1
Personality Theory: From Everyday Observations to Systematic Theories
Questions to be Addressed in this Chapter
Defining Personality
Why Study Personality?
Three Goals for the Personality Theorist
Answering Questions about Persons Scientifically: Understanding Structures,
Processes, Development, and Therapeutic Change
Important Issues in Personality Theory
Evaluating Personality Theories
The Personality Theories: An Introduction
Major Concepts
Review
Chapter Focus
I can be selfish, but I believe it is because I try to be perfect. Perfect in the sense I
want to be an “A” student, a good mother, a loving wife, an excellent employee, a
nourishing friend. My significant other thinks I try too hard to be “Mother Teresa”
at times—not that that is a bad thing. But I can drive myself insane at times. I have
led a hard childhood and adulthood life; therefore I believe I am trying to make up
for all the bad times. I want to be productive, good—make a difference in my
world.
I'm a real jackass. I'm intelligent enough to do well in school and study genetics
but have no idea when to shut up. I often am very offensive and use quite abrasive
language, although I'm shy most of the time and talk to few people. I'm sarcastic,
cruel, and pompous at times. Yet I've been told that I'm kind and sweet; this may be
true, but only to those I deem worthy of speaking to with some frequency. I'm very
fond of arguing and pretty much argue for fun.
I have always been described by others as cynical and/or as having integrity. I
would describe myself as inquisitive, philosophical and justice‐oriented. I craze
organization, but my room is the messiest one I have seen thus far … like the room
of a toddler. I am introspective but I don't reach many conclusions about myself. I
seem very passive and mellow – but I am just too tired to get fired up.
This person is shy at times. They tend to open up to some people. You never know
when they're happy or sad. They never show their real feelings, and when they do
it's so hard for them. They did have a trauma experience that closed them up—
where they seem to be afraid to let their real self show. They are funny and do have
a lot of fun and are fun to be around, but at times it's hard to know if they're really
having a good time. The person is loved by a lot of people and is an extremely
giving person but doesn't like “seriousness.”
These sketches were written by people just like you: students beginning a course on
the psychology of personality. When I teach the class, on Day 1, I ask people to
describe their personality and that of a friend. Two things happen. First, students
can answer the question; when asked to “describe your personality,” they rarely
say “I don't know how to do that; it's only the first day of personality class.”
Second, as you see here, their answers are often detailed, nuanced, and
insightful—so much so that one is tempted to ask: Is the class fil ...
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Essay on personality
Essay on Personality Analysis
Introduction to Personality Essay
An Individual s Personality Change Essay
Essay on Personality in the Workplace
Argumentative Essay On Personality Disorders
Essay on Personality Types
Human Personality Essay
Essay on Personality Development
Personality Dynamics Of Personality
Personality Paper Essay
Essay on Me Myself and Personality Traits
Essay on Personality
Examples Of A Personality Paper
Essay on The Trait Theory of Personality
Types of Personality Essay
Essay on Psychology: Personality Theories
The Trait Theory Of Personality Essay
Personal Integrity
Personality Test Analysis Essay
Personal Essay : My Personal Qualities
Big Five Dimensions Of Personality Essay
My Own Theory Of Personality
Examples Of A Personality Paper
Essay on Psychology: Personality Theories
Human Personality Essay
Essay on Personality in the Workplace
Factors Influencing Personality
Examples Of Personality Psychology
Personality Reflection Essay
ENTP Personality
Essay on Me Myself and Personality Traits
Personality Paper Essay
Examples Of Implicit Personality Theory
Types of Personality Essay
Personality Test Analysis Essay
An Individual s Personality Change Essay
Introduction to Personality Essay
Essay on Personality Analysis
Humanistic Perspective on Personality Essay
1. IntroversionScore 11 pts.4 - 22 pts.Feedback Some peopMartineMccracken314
1. Introversion
Score : 11 pts.
4 - 22 pts.
Feedback: Some people thrive in teleworking arrangements, whereas others discover that it is neither a satisfying nor productive work environment for them. This scale assesses three personal dispositions that are identified in the literature as characteristics of effective teleworkers: (a) high company alignment, (b) low social needs at work and (c) independent initiative.
Company alignment
Company alignment estimates the extent to which you follow company procedures and have values congruent with company values. The greater the alignment, the more likely that you can abide by company practices while working alone and with direct supervision. While some deviation from company practices may be appropriate, teleworkers need to agree with company values and provide work that is consistent with company expectations most of the time. Scores on this scale range from 4 to 20.
Extroversion
Score: 17 pts.
4 - 22 pts.
Feedback: Low individualism
Individualism refers to the extent that you value independence and personal uniqueness. Highly individualist people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over their own lives, and appreciation of their unique qualities that distinguish them from others.
However, keep in mind that the average level of individualism is higher in some cultures (such as Australia) than in others.
2. Total score: 8 pts.
RANGE BASED FEEDBACK:
6-12 pts.
Feedback: Low work centrality
People with high work centrality define themselves mainly by their work roles and view non-work roles as much less significant. Consequently, people with a high work centrality score likely have lower complexity in their self-concept. This can be a concern because if something goes wrong with their work role, their non-work roles are not of sufficient value to maintain a positive self-evaluation. At the same time, work dominates our work lives, so those with very low scores would be more of the exception than the rule in most societies. Scores range from 6 to 36 with higher scores indicating higher work centrality. The norms in the following table are based on a large sample of Canadian employees (average score was 20.7). However, work centrality norms vary from one group to the next. For example, the average score in a sample of Canadian nurses was around 17 (translated to the scale range used here).
3. Total score: 32 pts.
RANGE BASED FEEDBACK:
28-32 pts.
Feedback: High need for social approval
The need for social approval scale estimates the extent to which you are motivated to seek favourable evaluation from others. Founded on the drive to bond, the need for social approval is a secondary need, because people vary in this need based on their self-concept, values, personality and possibly social norms. This scale ranges from 0 to 32. How high or low is your need for social approval? The ideal would be to compare your score with the collective results of other students in your class. Otherwi ...
1. International financial investors are moving funds from Talona MartineMccracken314
1. International financial investors are moving funds from Talona to other countries. This depreciation is causing even more disenchantment with this Talona's currency. Describe the affects will this have on the supply and demand curves for this currency on the foreign exchange markets?
2. Using a supply and demand diagram, demonstrate how a negative externality leads to market inefficiency. How might the government help to eliminate this inefficiency?
3. Briefly discuss the shortcomings of environmental command-and-control regulations.
4. Some data that at first might seem puzzling: The share of GDP devoted to investment was similar for the United States and South Korea from 1960-1991. However, during these same years South Korea had a 6 percent growth rate of average annual income per person, while the United States had only a 2 percent growth rate. If the saving rates were the same, why were the growth rates so different?
5. “Block Imports—Save Jobs for Some Americans, Lose a Roughly Equal Number of Jobs for Other Americans, and Also Pay High Prices.” Discuss this statement within the context of protectionism.
6. Steve and Craig have been shipwrecked on a deserted island in the South Pacific. Their economic activity consists of either gathering pineapples or fishing. We know Steve can catch four fish in one hour or harvest two baskets of pineapples. In the same time Craig can reel in two fish or harvest two baskets of pineapples.
Assume Craig and Steve both operate on straight-line production possibilities curves. What is Steve's opportunity cost of producing a basket of pineapples? Of a producing a fish? What is Craig's opportunity cost of producing a basket of pineapples? Of a producing a fish?
7. Provide examples of market-oriented environmental policies.
Running head: SC PLAN 1
SC PLAN 4
SC PLAN
Student’s Name
Institution Affiliation
SC PLAN
1. Describe the actions you will take to increase your net cash flows in the near future.
The first step is to reduce living expenditures. It is critical to lessen the amount spent on living expenses and other variables and save for future use. I will have to prevent luxuries such as vacation costs or keep them in check to avoid spending a hefty amount on them. I should check the option to cook for myself and avoid buying food. Also, I will choose a destination I can drive myself to save on rental car expenditures and airfare. I will have a detailed budget indicating the amount required for savings, debt repayment, and investment that will assist only to spend the money on essential expenditures. Further, the savings can help to start a business and become self-employed in the distant future.
I would have to look for a job that pays well or engage in a robust salary negotiation. The right time to negotiate for salary is during a performance review, compensation meeting, or job promotion (Bellon, Cookson, Gilje, & Heimer, 2020). I will ensure that I expand my education and technic ...
