This document discusses different types of browning reactions that can occur in foods, including enzymatic browning, non-enzymatic browning (Maillard reaction and caramelization), and browning reactions that occur in meat. Enzymatic browning is caused by the enzyme polyphenoloxidase and can be prevented by lowering the pH or destroying the enzyme through heating. The Maillard reaction occurs between amino acids and reducing sugars when foods are heated and produces flavors. Caramelization involves the heating of carbohydrates alone.
Maillard reaction is the mother of all reactions ; Responsible for the characteristics thousands of flavours and appealing colour of majority of food products treated at high temperatures . There are different factors effecting rate of this reaction. Pool of flavours are produced here through a series of complex reactions .Imitating maillard reaction products has been a trending reasearch for scientists for meat flavours specially.
Chemical factors such as enzymatic activity, oxidation, and microbial growth can cause food spoilage by impacting texture, color, odor, and flavor. Key chemical spoilage processes discussed include rancidity, proteolysis, pectin hydrolysis, enzymatic browning, Maillard reaction, and putrefaction. Rancidity occurs when oils and fats oxidize, producing unpleasant smells. Proteolysis and pectin hydrolysis involve enzymatic breakdown of proteins and pectin that can change food textures and produce bitter compounds. Enzymatic browning and the Maillard reaction cause discoloration. Putrefaction is the anaerobic breakdown of proteins by microbes, releasing foul odors
Carbohydrates are the most abundant and diverse class of organic compounds. They consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve important functions in the body such as an energy source. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Excess consumption of carbohydrates can lead to health issues like obesity, diabetes, and heart disease while deficiency can cause problems like acidosis, ketosis, and hypoglycemia. Carbohydrates undergo several reactions during cooking and processing that influence flavor and color development in foods.
This document summarizes the two main types of browning reactions: non-enzymatic and enzymatic. Non-enzymatic browning includes caramelization of sugars with heat and the Maillard reaction between sugars and amino acids. Enzymatic browning is caused by polyphenol oxidase enzymes acting on phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables when exposed to oxygen. Methods to prevent enzymatic browning include maintaining an acidic pH, using sulfites or antioxidants, reducing oxygen contact, and denaturing the enzymes through blanching.
This document discusses different types of browning reactions that can occur in foods, including enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. Non-enzymatic browning includes caramelization, which occurs when sugars are heated and undergo a series of reactions to turn brown. It also includes Maillard browning, which is the reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids or proteins. Enzymatic browning is caused by phenolase enzymes and can be prevented by maintaining an acid pH, using sulfites or antioxidants, reducing oxygen contact, or blanching to denature the enzymes.
Maillard reaction is the mother of all reactions ; Responsible for the characteristics thousands of flavours and appealing colour of majority of food products treated at high temperatures . There are different factors effecting rate of this reaction. Pool of flavours are produced here through a series of complex reactions .Imitating maillard reaction products has been a trending reasearch for scientists for meat flavours specially.
Chemical factors such as enzymatic activity, oxidation, and microbial growth can cause food spoilage by impacting texture, color, odor, and flavor. Key chemical spoilage processes discussed include rancidity, proteolysis, pectin hydrolysis, enzymatic browning, Maillard reaction, and putrefaction. Rancidity occurs when oils and fats oxidize, producing unpleasant smells. Proteolysis and pectin hydrolysis involve enzymatic breakdown of proteins and pectin that can change food textures and produce bitter compounds. Enzymatic browning and the Maillard reaction cause discoloration. Putrefaction is the anaerobic breakdown of proteins by microbes, releasing foul odors
Carbohydrates are the most abundant and diverse class of organic compounds. They consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve important functions in the body such as an energy source. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Excess consumption of carbohydrates can lead to health issues like obesity, diabetes, and heart disease while deficiency can cause problems like acidosis, ketosis, and hypoglycemia. Carbohydrates undergo several reactions during cooking and processing that influence flavor and color development in foods.
This document summarizes the two main types of browning reactions: non-enzymatic and enzymatic. Non-enzymatic browning includes caramelization of sugars with heat and the Maillard reaction between sugars and amino acids. Enzymatic browning is caused by polyphenol oxidase enzymes acting on phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables when exposed to oxygen. Methods to prevent enzymatic browning include maintaining an acidic pH, using sulfites or antioxidants, reducing oxygen contact, and denaturing the enzymes through blanching.
