying fact that
they have been abusive against their own populations and therefore risks furthering
conflicts.
The United States is almost certain to continue to be drawn into Africa’s conflicts.
According to CSIS data, the United States does not intervene in 80 percent of the dozens
of foreign crises that emerge every year. But about every two months, on average, it does
take concrete steps to try to influence the outcomes of conflicts becoming or threatening
to become violent. Most of the time, the U.S. assets brought to bear are not military, but
civilian—diplomacy, aid, trade, and finance. How the United States uses these assets has
long been a subject of concern. Civilian power is not always deployed as strategically as
global demands require, and there are questions whether the capabilities and cultures of
civilian agencies (and the support offered to civilian staff and their families) are
appropriate to challenges such as preventing or stabilizing complex conflicts, managing
difficult relationships, and building resilience against violent ideologies and attacks.
The problem is that many of these conflicts involve tensions between state and nonstate
actors, and U.S. civilian agencies are generally set up to engage with state actors—a bias
that does not always help and sometimes harms the ability to influence events
constructively. In the absence of more inclusive political settlements, standard
development approaches, including institutional capacity building, do not generally
contribute to stable political or economic systems. There is a need, therefore, to take a
less reactive approach to these conflicts and to improve the way the United States
engages with countries and peoples faced with fragility, corruption, ethnic conflict,
regional tensions, or violence.
STATE BUILDING CHALLENGES IN AFRICA | 25
32. 10 | Africa and the Americas
Historic Ties, Future Opportunities
Carl Meacham
For several decades, the Americas have actively sought to engage other regions of the
world. A significant component of this outward push is the proliferation of global
partnerships, including the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership being
negotiated between the United States and the European Union; the Trans-Pacific
Partnership, which links countries from Asia, Oceania, and the Americas; the proposed
Mercosur (Common Market of the South)-European Union trade agreement; and the
Pacific Alliance, a Latin American bloc that currently includes a number of Asian,
African, Oceanic, and European countries as observers and is opening joint diplomatic
offices in Ghana, Algeria, and Vietnam. These agreements are important tools because
they serve not only to intensify commercial relations, but also to promote stronger
political engagement between the regions involved. When it comes to Africa, however,
similar initiatives are surprisingly scarce, considering the regions’ historical ties.
Economic relations between both regions have also been modest: in 2009, trade between
Africa and Latin America amounted to approximately US$23 billion, which accounted for
less than 2 percent of Africa’s total imports and exports. This trend, however, seems to be
shifting, as the value of trade between Africa and South America alone amounted to
more than US$39 billion in 2011.
The Africa-South America Summit, initiated in 2006 by a joint Brazil-Nigeria initiative, is
still one of the few forums established to promote greater cooperation between Africa
and the Americas. Since its inception, the ASA has hosted three summits, the latest of
which was held in Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, in early 2013. With an agenda focused on
trade, energy, and infrastructure, the summit hopes to sponsor different projects and
programs and to promote investment in both regions. But despite its ambitions, the
summit lacks a proper funding mechanism and a formal institutional structure and has
yet to yield any tangible results for its member states. The inclusion of South Africa in
the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa), in 2010, and the establishment
of the India-Brazil-South Africa Dialogue before that are further indications of how
Brazil, in particular, acknowledges Africa’s strategic importance.
As Latin America’s largest economy, Brazil has largely led the region’s efforts to engage
the continent over the past decade, and may provide an initial model for enhancing
regional ties. Brazil has long-standing ties with Africa, particularly with Angola, to which
it is historically and tragically linked through the slave trade and Portuguese colonial
rule. With half of its population considered black or of African descent and the influence
of African culture palpable in several aspects of Brazilian culture—ranging from
religious traditions to traditional cuisine—Brazil is perhaps the country in the Americas
with the closest natural ties to Africa.
26 |
33. Over the past decade, these ties have had a clear impact in Brazilian foreign policy, as
seen by the country's 37 embassies in the African continent—half of which have been
inaugurated since 2003. Today, Brazil accounts for over two-thirds of South America's
trade with Africa.
More important has been Brazil's expanding investment in Africa. The Brazilian
Development Bank (BNDES) to date has invested over US$5 billion in Africa, including
Angola, Mozambique, Ghana, South Africa, Equatorial Guinea, and Zimbabwe. The bank
has financed various infrastructure projects in the continent, for example, the
construction of the Nacala Airport in Mozambique and a biofuel processing plant in
Ghana, among many others. Currently, 5 percent of the bank's annual US$10 billion
budget for foreign trade and investment is directed at African countries. Brazil, however,
is hoping to increase those numbers in the future and has recently opened a BNDES
office for Africa in Johannesburg. With help from BNDES, the private sector has also
served as an important tool for strengthening Brazilian ties with the continent. The
Brazilian metals and mining company Vale—which operates the Moatize Coal Mine in
Mozambique—is the biggest Brazilian investor in Africa; and Brazilian conglomerate
Odebrecht is currently Angola’s largest private employer. Likewise, state-owned
Petrobras currently operates in Angola, Benin, Gabon, Libya, Namibia, Nigeria, and
Tanzania, exploring oil and gas reserves.
The Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC) has also been an important partner in the
continent—between 2012 and 2014, ABC will disburse more than half of its US$134
million global aid budget in African countries. The agency acts alongside Brazilian
ministries and governmental agencies that offer their expertise on particular areas in the
implementation of projects. The establishment in Mozambique of an antiretroviral
production site is an example of successful ABC collaboration .The facility, which began
operations in July 2012, was the result of a partnership with the Oswaldo Cruz
Foundation, a research institution associated with the Brazilian Health Ministry. Brazil
has also been particularly active in Guinea-Bissau, offering assistance on a wide range of
issues. Most notably, in 2011 Brazil inaugurated the Joao Landim Security Forces
Training Center in the country. Operations were suspended following a 2012 coup d’état,
but are expected to resume, under UN auspices. The Brazilian Superior Electoral Court,
TSE, has also sent numerous electoral cooperation missions to Guinea- Bissau, and even
assisted the country in organizing its most recent national elections.
More broadly, Brazil’s ongoing transition from a developing country to a wealthier, more
assertive, global player provides a powerful example for African countries to follow.
Brazil has shared many of the challenges that now confront African states, including
widespread poverty, high rates of HIV/AIDS, stagnant agricultural sectors, unchecked
urban growth, and wealth inequality. In some of these areas—particularly in HIV
treatment and revitalizing its agriculture sector—Brazil has made significant progress
and as a result has useful expertise to share with its African partners.
Brazil’s efforts to strengthen ties with Africa have not been limited to aid and
investment. The establishment of TV Brazil International is evidence of that. Launched in
2010 as an effort to further promote Brazil in the continent, the Brasilia-based channel is
rebroadcast—via Maputo, in Mozambique—to 49 African nations. Brazil shares a
language (and colonial history) with Africa’s five lusophone states—Angola,
Mozambique, Guinea Bissau, Cape Verde, and Sao Tome and Principe. This shared
AFRICA AND THE AMERICAS | 27
34. language has helped foster cultural ties and has been a significant advantage in
facilitating business and trade. The Community of Portuguese Language Countries,
whose membership also includes Portugal and Timor Leste as well as Brazil and the
African lusophones, has also been serving as an important cooperation channel. The
community’s agenda focuses on diverse areas, including health, education, poverty, and
governance.
Brazil’s expanding engagement with Africa is, of course, motivated by its own national
interests. As it pursues a more prominent international role and expanded economic
benefits, Brazil sees Africa as a source of opportunity. Africa’s sustained growth rates,
and its growing demand for goods and services, have made it an attractive target of
engagement for Brazil and for emerging market states around the world. China has been
the major player but Brazil, along with India, Malaysia, Russia, Turkey, and others, are
also seizing the opportunity.
China remains the continent’s largest bilateral trading partner, but as the Chinese
investment model slows, African countries may look to diversify their partners. And as
growth in the Americas slows down, it may be time for the region to explore new
markets. Africa just might be the best place to start looking.
28 | CARL MEACHAM
35. 11 | The Maghreb Looks South
Haim Malka
The Maghreb is looking south to secure its future. Though ties between sub-Saharan and
North Africa are deep and go back centuries, after independence in the 1950s and 1960s,
Maghreb countries primarily viewed sub-Saharan Africa as an arena for competition
among themselves. Europe was Maghreb states’ primary strategic economic and
diplomatic partner, and their relations with sub-Saharan Africa were seldom a priority.
Now, changing regional and global dynamics make sub-Saharan Africa a vital region for
every country in the Maghreb.
Africa’s strategic importance to the Maghreb rests on the pillars of economics and
security. Economically, sub-Saharan Africa provides growing markets of over 870 million
people for trade and investment at a time when Maghreb governments need to diversify
their economic base and trading partners. On the security side, regional unrest triggered
by the Arab uprisings in 2011 and expanding ungoverned spaces in Libya, Mali, and
other countries creates urgency to strengthen security cooperation with partners in the
Sahel and West Africa. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and even Libya have renewed their
outreach to sub-Saharan Africa and are defining new priorities for their respective
Africa strategies. Each of these countries sees sub-Saharan Africa playing a vital role in
enhancing its own economic and security interests in the coming years.