1. Interventionstreatment· The viral pinkeye does not need any MartineMccracken314
1. Interventions/treatment
· The viral pinkeye does not need any medication
· The bacterial pinkeye is treated with ointment or eye droplets
2. Possible nursing diagnosis
· Checking the specific infection affecting the eye
· Identifying burning eyes
· Increased anxiety with red eyes
3. Sign and symptoms
· Eye irritation
· Eye tearing
· Eye redness
· Eye discomfort
4. Nursing Interventions
· Putting some droplets in the kid’s eye
· Using a antibiotic ointment
· Administering ibuprofen to the kid
5. Risk factors
· Allergies
· A women having an STD during pregnancy
· Exposing the child to areas with lots of bacteria
6. Pathophysiology
The infected eye shows through an inflammation that is swollen and red. The conjunctiva shows and this is the clear membrane seen in the part where the eye is white. It remains this way if not treated for a while before it ends with medication administered or just ends naturally.
7. Complications
· A scaring in the child’s eye if the conjunctivitis is caused by allergic reactions
· It can aggravate to cause different conditions such as meningitis
8. Diagnostic Procedure
· Administering the medicine using eye droplets
· Rubbing the eye area with the ointment
...
1. Introduction and background information about solvatochromism uMartineMccracken314
1. Introduction and background information about solvatochromism using Reichardt’s dye? (400-500 words)
2. Discuss the properties of Reichardt’s dye that cause it to change its wavelength of maximum absorbance in the presence of solvents of differing polarities.
3. Discuss solvatochromism. Are there other dyes which exhibit this effect?
4. Would it be possible to use the wavelength of maximum absorbance in the presence of Reichardt’s dye to determine the water content of acetone solutions?
...
1. Integrity, the basic principle of healthcare leadership.ContaMartineMccracken314
1. Integrity, the basic principle of healthcare leadership.
Contains unread posts
Mateo Alba posted May 12, 2021 10:04 PM
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Integrity of any organization regardless whether it is in healthcare or business or government is paramount. Because of integrity comes trust. Having trust in a healthcare organization is nonnegotiable. It is the foundation of a world-class organization. Executives who ignore ethics run the risk of personal and corporate liability in today’s increasingly tough legal environment (Lynn S. Paine, 1994, Managing for Organizational Integrity, pp. 2-21)
First, the healthcare organization. The healthcare organization is the head or the governing body. It is charged of day-to-day functions, establish policies, guidance, business process, safety, security and all the administrative duties. Integrity is and must be the cornerstone of any healthcare organization. Without it, no clinicians or workers that would knowingly work for an organization that they cannot trust or feel safe. And most importantly, if the patients do not have trust in the organization, they will avoid that facility at all cost.
Second, the clinicians. The clinicians are what makes the organization or facility function. Whether they are the providers, nurses or staff it is important that they have the integrity to always do what is right not only for the healthcare team or the organization, but most specially for the patient. It starts with the clinical leaders building trust to their subordinate staff by having the integrity and values of what a leader should be. Once that is established, then it permeates throughout the entire team. Thereby improving the healthcare delivery.
Lastly, and the most important is the patient. At the center of the entire system needs to be the patient. Once the patient recognizes the integrity or values of the healthcare organization and the clinicians delivering healthcare, patient trust is established. The patient satisfaction also increases. According to Cowing, Davino-Ramaya, Ramaya, Szmerekovsky, 2009, pp.72, “if patients are satisfied with clinician-patient interactions, they are likely to be more compliant with their treatment plan, to understand their role in the recovery process, and to follow through with the recommended treatment”. Having integrity or values in the healthcare delivery is the basic principle of healthcare leadership.
Cowing, M., Davino-Ramaya, C. M., Ramaya, K., & Szmerekovsky, J. (2009). Health care delivery performance: service, outcomes, and resource stewardship. The Permanente Journal, 13(4), 72–78. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911834/
Lynn S. Paine, 1994, Managing for Organizational Integrity. Harvard business review, 2-21. Retrieved from Managing for Organizational Integrity (hbr.org)
2. Medical Delivery Influences
Contains unread posts
Robert Breeden posted May 12, 2021 9:44 AM
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Hello,
The influence within the medical community is so important and ...
1. Information organized and placed in a logical sequence (10 poMartineMccracken314
1.
Information organized and placed in a logical sequence (10 points)
Points Awarded
2.
Demonstrated knowledge of ethical dilemma presented by:
2a. Summarized the situation (10)
2b. Explained the ethical dilemma (5)
2c. Solved the problem as a professional RN (15)
3.
Responses supported with specific ANA Codes
(20)
4.
Visual aids professional, visually interesting
& aided in understanding material; proper grammar/spelling/punctuation-no more than 2 errors in presentation(10)
5.
Maintained eye contact of audience (10)
6.
Voice clear & audible (10)
7.
Encouraged class participation (5)
8.
Reference slide that includes references in APA
format (5)
Total points possible = 100
NSG 100
Case Study in-class Presentations Assignment
1): Moral Courage with a Dying Patient
Mr. T. is an 82-year-old widower who has been a patient on your unit several times over the past 5 years. His CHF, COPD, and diabetes have taken a toll on his body. He now needs oxygen 24 hours a day and still has dyspnea and tachycardia at rest. On admission, his ejection fraction is less than 20%, EKG shows a QRS interval of greater than 0.13 seconds, and his functional class is IV on NYHA assessment.
He has remained symptomatic despite maximum medical management with a vasodilator and diuretics. He tells you, "This is my last trip; I am glad I have made peace with my family and God. Nurse, I am ready to die." You ask about an advance directive and he tells you his son knows that he wants no heroics, but they just have never gotten around to filling out the form. When the son arrives, you suggest that he speak with the social worker to complete the advance directive and he agrees reluctantly. You page the physician to discuss DNR status with the son. Unfortunately, Mr. T. experiences cardiac arrest before the discussion occurs and you watch helplessly as members of the Code Blue Team perform resuscitation. Mr. T. is now on a ventilator and the son has dissolved into tears with cries of, "Do not let him die!"
2): Moral Courage to Confront Bullying
Melissa started on the unit as a new graduate 5 weeks ago. She is still in orientation and has a good relationship with her preceptor. The preceptor has been assigned consistently to Melissa for most of the last 4 weeks, but due to family emergency has not been available in the last week. Melissa has been told that she will be precepted by a different nurse for the remainder of her orientation. The new preceptor has not been welcoming, supportive, or focused on the educational goals of the orientation. In fact, this new preceptor has voiced to all who will listen her feelings about the incompetence of new BSN graduates. The crisis occurs when Melissa fails to recognize a patient's confusion as a result of an adverse medication effect. The preceptor berates Melissa in the nurses' station, makes sarcastic comments in shift report abou ...
1. In our grant application, we included the following interventioMartineMccracken314
1. In our grant application, we included the following interventions as our evidence-based programs: Family Therapy (to promote family acceptance and support, a key factor for overall health outcomes for this population), Motivational Interviewing (to address higher co-occurrence of substance use concerns), Trauma-Focused Treatment (including EMDR Therapy and TF-CBT, to address higher rates of complex trauma including from systemic oppression), and CBT (a gold standard treatment modality, but adapted to meet the needs of our client population by incorporating elements of
Solution
s-Focused or Narrative approaches to make it more strengths-based).
For questions 2-4, you would need to do some of your own research in the literature on these treatment modalities and determine for yourself if there were best practices that should be incorporated into the plan used at the agency.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Cultural Competency: A Key to Effective Future Social Work With Racially and Ethnically Diverse E...
Min, Jong Won
Families in Society; Jul-Sep 2005; 86, 3; ProQuest One Academic
pg. 347
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
...
1. I believe that the protagonist is Nel because she is the one thMartineMccracken314
1. I believe that the protagonist is Nel because she is the one that goes through different changes throughout the book. I also think she is the protagonist because most people can relate to her more. Nel was done wrong by Sula and her husband Jude Green. Sula did the one thing that a best friend should never do and, that is sleep with your best friend's husband. Even though Sula did a terrible thing Nel still cares about her best friend because she goes and visits her when she is sick even after all the pain she caused her. Nel is also deeply saddened when she visits Sulas grave. That is not the only thing that happened to Nel. Nel not only had to deal with the affair but also accepted her guilt in Chicken Little's drowning. But in the end, Nel realized she enjoyed watching him drown.
Everything changed when Sula came back to Nels life. Nel was happy before. She was happy with her family and her husband, but when Sula came back that all changed. After the affair and Sulas death, Nel was alone. Nel became a single mother and, she no longer has a good relationship with another man.
2. I believe that although the title of the story is Sula, the main protaginist of the story is Nel. Nel is kept until the end of the story and Sulay passes away and exit's the story. I think in this pivitol moment is when the author wanted to make Nel the main character. Nel contained her emotion until towards the end of the story when she has a conversation with Eva, Nel nervously comments "Who told you all these lies? Miss Peace? Who told you? Why are you telling lies on me?" I believe the author wanted us to feel the anxiousness and wonder that Nel found out that somebody finally knew about the little boy being thrown. I believe this admission of guilt to Eva brings closure to Nel. Nel was trying to hide her emotions the entire time and it wasn't after being confronted that she broke down about it and visited Sulay's grave. Nel even stated "I don't know. No." when asked whether somebody saw the boy being thrown into the river. This shows that Nel was not sure at all in the moment it happened whether somebody knew. Nel wanted to not think about what happen forever and try to mute the situation but Eva bringing it up, made Nel feel terrible about what happened which is why she ended up visting Sulay's grave. I think muting herself from knowing the little boy was thrown was still not a 'good' way to look at it, from her end. She wanted to believe a lie by just pretending it never happened. It wasn't after someone brought up the situation to her that her feelings change.