This document discusses different types of browning reactions that can occur in foods, including enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. Non-enzymatic browning includes caramelization, which occurs when sugars are heated and undergo a series of reactions to turn brown. It also includes Maillard browning, which is the reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids or proteins. Enzymatic browning is caused by phenolase enzymes and can be prevented by maintaining an acid pH, using sulfites or antioxidants, reducing oxygen contact, or blanching to denature the enzymes.
Food as a heterogeneous mixture, types of cooking, types of oils, chemistry of rancidity, uses of cooking , starch gelatinization in cooking rice, Maillard reaction, caramelisation
This document discusses non-enzymatic browning in foods. It describes the main types of non-enzymatic browning reactions, including the Maillard reaction, caramelization, ascorbic acid browning, and metal-polyphenol browning. It also outlines factors that influence the Maillard reaction such as temperature, pH, water activity, and methods for preventing non-enzymatic browning including controlling environmental conditions and using preservatives like sulfur dioxide.
Thermal degradation of sugars can occur through two major pathways: Maillard reaction and caramelization. The Maillard reaction involves sugars and amino acids and produces flavor compounds when heated above 140°C. Caramelization is the browning of sugars like fructose and maltose when heated without amino groups to high temperatures above 150°C. It is a complex process that involves the dehydration, polymerization, and fragmentation of sugars into brown-colored and volatile compounds like furan and maltol. Caramelization can occur in baked goods and is used in applications like caramel fillings, toppings, and glazes.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provide energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on their size. The main carbohydrates in food are starch, sucrose, lactose, and fiber. Carbohydrates are important for energy, structure, nutrient storage, and have many health benefits, but excess sugar intake can lead to issues like tooth decay, obesity, and diabetes.
This document discusses the effect of various food processing methods on vitamins and other nutrients. It notes that water-soluble vitamins like vitamin C are more unstable during processing compared to fat-soluble vitamins. High-pressure processing, freezing, pasteurization, dehydration, and microwave drying can all reduce vitamin C levels in foods. Irradiation at low doses has a negligible effect on most vitamins but higher doses can cause losses. The document also discusses changes to proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids during storage and processing, as well as the digestion and absorption of macronutrients.
2T. AGM Physical and chemical changes during food spoilage.pptxSwaminathan34154
Food spoilage occurs through physical, chemical, and biological processes that make food unfit for consumption. The main cause is invasion by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. Chemical changes include lipid oxidation producing rancidity and non-enzymatic browning reactions. Physical changes involve damage from freezing, drying, and the presence of foreign materials. Proper storage conditions and packaging can help delay spoilage by microbes, oxidation, and moisture loss.
This document discusses different types of browning reactions that can occur in foods. It describes non-enzymatic browning reactions including caramelization which occurs when sugars are heated and Maillard browning which involves sugars and amino acids. Enzymatic browning is caused by the action of phenolase enzymes on foods like potatoes and bananas. Several methods are provided to prevent enzymatic browning, such as maintaining an acidic pH, using sulfites or antioxidants like ascorbic acid, reducing oxygen contact, and denaturing enzymes through blanching.
lipids biochemistry science PPT for college students and teachersLavanyaVijaykumar2
The document discusses various physical and chemical properties of fatty acids. Physically, saturated fatty acids are solid while unsaturated ones are liquid. Fats are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Melting point depends on chain length and saturation. Chemically, fats undergo hydrolysis to yield glycerol and fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids can undergo hydrogenation, halogenation, and oxidation reactions at double bonds. Rancidity occurs when microbes hydrolyze fats or unsaturated fats oxidize. Saponification value, iodine value, peroxide value, and acid value provide information about fatty acid composition and purity.
The document provides information on carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and enzymes. It defines each biomolecule and describes their basic components and structures. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Proteins contain amino acids and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures. Lipids are nonpolar and include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions and have optimal pH and temperature ranges for activity. They act specifically by binding substrates in their active sites.