Morocco’s Africa strategy has been the most comprehensive and strategic. King
Mohammed VI has personally led the initiative, touring African capitals on several high-
profile visits and signing numerous bilateral trade and investment agreements. Morocco
is also collaborating with several African countries to expand and improve agricultural
production in an effort to increase food security on the continent. It also launched a
high-profile effort to train religious scholars and imams from other countries to help
combat religious extremism. Tunisia sees important economic opportunities to the south
as well, and its president has commented that turning toward Africa is key to Tunisia’s
post-revolution strategy.1
In June 2014 Tunis hosted over 350 African senior officials and
business leaders for an economic forum, and Tunisia’s government is working with the
African Development Bank—which is moving back to Abidjan from its temporary
headquarters in Tunis—to help facilitate trade and investment in Africa. Algeria also
quietly supports aid and development projects with African partners, while its private
sector seeks new investment opportunities to the south. Even Libya, which is enmeshed
in internal conflict, is reassessing its Africa policy and looking for opportunities to invest
funds from its $5 billion Africa-focused sovereign wealth fund.
Sub-Saharan Africa provides an attractive and growing market for North African states
seeking to expand manufacturing. Between 2009 and 2012, the Maghreb’s total exports to
sub-Saharan Africa nearly doubled, going from approximately $1 billion to nearly $2
1
See Tunis Afrique Presse, “President Marzouki Calls for Enhanced Political and Security Cooperation with
Niger,” allAfrica, June 22, 2014, http://allafrica.com/stories/201406231055.html; and Gideon Rose, “A
Conversation with Moncef Marzouki,” Council on Foreign Relations, September 28, 2012,
http://www.cfr.org/tunisia/conversation-moncef-marzouki/p29196.
| 29
36. billion.2
While the growth is significant for the Maghreb, overall trade remains low. The
Maghreb states combined exported less than half of what Turkey exported to sub-
Saharan Africa and a third of what Brazil did in 2012.
Beyond exports, Morocco and Tunisia in particular both see themselves as hubs for U.S.
and European firms entering and operating in Africa. They share a common language
with Francophone Africa, have a better understanding of the business culture, have
longstanding networks, and are geographically well positioned. The challenge ahead will
be for Maghreb governments to expand their manufacturing base sufficiently to increase
exports to sub-Saharan Africa. They will also have to find a comparative advantage in
niche markets in order to remain competitive against bigger exporting countries.
Security is another driving force in Maghreb interaction with its southern neighbors.
Ungoverned spaces in the Sahel combined with a security vacuum in Libya have created
new threats from violent extremist groups and criminal gangs operating along the
borders of every country in the region. Greater security cooperation with Sahelian states
will be crucial to help stop militant operations, movements, extremist recruiting,
smuggling, and financing. Weak governments and poorly trained security forces in many
neighboring sub-Saharan states deepen the Sahel’s security crisis and undermine
Maghreb security.
While some Maghreb states have assisted their southern neighbors, the challenges of
building durable institutions in the Sahel remain monumental, and they are likely
beyond the capacity of any single state to resolve. Algeria has sought a role coordinating
security operations with its southern neighbors to address cross-border threats. It also
helped stabilize Mali after French military operations in 2013. Morocco has assisted in
training military officers in neighboring African countries, and it has expanded
cooperation on counterpiracy, narcotics trafficking, and disarmament. All of these
projects are important, but because they lack coordination and institutional capacity-
building mechanisms, their impact will likely remain limited.
More than at any point in the last half-century, sub-Saharan Africa today is crucial to the
Maghreb’s future economic prosperity and security. Growing economic ties and shifting
security challenges create an opportunity for Maghreb states to reinforce their soft
power strategies in the region. Growing consumer markets provide an important and
unique opportunity for Maghreb economies to expand their manufacturing base, create
local jobs, and boost economic growth. A risk for the Maghreb, though, is that Africa may
not accord as much importance to its northern neighbors. The crucial challenge for
Maghreb states is to remain relevant for Africa at a time when the continent has multiple
suitors vying for markets, investment, and cooperation. This will require not only
expanding current trade partnerships but building new ones, and developing
competitive products and services. If they work together rather than compete the
nations of the Maghreb can build on their historic links with the south to help forge a
more integrated and prosperous African continent.
2
Based on statistics provided by the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), “International
trade in goods and services,” February 14, 2012, http://unctadstat.unctad.org/ReportFolders/
reportFolders.aspx?sRF_ActivePath=p,15912&sRF_Expanded=,p,15912.
30 | HAIM MALKA
37. 12 | Banking on Africa’s Youth
Nicole Goldin
As Africa’s heads of states convene at the White House with President Obama to build
stronger relationships, increase trade and investment in the continent, and partner for
the development of their future, let us hope youth are central to the conversation. Why?