3. Although the novel is titled Sula, the real protagonist is Nel because she is the one who is transformed by the end. Sula and Nel were very great friends and were very dedicated to each other. But they were also very different. Nel was known as the more mature and "good person" while Sula is more impulsive. "Nel is the product of a family that believes deeply in social conventions, hers is a st ...
1. If the profit from the sale of x units of a product is P = MartineMccracken314
1. If the profit from the sale of x units of a product is P = 105x − 300 − x2, what
level(s) of production will yield a profit of $1050? (Enter your answers as a
comma-separated list.)
x = _________ units
2. The total costs for a company are given by
C(x) = 5400 + 80x + x2
and the total revenues are given by
R(x) = 230x.
Find the break-even points. (Enter your answers as a comma-separated list.)
x= __________ units
3. If total costs are C(x) = 900 + 800x and total revenues are R(x) = 900x − x2, find the
break-even points. (Enter your answers as a comma-separated list.)
x= _____________
4. For the years since 2001, the percent p of high school seniors who have tried marijuana
can be considered as a function of time t according to
p = f(t) = 0.17t2 − 2.61t + 52.64
where t is the number of years past 2000.† In what year after 2000 is the percent
predicted to reach 75%, if this function remains valid?
_______________
5. Using data from 2002 and with projections to 2024, total annual expenditures for
national health care (in billions of dollars) can be described by
E = 4.61x2 + 43.4x + 1620
where x is the number of years past 2000.† If the pattern indicated by the model
remains valid, in what year does the model predict these expenditures will reach
$15,315 billion?
__________________
6. The monthly profit from the sale of a product is given by P = 32x − 0.2x2 − 150 dollars.
(a) What level of production maximizes profit?
___________ units
(b) What is the maximum possible profit?
$_____________
7. Consider the following equation.
y = 9 + 6x − x2
(a) Find the vertex of the graph of the equation.
(x, y) = (__________)
(b) Determine what value of x gives the optimal value of the function.
x=_____________
(c) Determine the optimal (maximum or minimum) value of the function.
y=______________
8. Consider the following equation.
f(x) = 6x − x2
(a) Find the vertex of the graph of the equation.
(x, y) = (__________)
(b) Determine what value of x gives the optimal value of the function.
x=_____________
(c) Determine the optimal (maximum or minimum) value of the function.
f(x)= _____________
9. Find the maximum revenue for the revenue function R(x) = 358x − 0.7x2. (Round your
answer to the nearest cent.)
R = $______________
10. The profit function for a certain commodity is P(x) = 150x − x2 − 1000. Find the level of
production that yields maximum profit, and find the maximum profit.
x= _________ units
P=$ _________
11. If, in a monopoly market, the demand for a product is p = 2000 − x and the revenue is
R = px, where x is the number of units sold, what price will maximize revenue?
$________________
12. If the supply function for a commodity is p = q2 + 6q + 16 and the demand function is p
= −3q2 + 4q + 436, find the equilibrium quantity and equilibrium price.
equilibrium quantity_______________
equilibrium price $_______________
13. If the supply and demand functions for a commodity are given by p ...
1. How does CO2 and other greenhouse gases promote global warminMartineMccracken314
1. How does CO2 and other greenhouse gases promote global warming? Discuss your opinion on the use of geoengineering measures to mitigate the effects of global warming.
Your response should be at least 250 words in length.
2. How does CO2 and other greenhouse gases promote global warming? Discuss your opinion on the use of geoengineering measures to mitigate the effects of global warming.
Your response should be at least 250 words in length.
Raw DataNamePayResponsibilitiesSupervisionGenderDepartmentRudolph211MaleAccountingOlga211FemaleAccountingInstructionsErnest211MaleAccountingEmily211FemaleAccountingThe sheet labeled "Raw Data" lists 366 employees and their rating (1-5) of their satisfaction with their Pay, Responsibilities, and Supervision. A rating of 5 is the highest satisfaction.Bobby211MaleAccountingRaw Data also includes the Gender and Department for each employee.Benjamin211MaleAccountingBeatrice211FemaleAccountingInsert a new column in EKeith211MaleAccountingLabel this new column "Overall Satisfaction Rating"Hilda211FemaleAccountingFor each employee, compute the Overall Satisfaction Rating as the Average of Pay, Responsibilities, and Supervision.Leslie311MaleAccountingFormat Overall Satisfaction Rating to one decimal place.Curtis311MaleAccountingAlice311FemaleAccountingOn a New sheet titled Results, create a Pivot Chart & Pivot TableSophie311FemaleAccountingAssign Gender to Columns, Department to rows, and Pay to Values. Change the value field setting from Sum to Average if necessary.Sally311FemaleAccountingSort the departments in descending order of satisfaction.Melvin311MaleAccountingCreate a title for the chart, which includes your last namePearl411FemaleAccountingBe sure your chart includes a legend for male & female employees, change male color to blue and female to orangeJohnny411MaleAccountingBe sure to include axis titlesEunice411FemaleAccountingFormat the vertical axis for a max of 5 and major tick marks at 1 and one decimal place.Opal212FemaleAccountingJulia212FemaleAccountingCreate a new sheet titled "Graphs".Jimmie212MaleAccountingCopy & Paste as Picture your graph of Pay SatisfactionEsther212FemaleAccountingAlbert212MaleAccountingAlter your Pivot chart/table to display Responsibilities Satisfaction. Change titles as needed.Mike212MaleAccountingPaste this chart on the Graphs sheetMarion212MaleAccountingJosephine212FemaleAccountingAlter your Pivot chart/table to display Supervision Satisfaction. Change titles as needed.Ida212FemaleAccountingPaste this chart on the Graphs sheetGerald212MaleAccountingCaroline212FemaleAccountingAlter your Pivot chart/table to display Overall Satisfaction. Change titles as needed.Alberta212FemaleAccountingPaste this chart on the Graphs sheetLeroy312MaleAccountingLeave Results sheet with the Pivot Table & Chart displaying the Overall Satisfaction.Anita312FemaleAccountingMildred412FemaleAccountingBeulah412FemaleAccountingAda412FemaleAccountingClayton212MaleAccountingWayne312MaleA ...
1. How do you think communication and the role of training addressMartineMccracken314
1. How do you think communication and the role of training address performance gaps or training needs as it relates to how Adults learn?
2. There are many ways – or methods – available to gather data during a need’s assessment. Each one has advantages and disadvantages. What is important is to select the appropriate method based on your business problem. The most common methods for data gathering are:
· Document reviews or Extant Data Analysis – reviewing existing material like process maps, procedure guides, previous training material, etc.,
· Needs Assessment
· Interviews
· Focus groups
· Surveys
· Questionnaires
· Direct Observations
· Testing
· Subject Matter Expert Analysis
Select one of these data gathering methods to discuss and share what you see as the advantages and disadvantages associated with using the selected method.
1. Team teaching
In team teaching, both teachers are in the room at the same time but take turns teaching the whole class. Team teaching is sometimes called “tag team teaching.” You and your co-teacher teacher are a bit like co-presenters at a conference or the Oscars. You don’t necessarily plan who takes which part of the lesson, and when one of you makes a point, the other can jump in and elaborate if needed.
Team teaching can make you feel vulnerable. It asks you to step outside of your comfort zone and allow another teacher to see how you approach a classroom full of students. However, it also gives you the opportunity to learn about and improve your teaching skills by having a partner who can provide feedback and — in some cases — mentorship.
In team teaching, as well as the five other co-teaching models below, a teacher team may be made up of two general education teachers, two special education teachers, or one of each. Or, in some cases, it may be a teacher and a paraprofessional working together. Some IEPs specify that a student’s teaching team needs to include a general education teacher and a special education teacher.
Here’s what you need to know about the team teaching method:
What it looks like in the classroom
Both teachers teach at the front of the room and move about to check in with students (as needed).
Benefits
· Provides both teachers with an active instructional role
· Introduces students to complementary teaching styles and personalities
· Allows for lessons to be presented by two different people with different teaching styles
· Models multiple ways of presenting and engaging with information
· Models for students what a successful collaborative working relationship can look like
· Provides more opportunities to pursue teachable moments that may arise
Challenges
· Takes time and trust for teachers to build a working relationship that values each teacher equally in the classroom
· Necessitates a lot of planning time and coordination of schedules
· Requires teachers to have equal involvement not just in planning, but also in grading, which means assignments need to be evaluated ...