Food browning due Maillard chemical reaction occurs between amino acidsrita martin
The browning of these food stuffs is due to Maillard Reaction creates flavor and changes the color of food generally only begin to occur above 285°F occurs between amino acids
Physiochemical changes in stored food ( non air tight produce )Anchal
The document discusses the physicochemical properties of foods and how they impact processing, storage and quality. It describes initial quality factors like cultivation methods, cooling times and storage conditions like temperature, humidity and packaging. It then covers physical characteristics of foods like shape, size and density, as well as chemical components like water, proteins and vitamins. The document also examines changes foods undergo during storage like respiration, ripening processes and enzymatic breakdown of components. Specific examples are provided on changes in bananas during ripening and factors that influence meat quality like pH, lipid oxidation and proteolysis.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Food additives are used to improve shelf life, nutritional value, and appeal of food products. There are two types - intentional additives which are purposely added like colors, flavors, and emulsifiers, and incidental additives which get absorbed during processing like pesticides. Browning reactions can be enzymatic from phenolase enzymes acting on fruits and vegetables or non-enzymatic like the Maillard reaction between sugars and amino acids which improves flavor during baking and frying. Both natural and synthetic colors, flavors, and preservatives are used as food additives.
Effect of processing and storage on nutrientsPoojaParab12
This presentation describes the effect of processing and storage conditions on nutrients in food namely carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins and minerals.
This document discusses the three main types of drug degradation: chemical, physical, and microbial. Chemical degradation includes hydrolysis, dehydration, isomerization, decarboxylation, elimination, oxidation, and photodegradation. Physical degradation involves crystallization, phase transitions, and moisture adsorption. Microbial degradation can occur if formulations become contaminated and depend on the type and amount of microbes present. Drug-excipient and drug-drug interactions can also lead to degradation through reactions. Maintaining proper storage conditions is important to prevent degradation via these routes.
Rancidification is the process of complete or incomplete oxidation or hydrolysis of fats and oils when exposed to air, light, or moisture or by bacterial action, resulting in unpleasant taste and odor. Specifically, it is the hydrolysis or autoxidation of fats into short-chain aldehydes and ketones, which are objectionable in taste and odor. When these processes occur in food, undesirable odors and flavors can result.
This document summarizes the key biochemical processes involved in fruit ripening. It discusses how ripening is characterized by an increase in respiration rate and ethylene production. Ripening involves the breakdown of chlorophyll and synthesis of carotenoids, resulting in color changes. It also involves the increased activity of enzymes that degrade cell walls and starch, and synthesize volatile compounds responsible for flavor and aroma. Overall, ripening transforms hard, green fruits into soft, colored fruits with enhanced flavor due to changes in pigments, sugars, acids, and production of volatile compounds.
Mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion sauce made of oil, egg yolks, lemon juice or vinegar, and seasonings. It was invented in 1756 by a French chef who substituted olive oil for cream in a sauce for the Duc de Richelieu. Mayonnaise contains up to 80% oil and is made through a process of dispersing egg into water as an emulsifying agent, adding remaining ingredients, and slowly adding oil to form the emulsion.
Proteins are composed of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. They serve many important functions in the body and in foods. Proteins have complex structures including primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures that determine their shape and functionality. The structures of proteins can be altered through processes like denaturation, affecting properties like solubility. Foods contain different types of proteins that influence properties like hydration, structure formation, and interactions at surfaces.
Food as a heterogeneous mixture, types of cooking, types of oils, chemistry of rancidity, uses of cooking , starch gelatinization in cooking rice, Maillard reaction, caramelisation
This document discusses non-enzymatic browning in foods. It describes the main types of non-enzymatic browning reactions, including the Maillard reaction, caramelization, ascorbic acid browning, and metal-polyphenol browning. It also outlines factors that influence the Maillard reaction such as temperature, pH, water activity, and methods for preventing non-enzymatic browning including controlling environmental conditions and using preservatives like sulfur dioxide.
Thermal degradation of sugars can occur through two major pathways: Maillard reaction and caramelization. The Maillard reaction involves sugars and amino acids and produces flavor compounds when heated above 140°C. Caramelization is the browning of sugars like fructose and maltose when heated without amino groups to high temperatures above 150°C. It is a complex process that involves the dehydration, polymerization, and fragmentation of sugars into brown-colored and volatile compounds like furan and maltol. Caramelization can occur in baked goods and is used in applications like caramel fillings, toppings, and glazes.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provide energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on their size. The main carbohydrates in food are starch, sucrose, lactose, and fiber. Carbohydrates are important for energy, structure, nutrient storage, and have many health benefits, but excess sugar intake can lead to issues like tooth decay, obesity, and diabetes.