Of Africa’s over 1 billion citizens, roughly 60 percent are below the age of 30; and the
number of youth on the continent is expected to double to 600 million by 2050. They are
and will be Africa’s doctors, teachers, lawyers, entrepreneurs, engineers, farmers,
journalists, and political leaders. We know of extraordinary young Africans such as
William Kamkwamba, whose clean-technology innovations are changing Africa’s energy
landscape; Ola Orekunrin, who identified an urgent medical need and started Flying
Doctors Nigeria Ltd; and Alengot Oromait, who at age 20 is Uganda’s—and Africa’s—
youngest parliamentarian. While they are not alone in displaying the creativity, tenacity,
talent, and courage many of this generation possess, far too few of Africa’s youth are
being given the opportunity to realize their potential. At the same time, too many young
people live in adversity, insecurity, and poverty, and face social, political, or
technological disenfranchisement—putting their and their communities’ future at risk.
More often than not, the quality of life of their parents, siblings, and children rests with
them and they hold the key to breaking or sustaining cycles of poverty.
If the continent is to see more Williams, Olas, and Alengots, Africa’s youth population
cannot be sidelined, for without improving their wellbeing, the continent and the world
at large are in jeopardy of missing their economic, security, and development goals.
There is an opportunity for Africa’s youthful and large labor force to spearhead higher
productivity, increased consumption, and an economic dividend—just as East Asia’s
rapid and sustained “miracle” growth in the 1980s and 1990s was attributed in part to its
large, youthful, educated, and highly productive workforce.
But demography does not ensure this destiny.
To realize a “demographic dividend,” population ratios must not only result in a boon to
the labor supply, but fertility rates must also decline, thereby lowering the burden
placed upon the workforce by the very young and old. Although fertility rates are
decreasing in Africa, according to the World Health Organization, the proportion of
births that take place during adolescence is still roughly 50 percent in sub-Saharan
Africa, compared with about 2 percent in China and 18 percent in Latin America and the
Caribbean.
At the same time, it is an open question whether African economies will be able to
successfully absorb and maximize the productive capacity of their youth.
Africa needs to generate 1 million new jobs a month just to keep up with new entrants to
the jobs’ market and at the same time improve the supply side of the labor market by
providing young people with good-quality education and training. For example, there
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38. are still gaps in secondary school services, particularly for girls, and in a survey of labor
market experts in 36 African countries by the African Economic Outlook, 54 percent
identified skills mismatches as a significant constraint to employment and economic
growth.
What we know from the study of youth development, however, is that the spheres of
their lives are interdependent—if they are healthy, they will learn more; if they learn
more, they are more likely to earn more (especially young women, who are then likely to
delay marriage and have fewer children); if they have decent employment and a sense of
purpose and value, they are more likely to be “good” citizens and less likely to engage in
risky or damaging behavior.
Thus, to seize the demographic opportunity and mitigate the challenges, African leaders
and their global partners must understand and address youth wellbeing holistically. The
recently released inaugural Global Youth Wellbeing Index1
shows that Africa faces
pockets of challenges and ample opportunities to improve youths’ current status and
chances of future prosperity. For example, though Uganda places in the lowest tier of
youth wellbeing, Ugandan youth are faring well in entrepreneurship.
This first Index measures the standing of young people in 30 countries on 40 indicators
across six domains of youth wellbeing: citizen participation, economic opportunity,
education, health, information and communications technology, and safety and security.
Of the 30 countries, eight represent Africa: Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, South
Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda. Given that a number of indicators are resource or
infrastructure oriented, it may not be surprising that overall the African countries fall
into the lower tiers of youth wellbeing. Indeed of the eight, only Morocco and Ghana
land above the bottom tier of youth wellbeing, and Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and
Nigeria hold the bottom four ranks respectively. However, when looking at each domain,
the lower-income sub-Saharan countries, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, rise to the top of
the citizen participation domain, suggesting they are societies that place a high value on
community participation. Further, when looking at indicators assessing youths’
perceptions, African youth are, in most cases, feeling optimistic while their peers in
wealthier countries are feeling the opposite. This optimism, coupled with the massive
size of the youth population and the potential talent they hold, is an explosive
combination that can transform the continent.
In conflict-affected environments, understanding and responding to youth dynamics and
demands may be an even more pressing need. In terms of consolidating peace and
stability, young people—who are often both victims and perpetrators—must be party to
reconciliation, peacebuilding, and political transitions with constructive and meaningful
channels in which to participate. Similarly, economic and social recovery efforts must
recognize that the unique developmental needs of youth are often interrupted by
conflict. They must provide second-chance learning platforms, networks, and inclusive
economic and financial systems. African youth can be an asset in rebuilding families and
communities beset with conflict, violence, or crime, or if left on the margins, a source of
insecurity.
1
Nicole Goldin, The Global Youth Wellbeing Index (Washington, DC: CSIS, April 2014), https://csis.org/files/
publication/140401_Goldin_GlobalYouthWellbeingIndex_WEB.pdf.
32 | NICOLE GOLDIN