1. How brain meets its requirement for its energy in terms of wellMartineMccracken314
1. How brain meets its requirement for its energy in terms of well-fed and during starvation or fasting?
2. Explain the utilization of different sources of energy in muscle during anaerobic and aerobic conditions of high physical activity and resting?
3. Why and how adipose tissue and kidney are significant for fuel metabolism?
4. Explain in detail why liver is significant for metabolism of mammals and how does it coordinate the different metabolic pathways essential for organism?
5. Explain the Cori cycle and glucose-alanine cycle for interorgan fuel metabolism?
...
1. Give an introduction to contemporary Chinese art (Talk a littleMartineMccracken314
1. Give an introduction to contemporary Chinese art (Talk a little bit about some of the major changes in Chinese art)
2. Read the article that is provided. Do some research on the artist, Xu Bing. According to the article, give some background information about Xu Bing, and investigate the body of work.
3. Select one piece of his artwork to write about. It could be a traditional work of art, such as drawing, painting, or sculpture, or something more experimental like performance art, body art, or installation art.
4. Write a 3-page analysis of the artwork you select. The paper should have a short introduction and conclusion, but the body should focus on your analysis of the artwork. Some of the questions that you might want to work through in the paper include: Why is the work important? In what ways does it challenge the viewer? Is there an allegorical meaning to the work? How is it in dialogue with Western art traditions or earlier Chinese art traditions? Does it engage with Chinese history? Etc.
5. Be sure to include an image of the work you select into the paper, and the paper must be grammatically correct.
...
1. For this reaction essay is a brief written reaction to the readMartineMccracken314
1. For this reaction essay is a brief written reaction to the readings. It may be somewhat informal (and I would encourage you to be personal), but it must be well-written and well-organized. It must not be more than 2 pages, use 12-point font, single-spaced, at least 1" margins. You will react to the results of this systematic review article on Telemedicine " Effectiveness of Telemedicine A Systematic Review of Reviews.pdf
Focus on the results of the synthesis only, react to the authors' conclusions- do you agree or disagree with their synthesis? Discuss your opinion, are there faults in their conclusions?
Telemedicine is increasingly being suggested as an alternative for an in-person visit, especially with emergent diseases that call for person-to-person distancing. What are the potential concerns with this suggestion? What are in the authors' synthesis and conclusions underscore the limitations of this suggestion?
2. The next day a representative from Bristol Myers Squibb visits your office and tells you that Plavix® (clopidogrel) decreases cardiovascular events by 8.7% compared to aspirin. That sure sounds good to you, as you have many elderly patients at risk of heart attacks and strokes and many are already on aspirin. The brochure quotes the CAPRIE study, and you decide to investigate this further. A review of the 1996 article reveals that study patients on Plavix® experienced cardiovascular events 9.78% of the time compared to 10.64% of the time with aspirin. Plavix® was approved by the FDA based on this one study. Cost of Plavix/day=$6.50. Cost of aspirin/day = $1.33
• What was the NNT?
• How much does Plavix® cost monthly?
• What meaning do these values have for this problem?
• Be sure to include your actual calculations/math
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f m e d i c a l i n f o r m a t i c s 7 9 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 736–771
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . i n t l . e l s e v i e r h e a l t h . c o m / j o u r n a l s / i j m i
Effectiveness of telemedicine: A systematic review of
reviews
Anne G. Ekeland a,∗, Alison Bowes b, Signe Flottorp c,d
a Norwegian Centre for Integrated Care and Telemedicine, University Hospital of North Norway, P.O. Box 6060, N-9038 Tromsø, Norway
b Department of Applied Social Science, University of Stirling, Scotland, UK
c Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services, Oslo, Norway
d Department of Public Health and Primary Health Care, University of Bergen, Norway
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 April 2010
Received in revised form
11 July 2010
Accepted 29 August 2010
Keywords:
Telemedicine
Telecare
Systematic review
Effectiveness
Outcome
a b s t r a c t
Objectives: To conduct a review of reviews on the impacts and costs of telemedicine services.
Methods: A review of systematic reviews of telemedicine interventions was conducted. Inter-
ventions included all e-health interventions, information and communication technologies
for communication ...
1. Find something to negotiate in your personal or professional liMartineMccracken314
1. Find something to negotiate in your personal or professional life. Examples include: redistribution of household chores, a personal or professional purchase, a contract at work, asking for a raise, booking a vacation, hiring a contractor, etc. The deal does not have to be implemented for the purposes of this class (e.g. you can finalize the price for something you’re thinking of buying without following through on the purchase right now). The scenario you choose should be significant enough to allow you to do substantial research and detail for your paper. Submit a five page paper (minimum), double spaces, utilizing proper grammar and spelling, which summarizes the following:
1. Your Preparation – Describe the process you used and results of your preparation. You should also discuss your strategies, targets, and negotiating plan. Make sure you do your research, working on both your BATNA and the other party’s. (Consider newspapers, bookstores, libraries, the internet, and personal calls and visits as possible sources of information). This is the most important step, so being thorough is critical.
1. The Negotiating Process – Describe what happened in the negotiation itself. List he sequence of events and how you reacted/adjusted to the other party’s position. What was the negotiation style of the other party? What “tricks” did they try? How did you react? Were there any other influencing factors (e.g. cultural differences, misperceptions, emotion, etc.)?
1. The Outcome – What was the outcome and how did you feel about it? What worked well? What would you have done differently? Do you feel the result you arrived at was better than it would have been if you hadn’t taken the class? Why/Why not?
Your understanding of the appropriate preparation and process steps to take in negotiating this deal is more important than the final outcome.
Be sure to cite your sources, and include copies of necessary quotes/documentation.
1.
Find something to negotiate in your personal or professional life. Examples include:
redistributi
on of household chores, a personal or professional purchase, a contract at work,
asking for a raise, booking a vacation, hiring a contractor, etc. The deal does not have to be
implemented for the purposes of this class (e.g. you can finalize the price for
something you’re
thinking of buying without following through on the purchase right now). The scenario you
choose should be significant enough to allow you to do substantial research and detail for your
paper. Submit a five page paper (minimum), double
spaces, utilizing proper grammar and
spelling, which summarizes the following:
2.
Your Preparation
–
Describe the process you us
ed and results of your preparation. You should
also discuss your strategies, targets, and negotiating plan. Make sure you do your research,
working on both your BATNA and the other party’s. (Consider newspapers, bookstores, libraries,
the internet, and p
ers ...
1. FAMILYMy 57 year old mother died after a short illness MartineMccracken314
1. FAMILY
My 57 year old mother died after a short illness last June. She was a wonderful mother and my 66 year old father
adored her. They had been married for 38 years. He is finding it extremely difficult to cope without her. To make
matters worse, he retired just two months before she died and is at a loss to fill his days.
He is disorganized and has not established any pattern in his life. I invite him for meals and outings, but he is
detached and depressed. He doesn’t seem to be part of the world any more. I am terribly worried about him. How
long will he be like this? I am 34 and have small children. I thought being with the children would help him, but it’s
as though he doesn’t see or know them. He just sits and stares into space for much of the day. He seems locked
into his grief.
2. FAMILY
One of our 17 year old son’s best friends took his life several months ago. Our son didn’t say much at the time, but
he was very shaken. Since then he has gradually “retired” into himself. He stays in his room most of the time
listening to rock music.
He is unemployed and no longer sees his former schoolmates. We are very worried about him. How do we get him
out of himself? He has always been a quiet guy but his present behavior is beyond “quiet.” We have two other
children, girls aged 13 and 10, but our son now just ignores them.
3. FAMILY - rural
Ken is a 67 year old farmer who lives with his wife Margaret. Ken and Margaret had hoped to retire late in their 60s
and move to the west coast to be closer to their children, reluctantly selling the family property that has been
struggling financially. They have limited investment funds set aside to support their retirement and have been told
it is unlikely that they would be successful in selling their farm. Ken also suffers chronic back pain from a previous
farm injury. A neighbor has become concerned about Ken’s ability to cope with his property, and has visited Ken
and Margaret a number of times due to problems with his stock and pasture management. Margaret believes the
farm is “too much for them now,” but feels she can’t talk to Ken about this. Ken has become withdrawn and
refuses to discuss the issue. He talks about there being “no way out of this,” and that it “might as well be over.” He
sees his physician infrequently, having difficulty traveling the 60 miles to the nearby town.
4. FAMILY - rural
Jason is 34 years old and lives with his wife Jenny and their two children (8 and 3 years old). After completing a
mechanical trade apprenticeship in Boston, he has returned home with plans to build his future as a farmer. He has
become increasingly irritable and frustrated with what he believes is his failure to “get on top of things” on the
farm, and they are struggling to manage financially.