This document discusses the effect of various food processing methods on vitamins and other nutrients. It notes that water-soluble vitamins like vitamin C are more unstable during processing compared to fat-soluble vitamins. High-pressure processing, freezing, pasteurization, dehydration, and microwave drying can all reduce vitamin C levels in foods. Irradiation at low doses has a negligible effect on most vitamins but higher doses can cause losses. The document also discusses changes to proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids during storage and processing, as well as the digestion and absorption of macronutrients.
2T. AGM Physical and chemical changes during food spoilage.pptxSwaminathan34154
Food spoilage occurs through physical, chemical, and biological processes that make food unfit for consumption. The main cause is invasion by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. Chemical changes include lipid oxidation producing rancidity and non-enzymatic browning reactions. Physical changes involve damage from freezing, drying, and the presence of foreign materials. Proper storage conditions and packaging can help delay spoilage by microbes, oxidation, and moisture loss.
This document discusses different types of browning reactions that can occur in foods. It describes non-enzymatic browning reactions including caramelization which occurs when sugars are heated and Maillard browning which involves sugars and amino acids. Enzymatic browning is caused by the action of phenolase enzymes on foods like potatoes and bananas. Several methods are provided to prevent enzymatic browning, such as maintaining an acidic pH, using sulfites or antioxidants like ascorbic acid, reducing oxygen contact, and denaturing enzymes through blanching.
lipids biochemistry science PPT for college students and teachersLavanyaVijaykumar2
The document discusses various physical and chemical properties of fatty acids. Physically, saturated fatty acids are solid while unsaturated ones are liquid. Fats are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Melting point depends on chain length and saturation. Chemically, fats undergo hydrolysis to yield glycerol and fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids can undergo hydrogenation, halogenation, and oxidation reactions at double bonds. Rancidity occurs when microbes hydrolyze fats or unsaturated fats oxidize. Saponification value, iodine value, peroxide value, and acid value provide information about fatty acid composition and purity.
The document provides information on carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and enzymes. It defines each biomolecule and describes their basic components and structures. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Proteins contain amino acids and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures. Lipids are nonpolar and include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions and have optimal pH and temperature ranges for activity. They act specifically by binding substrates in their active sites.
Food browning due Maillard chemical reaction occurs between amino acidsrita martin
The browning of these food stuffs is due to Maillard Reaction creates flavor and changes the color of food generally only begin to occur above 285°F occurs between amino acids
Physiochemical changes in stored food ( non air tight produce )Anchal
The document discusses the physicochemical properties of foods and how they impact processing, storage and quality. It describes initial quality factors like cultivation methods, cooling times and storage conditions like temperature, humidity and packaging. It then covers physical characteristics of foods like shape, size and density, as well as chemical components like water, proteins and vitamins. The document also examines changes foods undergo during storage like respiration, ripening processes and enzymatic breakdown of components. Specific examples are provided on changes in bananas during ripening and factors that influence meat quality like pH, lipid oxidation and proteolysis.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Food additives are used to improve shelf life, nutritional value, and appeal of food products. There are two types - intentional additives which are purposely added like colors, flavors, and emulsifiers, and incidental additives which get absorbed during processing like pesticides. Browning reactions can be enzymatic from phenolase enzymes acting on fruits and vegetables or non-enzymatic like the Maillard reaction between sugars and amino acids which improves flavor during baking and frying. Both natural and synthetic colors, flavors, and preservatives are used as food additives.
Effect of processing and storage on nutrientsPoojaParab12
This presentation describes the effect of processing and storage conditions on nutrients in food namely carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins and minerals.
This document discusses the three main types of drug degradation: chemical, physical, and microbial. Chemical degradation includes hydrolysis, dehydration, isomerization, decarboxylation, elimination, oxidation, and photodegradation. Physical degradation involves crystallization, phase transitions, and moisture adsorption. Microbial degradation can occur if formulations become contaminated and depend on the type and amount of microbes present. Drug-excipient and drug-drug interactions can also lead to degradation through reactions. Maintaining proper storage conditions is important to prevent degradation via these routes.
Rancidification is the process of complete or incomplete oxidation or hydrolysis of fats and oils when exposed to air, light, or moisture or by bacterial action, resulting in unpleasant taste and odor. Specifically, it is the hydrolysis or autoxidation of fats into short-chain aldehydes and ketones, which are objectionable in taste and odor. When these processes occur in food, undesirable odors and flavors can result.