Jason is drinking heavily, mostly at home, but still drives his car into town. Jenny is angry and worried about this.
She is feeling isolated, having few friends in the area, and relying on Jas ...
1. Explain the four characteristics of B-DNA structure DifferentiMartineMccracken314
1. Explain the four characteristics of B-DNA structure? Differentiate between the A-DNA and Z-DNA structural features?
2. Describe the supercoiled DNA with its properties and how naturally occurring DNA under wound?
3. What are topoisomerases? Explain the two types of topoisomerases with their mechanism of action?
4. Explain the three interactions that are required to stabilize nucleic acids? How DNA denatures and renatures?
5. What are ribozymes and explain their properties?
Case 20 Restructuring
General Electric
The appointment of Larry Culp as the chairman and CEO of the General Electric
Company (GE) on October 1st, 2018 was a clear indication of the seriousness of the
problems that had engulfed the company. Culp, the former CEO of the highly-successful
conglomerate, Danaher Corporation, had been appointed a GE director only six months
previously and was the first outsider to lead GE—every one of GE’s previous CEOs had
been a career manager at the company. On the same day as Culp’s appointment, GE
abandoned its earning guidance for the year and announced a $23 billion accounting
charge arising from a write-down of goodwill at its troubled electrical power division.1
Culp’s predecessor, John Flannery had been CEO for a mere 14 months—a sharp
contrast to GE’s two previous CEOs: Jeff Immelt (16 years) and Jack Welch (20 years).
Flannery’s tenure at GE has coincided with of the company’s most difficult periods in its
entire 126-year history. In November 2017, amidst deteriorating financial performance,
Flannery announced a halving of GE’s quarterly dividend, the proposed sale of its
lighting and locomotive units—two of GE’s oldest businesses—and the elimination of
12,000 jobs in the power division.
In 2018, the situation worsened. In January, GE announced that it would be paying
$15 bn. to cover liabilities at insurance companies it had sold 12 years previously. In
February, GE confirmed suspicions over its dubious accounting practices by restating its
revenues and earnings for the previous two years, while also announcing the likelihood
of legal claims arising from its its subprime mortgage lending over a decade earlier.
The outcome was a precipitous fall in GE’s share price (see Figure 1) that culminated
in GE’s dismissal from the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA). Until June 2018, GE
was the sole surviving member of the DJIA when it was created in 1896.
The crisis at GE presented the board with two central questions. First, should GE
be broken up? Second, if GE was to continue as a widely-diversified company, how
should it be managed?
As a diversified corporation that extended from jet engines, to oil and gas equipment,
to healthcare products, to financial services, GE was an anomaly. For three decades, con-
glomerates—diversified companies comprising unrelated or loosely related businesses—
had been deeply unfashionable. CEOs, Jack Welch and Jeff Immelt, had claimed that,
by virtue of its integrated m ...
1. examine three of the upstream impacts of mining. Which of theseMartineMccracken314
1. examine three of the upstream impacts of mining. Which of these do you think would be most difficult to estimate in a life cycle assessment?
Your response should be at least 250 words in length.
2. Discuss the pollutants that are emitted during the operation stage of a life cycle assessment for a fossil fuel source.
Your response should be at least 250 words in length
Body Ritual among the Nacirema
H O R A C E M I N E R
University of Michigan
HE anthropologist has become so familiar with the diversity of ways iq T which different peoples behave in similar situations that he is not a p t to.
be surprised by even the most exotic customs. I n fact, if all of thelogically
possible combinations of behavior have not been found somewhere in the
world, he is a p t to suspect that they must be present in some yet undescribed
tribe. This point has, in fact, been expressed with respect to clan organization
by Murdock (1949: 7 1 ) . I n this light, the magical beliefs and practices of the
Nacirema present such unusual aspects that i t seems desirable t o describe
them a s an example of the extremes to which human behavior can go.
Professor Linton first brought the ritual of the Nacirema to the attention
of anthropologists twenty years ago (1936:326), but the culture of this people
is still very poorly understood. They are a North American group living in the
territory between the Canadian Cree, the Yaqui and Tarahumare of Mexico,
and the Carib and Arawak of the Antilles. Little is known of their origin, al-
though tradition states that they came from the east. According to Nacirema
mythology, their nation was originated by a culture hero, Notgnihsaw, who is
otherwise known for two great feats of strength-the throwing of a piece of
wampum across the river Pa-To-Mac and the chopping down of a cherry tree
in which the Spirit of Truth resided.
Nacirema culture is characterized by a highly developed market economy
which has evolved in a rich natural habitat. While much of the people’s time
is devoted to economic pursuits, a large part of the fruits of these labors and a
considerable portion of the day are spent in ritual activity. The focus of this
activity is the human body, the appearance and health of which loom a s a
dominant concern in the ethos of the people. While such a concern is certainly
not unusual, its ceremonial aspects and associated philosophy are unique.
The fundamental belief underlying the whole system appears to be that the
human body is ugly and that its natural tendency is t o debility and disease.
Incarcerated in such a body, man’s only hope is to avert these characteristics
through the use of the powerful influences of ritual and ceremony. Every house-
hold has one or more shrines devoted to this purpose. The more powerful in-
dividuals in the society have several shrines in their houses and, in fact, the
opulence of a house is often referred to in terms of the num ...
1. Examine Hofstedes model of national culture. Are all four dimeMartineMccracken314
1. Examine Hofstede's model of national culture. Are all four dimensions still important in today's society as it relates to the success of the multinational manager? Why, or why not? Which do you think is the least important as it relates to multinational management? Why?
2. More companies are seeking to fill multinational management positions due to the influx of business growth abroad. If you were offered and accepted a position as a multinational manager, what would you do to personally prepare for the culture of a different country? Where would you seek information? What overall responsibilities would you expect of the job? How do you think the managerial responsibilities would be different from those you would face in the United States?
3. Multinational managers encounter many levels of culture. Which of the culture levels do you think might be the most difficult to manage? Why? Share an example. Which culture level do you think might be the easiest to understand? Why? Give an example of this.
4. In your own words, what is your perception of free trade? Think about the advantages of free trade; what are two benefits that result from free trade? There is also a downside to free trade; what are two disadvantages resulting from free trade? Provide reasoning for your choices.
5. What are the three major economic systems that nations utilize, and what is the role of each? How does each affect and influence individuals, multinational managers, and corporations?
6. How would you define ethical convergence? What are the four basic reasons for ethical convergence? Which might be the most difficult for multinational companies to follow, and why?
7. Describe the four major world religions. What are the impacts of each religion type on an economic environment? What do you think makes religion a concern in societies?
8. If you were a multinational manager, and you encountered an ethical dilemma within the multinational company, what heuristic questions would you use to decide between ethical relativism and ethical universalism? Of the different heuristic questions, which one do you think is most important? Explain your reasoning.
1
Week Two Instructor’s Notes
PHIL 1103 Summer
This week you will be learning in detail about the four different moral perspectives that
we will use to analyze moral questions.
Notice two things right at the start. First, because normative ethics is our main focus this
term, we are not going to attempt to settle the question of whether any moral perspective at all
could be correct or known to be correct—that is a task for metaethics. Our task in this second
week is to learn in some detail about four different kinds of consideration or value that often
seem relevant when we try to decide what is morally right or wrong in particular cases, namely:
(1) Respect for the rights and autonomy of the persons involved
(2) Increasing the overall well-being of the most individuals possible
(3) Asking wha ...
1. IntroversionScore 11 pts.4 - 22 pts.Feedback Some peopMartineMccracken314
1. Introversion
Score : 11 pts.
4 - 22 pts.
Feedback: Some people thrive in teleworking arrangements, whereas others discover that it is neither a satisfying nor productive work environment for them. This scale assesses three personal dispositions that are identified in the literature as characteristics of effective teleworkers: (a) high company alignment, (b) low social needs at work and (c) independent initiative.
Company alignment
Company alignment estimates the extent to which you follow company procedures and have values congruent with company values. The greater the alignment, the more likely that you can abide by company practices while working alone and with direct supervision. While some deviation from company practices may be appropriate, teleworkers need to agree with company values and provide work that is consistent with company expectations most of the time. Scores on this scale range from 4 to 20.
Extroversion
Score: 17 pts.
4 - 22 pts.
Feedback: Low individualism
Individualism refers to the extent that you value independence and personal uniqueness. Highly individualist people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over their own lives, and appreciation of their unique qualities that distinguish them from others.
However, keep in mind that the average level of individualism is higher in some cultures (such as Australia) than in others.
2. Total score: 8 pts.
RANGE BASED FEEDBACK:
6-12 pts.
Feedback: Low work centrality
People with high work centrality define themselves mainly by their work roles and view non-work roles as much less significant. Consequently, people with a high work centrality score likely have lower complexity in their self-concept. This can be a concern because if something goes wrong with their work role, their non-work roles are not of sufficient value to maintain a positive self-evaluation. At the same time, work dominates our work lives, so those with very low scores would be more of the exception than the rule in most societies. Scores range from 6 to 36 with higher scores indicating higher work centrality. The norms in the following table are based on a large sample of Canadian employees (average score was 20.7). However, work centrality norms vary from one group to the next. For example, the average score in a sample of Canadian nurses was around 17 (translated to the scale range used here).
3. Total score: 32 pts.
RANGE BASED FEEDBACK:
28-32 pts.
Feedback: High need for social approval
The need for social approval scale estimates the extent to which you are motivated to seek favourable evaluation from others. Founded on the drive to bond, the need for social approval is a secondary need, because people vary in this need based on their self-concept, values, personality and possibly social norms. This scale ranges from 0 to 32. How high or low is your need for social approval? The ideal would be to compare your score with the collective results of other students in your class. Otherwi ...
1. International financial investors are moving funds from Talona MartineMccracken314
1. International financial investors are moving funds from Talona to other countries. This depreciation is causing even more disenchantment with this Talona's currency. Describe the affects will this have on the supply and demand curves for this currency on the foreign exchange markets?
2. Using a supply and demand diagram, demonstrate how a negative externality leads to market inefficiency. How might the government help to eliminate this inefficiency?
3. Briefly discuss the shortcomings of environmental command-and-control regulations.
4. Some data that at first might seem puzzling: The share of GDP devoted to investment was similar for the United States and South Korea from 1960-1991. However, during these same years South Korea had a 6 percent growth rate of average annual income per person, while the United States had only a 2 percent growth rate. If the saving rates were the same, why were the growth rates so different?
5. “Block Imports—Save Jobs for Some Americans, Lose a Roughly Equal Number of Jobs for Other Americans, and Also Pay High Prices.” Discuss this statement within the context of protectionism.
6. Steve and Craig have been shipwrecked on a deserted island in the South Pacific. Their economic activity consists of either gathering pineapples or fishing. We know Steve can catch four fish in one hour or harvest two baskets of pineapples. In the same time Craig can reel in two fish or harvest two baskets of pineapples.
Assume Craig and Steve both operate on straight-line production possibilities curves. What is Steve's opportunity cost of producing a basket of pineapples? Of a producing a fish? What is Craig's opportunity cost of producing a basket of pineapples? Of a producing a fish?
7. Provide examples of market-oriented environmental policies.
Running head: SC PLAN 1
SC PLAN 4
SC PLAN
Student’s Name
Institution Affiliation
SC PLAN
1. Describe the actions you will take to increase your net cash flows in the near future.
The first step is to reduce living expenditures. It is critical to lessen the amount spent on living expenses and other variables and save for future use. I will have to prevent luxuries such as vacation costs or keep them in check to avoid spending a hefty amount on them. I should check the option to cook for myself and avoid buying food. Also, I will choose a destination I can drive myself to save on rental car expenditures and airfare. I will have a detailed budget indicating the amount required for savings, debt repayment, and investment that will assist only to spend the money on essential expenditures. Further, the savings can help to start a business and become self-employed in the distant future.
I would have to look for a job that pays well or engage in a robust salary negotiation. The right time to negotiate for salary is during a performance review, compensation meeting, or job promotion (Bellon, Cookson, Gilje, & Heimer, 2020). I will ensure that I expand my education and technic ...
1. Interventionstreatment· The viral pinkeye does not need any MartineMccracken314
1. Interventions/treatment
· The viral pinkeye does not need any medication
· The bacterial pinkeye is treated with ointment or eye droplets
2. Possible nursing diagnosis
· Checking the specific infection affecting the eye
· Identifying burning eyes
· Increased anxiety with red eyes
3. Sign and symptoms
· Eye irritation
· Eye tearing
· Eye redness
· Eye discomfort
4. Nursing Interventions
· Putting some droplets in the kid’s eye
· Using a antibiotic ointment
· Administering ibuprofen to the kid
5. Risk factors
· Allergies
· A women having an STD during pregnancy
· Exposing the child to areas with lots of bacteria
6. Pathophysiology
The infected eye shows through an inflammation that is swollen and red. The conjunctiva shows and this is the clear membrane seen in the part where the eye is white. It remains this way if not treated for a while before it ends with medication administered or just ends naturally.
7. Complications
· A scaring in the child’s eye if the conjunctivitis is caused by allergic reactions
· It can aggravate to cause different conditions such as meningitis
8. Diagnostic Procedure
· Administering the medicine using eye droplets
· Rubbing the eye area with the ointment
...
1. Introduction and background information about solvatochromism uMartineMccracken314
1. Introduction and background information about solvatochromism using Reichardt’s dye? (400-500 words)
2. Discuss the properties of Reichardt’s dye that cause it to change its wavelength of maximum absorbance in the presence of solvents of differing polarities.
3. Discuss solvatochromism. Are there other dyes which exhibit this effect?
4. Would it be possible to use the wavelength of maximum absorbance in the presence of Reichardt’s dye to determine the water content of acetone solutions?
...
1. Integrity, the basic principle of healthcare leadership.ContaMartineMccracken314
1. Integrity, the basic principle of healthcare leadership.
Contains unread posts
Mateo Alba posted May 12, 2021 10:04 PM
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Integrity of any organization regardless whether it is in healthcare or business or government is paramount. Because of integrity comes trust. Having trust in a healthcare organization is nonnegotiable. It is the foundation of a world-class organization. Executives who ignore ethics run the risk of personal and corporate liability in today’s increasingly tough legal environment (Lynn S. Paine, 1994, Managing for Organizational Integrity, pp. 2-21)
First, the healthcare organization. The healthcare organization is the head or the governing body. It is charged of day-to-day functions, establish policies, guidance, business process, safety, security and all the administrative duties. Integrity is and must be the cornerstone of any healthcare organization. Without it, no clinicians or workers that would knowingly work for an organization that they cannot trust or feel safe. And most importantly, if the patients do not have trust in the organization, they will avoid that facility at all cost.
Second, the clinicians. The clinicians are what makes the organization or facility function. Whether they are the providers, nurses or staff it is important that they have the integrity to always do what is right not only for the healthcare team or the organization, but most specially for the patient. It starts with the clinical leaders building trust to their subordinate staff by having the integrity and values of what a leader should be. Once that is established, then it permeates throughout the entire team. Thereby improving the healthcare delivery.
Lastly, and the most important is the patient. At the center of the entire system needs to be the patient. Once the patient recognizes the integrity or values of the healthcare organization and the clinicians delivering healthcare, patient trust is established. The patient satisfaction also increases. According to Cowing, Davino-Ramaya, Ramaya, Szmerekovsky, 2009, pp.72, “if patients are satisfied with clinician-patient interactions, they are likely to be more compliant with their treatment plan, to understand their role in the recovery process, and to follow through with the recommended treatment”. Having integrity or values in the healthcare delivery is the basic principle of healthcare leadership.
Cowing, M., Davino-Ramaya, C. M., Ramaya, K., & Szmerekovsky, J. (2009). Health care delivery performance: service, outcomes, and resource stewardship. The Permanente Journal, 13(4), 72–78. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911834/
Lynn S. Paine, 1994, Managing for Organizational Integrity. Harvard business review, 2-21. Retrieved from Managing for Organizational Integrity (hbr.org)
2. Medical Delivery Influences
Contains unread posts
Robert Breeden posted May 12, 2021 9:44 AM
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Hello,
The influence within the medical community is so important and ...
1. Information organized and placed in a logical sequence (10 poMartineMccracken314
1.
Information organized and placed in a logical sequence (10 points)
Points Awarded
2.
Demonstrated knowledge of ethical dilemma presented by:
2a. Summarized the situation (10)
2b. Explained the ethical dilemma (5)
2c. Solved the problem as a professional RN (15)
3.
Responses supported with specific ANA Codes
(20)
4.
Visual aids professional, visually interesting
& aided in understanding material; proper grammar/spelling/punctuation-no more than 2 errors in presentation(10)
5.
Maintained eye contact of audience (10)
6.
Voice clear & audible (10)
7.
Encouraged class participation (5)
8.
Reference slide that includes references in APA
format (5)
Total points possible = 100
NSG 100
Case Study in-class Presentations Assignment
1): Moral Courage with a Dying Patient
Mr. T. is an 82-year-old widower who has been a patient on your unit several times over the past 5 years. His CHF, COPD, and diabetes have taken a toll on his body. He now needs oxygen 24 hours a day and still has dyspnea and tachycardia at rest. On admission, his ejection fraction is less than 20%, EKG shows a QRS interval of greater than 0.13 seconds, and his functional class is IV on NYHA assessment.