This document summarizes the key biochemical processes involved in fruit ripening. It discusses how ripening is characterized by an increase in respiration rate and ethylene production. Ripening involves the breakdown of chlorophyll and synthesis of carotenoids, resulting in color changes. It also involves the increased activity of enzymes that degrade cell walls and starch, and synthesize volatile compounds responsible for flavor and aroma. Overall, ripening transforms hard, green fruits into soft, colored fruits with enhanced flavor due to changes in pigments, sugars, acids, and production of volatile compounds.
Mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion sauce made of oil, egg yolks, lemon juice or vinegar, and seasonings. It was invented in 1756 by a French chef who substituted olive oil for cream in a sauce for the Duc de Richelieu. Mayonnaise contains up to 80% oil and is made through a process of dispersing egg into water as an emulsifying agent, adding remaining ingredients, and slowly adding oil to form the emulsion.
Proteins are composed of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. They serve many important functions in the body and in foods. Proteins have complex structures including primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures that determine their shape and functionality. The structures of proteins can be altered through processes like denaturation, affecting properties like solubility. Foods contain different types of proteins that influence properties like hydration, structure formation, and interactions at surfaces.
This study examined the effects of gamma irradiation on the storage life and quality of garlic bulbs under ambient conditions. Garlic bulbs were irradiated at doses from 0 to 0.2 kGy and stored for 195 days. Various quality parameters were evaluated fortnightly. It was found that irradiation at 0.12 kGy resulted in minimum weight loss (32.22-38.48%), no rotting for 30 days or sprouting for 150 days, and maintained quality for 4 months of storage. Higher irradiation doses did not provide additional benefits. Overall, irradiation extended the marketable shelf life of garlic bulbs under ambient storage conditions with reduced losses.
Reliance Fresh sources horticultural products directly from local farmers and wholesalers through collection centers to reduce costs and waste. Products are procured, processed by removing rotten items, and packaged for sale. Reliance Fresh then transports products from collection centers to distribution centers and stores using their own logistics network. The supply chain aims to benefit farmers through better prices and consumers through lower costs and high quality fresh products.
The Big Facts project provides peer-reviewed facts about climate change, agriculture and food security. It aims to serve as a credible resource for fact-checking. One topic covered is global food waste, which accounts for 6-10% of greenhouse gas emissions. High-income countries waste more food per person than low-income countries. Reducing losses throughout the supply chain, from production to consumption, could help address food insecurity and climate change.
Mother Dairy implements a rigorous Total Quality Management system to ensure high quality products. It focuses on process, product, and people quality, as well as efficient supply chain management. Key aspects of its TQM include stringent quality control processes, innovation initiatives, training and developing employees, and maintaining ISO certifications. The goal is to provide safe, quality products to consumers while supporting dairy farmers.
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Science Text Book characteristics and libraryJerslin Muller
This ppt contains qualities of a good Science Text Book, need for text book, importance of text book, criteria of a science text book, text book analysis, content analysis, Hunter's score card, library, utilization of library.
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Exploring_Karnali_Region_of_Nepal_(Food, Culture and People).pptxLincoln University
Largest province in Nepal, Mountain landscape with 47% of an area located above 4000 masl, Characterized by its unique cultural heritage, diverse geography, and traditional farming practices
Traditional Agriculture: Subsistence farming on terraced fields (rice, wheat, millet, bean, potato and barley)
Fruits: Apple, walnut, orange, etc.
Livestock Rearing: Transhumance system of animal husbandry (goats, sheep, and cattle)
Dietary Staples: Rice, lentils, vegetables, and dairy products
Food Preparation: Often prepared using locally grown ingredients with traditional cooking methods
Religious Practices: Hinduism and Buddhism
Social Customs: Strong community bonds, traditional attire and customs are upheld during festivals
Environmental Connection: Respect for nature and reverence for sacred sites
Historical Context: Farming techniques shaped by the region's rugged terrain, climate, and historical interactions
Cultural Influence: Food preferences, agricultural rituals, and farming practices have been influenced by a blend of indigenous traditions, Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, and trade routes
Enhancing Agricultural Practices: Introducing modern farming techniques without compromising traditional values
Access to Education and Resources: Investing in education and providing access to agricultural inputs
Promoting Sustainable Tourism: Leveraging the region's cultural richness and natural beauty
Intersection of culture, agriculture, and tradition
Embracing sustainable development practices and honoring cultural heritage
Enhance the lives of its people while safeguarding their unique way of life
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Also read: https://rapidleaks.com/lifestyle/food-drink/fruits-weight-loss/
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2. 1. Introduction
Browning is a common colour change seen in food
during pre-preparation, processing or storage of food.