He has remained symptomatic despite maximum medical management with a vasodilator and diuretics. He tells you, "This is my last trip; I am glad I have made peace with my family and God. Nurse, I am ready to die." You ask about an advance directive and he tells you his son knows that he wants no heroics, but they just have never gotten around to filling out the form. When the son arrives, you suggest that he speak with the social worker to complete the advance directive and he agrees reluctantly. You page the physician to discuss DNR status with the son. Unfortunately, Mr. T. experiences cardiac arrest before the discussion occurs and you watch helplessly as members of the Code Blue Team perform resuscitation. Mr. T. is now on a ventilator and the son has dissolved into tears with cries of, "Do not let him die!"
2): Moral Courage to Confront Bullying
Melissa started on the unit as a new graduate 5 weeks ago. She is still in orientation and has a good relationship with her preceptor. The preceptor has been assigned consistently to Melissa for most of the last 4 weeks, but due to family emergency has not been available in the last week. Melissa has been told that she will be precepted by a different nurse for the remainder of her orientation. The new preceptor has not been welcoming, supportive, or focused on the educational goals of the orientation. In fact, this new preceptor has voiced to all who will listen her feelings about the incompetence of new BSN graduates. The crisis occurs when Melissa fails to recognize a patient's confusion as a result of an adverse medication effect. The preceptor berates Melissa in the nurses' station, makes sarcastic comments in shift report abou ...
1. In our grant application, we included the following interventioMartineMccracken314
1. In our grant application, we included the following interventions as our evidence-based programs: Family Therapy (to promote family acceptance and support, a key factor for overall health outcomes for this population), Motivational Interviewing (to address higher co-occurrence of substance use concerns), Trauma-Focused Treatment (including EMDR Therapy and TF-CBT, to address higher rates of complex trauma including from systemic oppression), and CBT (a gold standard treatment modality, but adapted to meet the needs of our client population by incorporating elements of
Solution
s-Focused or Narrative approaches to make it more strengths-based).
For questions 2-4, you would need to do some of your own research in the literature on these treatment modalities and determine for yourself if there were best practices that should be incorporated into the plan used at the agency.
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Cultural Competency: A Key to Effective Future Social Work With Racially and Ethnically Diverse E...
Min, Jong Won
Families in Society; Jul-Sep 2005; 86, 3; ProQuest One Academic
pg. 347
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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...
1. I believe that the protagonist is Nel because she is the one thMartineMccracken314
1. I believe that the protagonist is Nel because she is the one that goes through different changes throughout the book. I also think she is the protagonist because most people can relate to her more. Nel was done wrong by Sula and her husband Jude Green. Sula did the one thing that a best friend should never do and, that is sleep with your best friend's husband. Even though Sula did a terrible thing Nel still cares about her best friend because she goes and visits her when she is sick even after all the pain she caused her. Nel is also deeply saddened when she visits Sulas grave. That is not the only thing that happened to Nel. Nel not only had to deal with the affair but also accepted her guilt in Chicken Little's drowning. But in the end, Nel realized she enjoyed watching him drown.
Everything changed when Sula came back to Nels life. Nel was happy before. She was happy with her family and her husband, but when Sula came back that all changed. After the affair and Sulas death, Nel was alone. Nel became a single mother and, she no longer has a good relationship with another man.
2. I believe that although the title of the story is Sula, the main protaginist of the story is Nel. Nel is kept until the end of the story and Sulay passes away and exit's the story. I think in this pivitol moment is when the author wanted to make Nel the main character. Nel contained her emotion until towards the end of the story when she has a conversation with Eva, Nel nervously comments "Who told you all these lies? Miss Peace? Who told you? Why are you telling lies on me?" I believe the author wanted us to feel the anxiousness and wonder that Nel found out that somebody finally knew about the little boy being thrown. I believe this admission of guilt to Eva brings closure to Nel. Nel was trying to hide her emotions the entire time and it wasn't after being confronted that she broke down about it and visited Sulay's grave. Nel even stated "I don't know. No." when asked whether somebody saw the boy being thrown into the river. This shows that Nel was not sure at all in the moment it happened whether somebody knew. Nel wanted to not think about what happen forever and try to mute the situation but Eva bringing it up, made Nel feel terrible about what happened which is why she ended up visting Sulay's grave. I think muting herself from knowing the little boy was thrown was still not a 'good' way to look at it, from her end. She wanted to believe a lie by just pretending it never happened. It wasn't after someone brought up the situation to her that her feelings change.
3. Although the novel is titled Sula, the real protagonist is Nel because she is the one who is transformed by the end. Sula and Nel were very great friends and were very dedicated to each other. But they were also very different. Nel was known as the more mature and "good person" while Sula is more impulsive. "Nel is the product of a family that believes deeply in social conventions, hers is a st ...
1. If the profit from the sale of x units of a product is P = MartineMccracken314
1. If the profit from the sale of x units of a product is P = 105x − 300 − x2, what
level(s) of production will yield a profit of $1050? (Enter your answers as a
comma-separated list.)
x = _________ units
2. The total costs for a company are given by
C(x) = 5400 + 80x + x2
and the total revenues are given by
R(x) = 230x.
Find the break-even points. (Enter your answers as a comma-separated list.)
x= __________ units
3. If total costs are C(x) = 900 + 800x and total revenues are R(x) = 900x − x2, find the
break-even points. (Enter your answers as a comma-separated list.)
x= _____________
4. For the years since 2001, the percent p of high school seniors who have tried marijuana
can be considered as a function of time t according to
p = f(t) = 0.17t2 − 2.61t + 52.64
where t is the number of years past 2000.† In what year after 2000 is the percent
predicted to reach 75%, if this function remains valid?
_______________
5. Using data from 2002 and with projections to 2024, total annual expenditures for
national health care (in billions of dollars) can be described by
E = 4.61x2 + 43.4x + 1620
where x is the number of years past 2000.† If the pattern indicated by the model
remains valid, in what year does the model predict these expenditures will reach
$15,315 billion?
__________________
6. The monthly profit from the sale of a product is given by P = 32x − 0.2x2 − 150 dollars.
(a) What level of production maximizes profit?
___________ units
(b) What is the maximum possible profit?
$_____________
7. Consider the following equation.
y = 9 + 6x − x2
(a) Find the vertex of the graph of the equation.
(x, y) = (__________)
(b) Determine what value of x gives the optimal value of the function.
x=_____________
(c) Determine the optimal (maximum or minimum) value of the function.
y=______________
8. Consider the following equation.
f(x) = 6x − x2
(a) Find the vertex of the graph of the equation.
(x, y) = (__________)
(b) Determine what value of x gives the optimal value of the function.
x=_____________
(c) Determine the optimal (maximum or minimum) value of the function.
f(x)= _____________
9. Find the maximum revenue for the revenue function R(x) = 358x − 0.7x2. (Round your
answer to the nearest cent.)
R = $______________
10. The profit function for a certain commodity is P(x) = 150x − x2 − 1000. Find the level of
production that yields maximum profit, and find the maximum profit.
x= _________ units
P=$ _________
11. If, in a monopoly market, the demand for a product is p = 2000 − x and the revenue is
R = px, where x is the number of units sold, what price will maximize revenue?
$________________
12. If the supply function for a commodity is p = q2 + 6q + 16 and the demand function is p
= −3q2 + 4q + 436, find the equilibrium quantity and equilibrium price.
equilibrium quantity_______________
equilibrium price $_______________
13. If the supply and demand functions for a commodity are given by p ...
1. How does CO2 and other greenhouse gases promote global warminMartineMccracken314
1. How does CO2 and other greenhouse gases promote global warming? Discuss your opinion on the use of geoengineering measures to mitigate the effects of global warming.
Your response should be at least 250 words in length.
2. How does CO2 and other greenhouse gases promote global warming? Discuss your opinion on the use of geoengineering measures to mitigate the effects of global warming.
Your response should be at least 250 words in length.