It occurs in varying degrees in some foods.
The colour produced range from cream or pale yellow to
dark brown or black.
Browning reactions observed in food may be classified
as enzymatic browning or nonenzymatic browning.
3. a) Enzymatic Browning
• Fruits such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and
bananas, and vegetables such as potatoes quickly turn
brown when their tissue is exposed to oxygen.
• Such oxygen exposure occurs when the food is sliced or
bitten into or when it has sustained bruises, cuts or other
injury to the peel.
• This “browning reaction” is related to the work of an
enzyme called phenolase (or polyphenoloxidase), a
conjugated enzyme in which copper is present.
4. Phenolase
• Phenolase is classified as an oxidoreductase.
• The substrates for phenolase are phenolic compounds
present in the tissues of the fruits and vegetables.
Phenolase hydroxylates monophenols to 0-diphenol and
oxidizes 0-diphenols to 0-quinones.
• The 0-quinones then enter into a number of other
reactions, which produce the “undesirable” brown
discolorations.
• Quinone formation is enzyme and oxygen-dependent.
• Once the quinones have formed, the subsequent
reactions occur spontaneously and no longer depend on
the presence of phenolase or oxygen.
5.
6. Prevention
Enzymatic browning can be prevented or slowed in several
ways.
Immersing the “injured” food (for example, apple slices) in cold
water slows the browning process.
The optimum temperature for enzymes to act is
43ºC(109ºF).The lower temperature decreases enzyme activity,
and the water limits the enzyme’s access to oxygen.
Refrigeration slows enzyme activity even more, and boiling
temperatures destroy (denature) the enzyme.
A long-used method for preventing browning involves lowering
of pH to 2.5-2.7 by the addition of acids such as ascorbic acid,
malic or citric acid
7. Phenolase works very slowly in the acidic environment
created by the added acids.
In addition, the vitamin C (ascorbic acid) present in
lemon juice functions as an antioxidant.
It is more easily oxidized than the phenolic-derived
compounds, and its oxidation products are colorless.
8. b) Non Enxymatic Browning
1) Maillard reaction:
• The non enzymatic browning or Maillard reaction is a chemical
reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugat, usually
requiring heat.
• When aldoses and ketoses are heated with amines, a variety of
reactions ensue, producing numerous compounds some of
which are flavours, aromas and dark coloured polymeric
material.
• They may be produced slowly during storage and much more
rapidly at the high temperature encountered during frying
roasting or backing.
9. • The reducing sugar reacts with the amine to form a Schiff base (an
imines) which may cyclate to form glucosamine.
• In the case of glucose the Schiff base undergo a reaction called
Amadori rearrangement to give 1-amino-1-deoxy-D-fructose or
Amadori compound.
• The Amadori compounds are early intermediates in the browning
reaction sequence.
• Amadori compounds undergo transformation via different pathways
starting with four different intermediates formed from them.
• The result is a complex mixture of intermediates and products.
10. • The Maillard reaction occurs in three main steps:
• 1. Initial step- formation N glycoside: The carbonyl group of the
sugar reacts with the amino group of the amino acid, producing N-
substituted glycosylamine and water
11. • 2. After formation of N glycoside the immonium ion is
formed and then isomerizes, this reaction is called
Amadori rearrangement and forms a compound called
ketosamine:
12. • 3. The ketosamine products then either dehydrates into
reductones and dehydro reductones, which are caramel,
or products -short chain hydrolytic fission products such
as diacetyl, acetol or pyruvaldehyde which then undergo
the Strecker degradation and produce short-chain
hydrolytic fission products and brown nitrogenous
polymers and melanoidins
13. • Important intermediates are formed by rearrangements
and eliminations are 1-, 3- and 4-deoxydicarbonyl
compounds called 1-, 3-, and 4-deoxyosones. They
finally form 5- hydroxy methyl furfural
• In the process, hundreds of different flavor compounds
are created. These compounds in turn break down to
form yet more new flavor compounds, and so on. Each
type of food has a very distinctive set of flavor
compounds that are formed during the Maillard reaction.
It is these same compounds have been used over the
years to create artificial flavors.
14. Food products with Maillard reactions
• The Maillard reaction is responsible for many colors and
flavors in foods such as bread, biscuit, malted barley as
in malt whiskey or beer, roasted meat, dried or
condensed milk, roasted coffee etc 6-Acetyl-2,3,4,5-
tetrahydropyridine is responsible for the biscuit or
cracker-like flavor present in baked goods like bread and
popcorn.
• The structurally related compound 2-acetyl-1 pyrrpoline
has a similar smell and occurs also naturally without
heating and gives varieties of cooked rice their typical
smell.
15. • Maillard reaction may result in a reduction in nutritional properties
and the formation of potentially toxic and mutagenic compounds. In
a food system, the reactants are mostly amino acids (free forms or
peptide-bound) and reducing sugars.
• Since up to 50% of the food groups have been processed before
consumption, some of the amino acids and reducing sugars is lost
during processing.
• Maillard reactions affect protein bioavailability by derivatizing
protein-bound, dietary limiting amino acids such as lysine, arginine,
and histidine.
• Maillard reaction products also exhibit antinutritive effects by
mechanism involving complex formation with micronutrients,
destruction of vitamins, and by acting as inhibitors of digestive
enzymes
16. • High temperature, low moisture levels and alkaline
conditions promote the Maillard reaction.
• The rate of Maillard reactions increases as the water
activity increases, reaching a maximum at water
activities in the range of 0.6 to 0.7.
• However, as the Maillard reaction produces water,
further increases in water activity may inhibit Maillard
reactions.
• Pentose sugars react more than hexoses, which react
more than disaccharide.
• Different aminoacids produce different amounts of
browning
17. 2) Browning reactions which occur in meat
• The browning reactions which occur when meat is roasted or seared
have often been referred to as Maillard reaction browning.
• However, lean meat contains very few, if any, reducing sugars.
• Furthermore, red meat undergoes more extensive browning than
does white meat.
• The browning reactions in lean meat are most likely due to the
breakdown of the tetrapyrrole rings of the muscle protein,
myoglobin.
• Thus, the browning of meat is technically not a Maillard browning
since it does not involve the reaction with a reducing sugar
18. 3) Caramelization
• Caramelization is a browning reaction formed by heating carbohydrates like
sucrose or reducing sugars.
• Reactions are facilitated by small quantity of acids, base and certain salts.
• Caramelization is an entirely different process from Maillard browning,
though the results of the two processes are sometimes similar to the naked
eye (and taste buds).
• The final product caramel contains a complex mixture of polymeric
compound, formed from unsaturated cyclic compounds.
• Flavour and aroma compounds are also formed.
• Heating causes the dehydration of sugar molecule with introduction of
double bonds or formation of anhydro rings. Intermediates such as 3-deoxy
osones and furans are formed.
• The unsaturated rings may condense to form useful, conjugated double-
bond containing, brown coloured polymers.
• Catalysts increase the reaction rate and are used to direct the reaction to
specify types of caramel colour, solubility and acidities.
19. • To make caramel a carbohydrate is heated alone or in
the presence of acid, a base or salt.
• The carbohydrates most often used are sucrose, but
fructose, glucose, invert sugar, malt syrups and
molasses may also be used.
• Acid used are food grade sulfuric, sulfurous, phosphoric,
acetic and citric acids.
• Bases that may be used are ammonium, sodium,
potassium and calcium hydroxides.
• Salts that may be used are ammonium, sodium,
potassium carbonates, bicarbonates, phosphates,
sulphates or bisulphates.
20. Classes of caramel
Class I caramel :Prepared by heating a plain carbohydrate
Class II caramel :Prepared by heating a carbohydrate in the
presence of a sulphite
Class III caramel :Prepared by heating a carbohydrate in the
presence of a source of ammonium ion.
Class IV caramel :Prepared by heating a carbohydrate in the
presence of a both sulphite and ammonium ions
• Caramelization may sometimes cause browning in the same foods
in which the Maillard reaction occurs, but the two processes are
distinct.
• They both are promoted by heating, but the Maillard reaction
involves amino acids, as discussed above, while caramelization is
simply the pyrolysis of certain sugars.