Raw DataNamePayResponsibilitiesSupervisionGenderDepartmentRudolph211MaleAccountingOlga211FemaleAccountingInstructionsErnest211MaleAccountingEmily211FemaleAccountingThe sheet labeled "Raw Data" lists 366 employees and their rating (1-5) of their satisfaction with their Pay, Responsibilities, and Supervision. A rating of 5 is the highest satisfaction.Bobby211MaleAccountingRaw Data also includes the Gender and Department for each employee.Benjamin211MaleAccountingBeatrice211FemaleAccountingInsert a new column in EKeith211MaleAccountingLabel this new column "Overall Satisfaction Rating"Hilda211FemaleAccountingFor each employee, compute the Overall Satisfaction Rating as the Average of Pay, Responsibilities, and Supervision.Leslie311MaleAccountingFormat Overall Satisfaction Rating to one decimal place.Curtis311MaleAccountingAlice311FemaleAccountingOn a New sheet titled Results, create a Pivot Chart & Pivot TableSophie311FemaleAccountingAssign Gender to Columns, Department to rows, and Pay to Values. Change the value field setting from Sum to Average if necessary.Sally311FemaleAccountingSort the departments in descending order of satisfaction.Melvin311MaleAccountingCreate a title for the chart, which includes your last namePearl411FemaleAccountingBe sure your chart includes a legend for male & female employees, change male color to blue and female to orangeJohnny411MaleAccountingBe sure to include axis titlesEunice411FemaleAccountingFormat the vertical axis for a max of 5 and major tick marks at 1 and one decimal place.Opal212FemaleAccountingJulia212FemaleAccountingCreate a new sheet titled "Graphs".Jimmie212MaleAccountingCopy & Paste as Picture your graph of Pay SatisfactionEsther212FemaleAccountingAlbert212MaleAccountingAlter your Pivot chart/table to display Responsibilities Satisfaction. Change titles as needed.Mike212MaleAccountingPaste this chart on the Graphs sheetMarion212MaleAccountingJosephine212FemaleAccountingAlter your Pivot chart/table to display Supervision Satisfaction. Change titles as needed.Ida212FemaleAccountingPaste this chart on the Graphs sheetGerald212MaleAccountingCaroline212FemaleAccountingAlter your Pivot chart/table to display Overall Satisfaction. Change titles as needed.Alberta212FemaleAccountingPaste this chart on the Graphs sheetLeroy312MaleAccountingLeave Results sheet with the Pivot Table & Chart displaying the Overall Satisfaction.Anita312FemaleAccountingMildred412FemaleAccountingBeulah412FemaleAccountingAda412FemaleAccountingClayton212MaleAccountingWayne312MaleA ...
1. How do you think communication and the role of training addressMartineMccracken314
1. How do you think communication and the role of training address performance gaps or training needs as it relates to how Adults learn?
2. There are many ways – or methods – available to gather data during a need’s assessment. Each one has advantages and disadvantages. What is important is to select the appropriate method based on your business problem. The most common methods for data gathering are:
· Document reviews or Extant Data Analysis – reviewing existing material like process maps, procedure guides, previous training material, etc.,
· Needs Assessment
· Interviews
· Focus groups
· Surveys
· Questionnaires
· Direct Observations
· Testing
· Subject Matter Expert Analysis
Select one of these data gathering methods to discuss and share what you see as the advantages and disadvantages associated with using the selected method.
1. Team teaching
In team teaching, both teachers are in the room at the same time but take turns teaching the whole class. Team teaching is sometimes called “tag team teaching.” You and your co-teacher teacher are a bit like co-presenters at a conference or the Oscars. You don’t necessarily plan who takes which part of the lesson, and when one of you makes a point, the other can jump in and elaborate if needed.
Team teaching can make you feel vulnerable. It asks you to step outside of your comfort zone and allow another teacher to see how you approach a classroom full of students. However, it also gives you the opportunity to learn about and improve your teaching skills by having a partner who can provide feedback and — in some cases — mentorship.
In team teaching, as well as the five other co-teaching models below, a teacher team may be made up of two general education teachers, two special education teachers, or one of each. Or, in some cases, it may be a teacher and a paraprofessional working together. Some IEPs specify that a student’s teaching team needs to include a general education teacher and a special education teacher.
Here’s what you need to know about the team teaching method:
What it looks like in the classroom
Both teachers teach at the front of the room and move about to check in with students (as needed).
Benefits
· Provides both teachers with an active instructional role
· Introduces students to complementary teaching styles and personalities
· Allows for lessons to be presented by two different people with different teaching styles
· Models multiple ways of presenting and engaging with information
· Models for students what a successful collaborative working relationship can look like
· Provides more opportunities to pursue teachable moments that may arise
Challenges
· Takes time and trust for teachers to build a working relationship that values each teacher equally in the classroom
· Necessitates a lot of planning time and coordination of schedules
· Requires teachers to have equal involvement not just in planning, but also in grading, which means assignments need to be evaluated ...
1. How brain meets its requirement for its energy in terms of wellMartineMccracken314
1. How brain meets its requirement for its energy in terms of well-fed and during starvation or fasting?
2. Explain the utilization of different sources of energy in muscle during anaerobic and aerobic conditions of high physical activity and resting?
3. Why and how adipose tissue and kidney are significant for fuel metabolism?
4. Explain in detail why liver is significant for metabolism of mammals and how does it coordinate the different metabolic pathways essential for organism?
5. Explain the Cori cycle and glucose-alanine cycle for interorgan fuel metabolism?
...
1. Give an introduction to contemporary Chinese art (Talk a littleMartineMccracken314
1. Give an introduction to contemporary Chinese art (Talk a little bit about some of the major changes in Chinese art)
2. Read the article that is provided. Do some research on the artist, Xu Bing. According to the article, give some background information about Xu Bing, and investigate the body of work.
3. Select one piece of his artwork to write about. It could be a traditional work of art, such as drawing, painting, or sculpture, or something more experimental like performance art, body art, or installation art.
4. Write a 3-page analysis of the artwork you select. The paper should have a short introduction and conclusion, but the body should focus on your analysis of the artwork. Some of the questions that you might want to work through in the paper include: Why is the work important? In what ways does it challenge the viewer? Is there an allegorical meaning to the work? How is it in dialogue with Western art traditions or earlier Chinese art traditions? Does it engage with Chinese history? Etc.
5. Be sure to include an image of the work you select into the paper, and the paper must be grammatically correct.
...
1. For this reaction essay is a brief written reaction to the readMartineMccracken314
1. For this reaction essay is a brief written reaction to the readings. It may be somewhat informal (and I would encourage you to be personal), but it must be well-written and well-organized. It must not be more than 2 pages, use 12-point font, single-spaced, at least 1" margins. You will react to the results of this systematic review article on Telemedicine " Effectiveness of Telemedicine A Systematic Review of Reviews.pdf
Focus on the results of the synthesis only, react to the authors' conclusions- do you agree or disagree with their synthesis? Discuss your opinion, are there faults in their conclusions?
Telemedicine is increasingly being suggested as an alternative for an in-person visit, especially with emergent diseases that call for person-to-person distancing. What are the potential concerns with this suggestion? What are in the authors' synthesis and conclusions underscore the limitations of this suggestion?
2. The next day a representative from Bristol Myers Squibb visits your office and tells you that Plavix® (clopidogrel) decreases cardiovascular events by 8.7% compared to aspirin. That sure sounds good to you, as you have many elderly patients at risk of heart attacks and strokes and many are already on aspirin. The brochure quotes the CAPRIE study, and you decide to investigate this further. A review of the 1996 article reveals that study patients on Plavix® experienced cardiovascular events 9.78% of the time compared to 10.64% of the time with aspirin. Plavix® was approved by the FDA based on this one study. Cost of Plavix/day=$6.50. Cost of aspirin/day = $1.33
• What was the NNT?
• How much does Plavix® cost monthly?
• What meaning do these values have for this problem?
• Be sure to include your actual calculations/math
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f m e d i c a l i n f o r m a t i c s 7 9 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 736–771
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . i n t l . e l s e v i e r h e a l t h . c o m / j o u r n a l s / i j m i
Effectiveness of telemedicine: A systematic review of
reviews
Anne G. Ekeland a,∗, Alison Bowes b, Signe Flottorp c,d
a Norwegian Centre for Integrated Care and Telemedicine, University Hospital of North Norway, P.O. Box 6060, N-9038 Tromsø, Norway
b Department of Applied Social Science, University of Stirling, Scotland, UK
c Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services, Oslo, Norway
d Department of Public Health and Primary Health Care, University of Bergen, Norway
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 April 2010
Received in revised form
11 July 2010
Accepted 29 August 2010
Keywords:
Telemedicine
Telecare
Systematic review
Effectiveness
Outcome
a b s t r a c t
Objectives: To conduct a review of reviews on the impacts and costs of telemedicine services.
Methods: A review of systematic reviews of telemedicine interventions was conducted. Inter-
ventions included all e-health interventions, information and communication technologies
for communication ...
1. Find something to negotiate in your personal or professional liMartineMccracken314
1. Find something to negotiate in your personal or professional life. Examples include: redistribution of household chores, a personal or professional purchase, a contract at work, asking for a raise, booking a vacation, hiring a contractor, etc. The deal does not have to be implemented for the purposes of this class (e.g. you can finalize the price for something you’re thinking of buying without following through on the purchase right now). The scenario you choose should be significant enough to allow you to do substantial research and detail for your paper. Submit a five page paper (minimum), double spaces, utilizing proper grammar and spelling, which summarizes the following:
1. Your Preparation – Describe the process you used and results of your preparation. You should also discuss your strategies, targets, and negotiating plan. Make sure you do your research, working on both your BATNA and the other party’s. (Consider newspapers, bookstores, libraries, the internet, and personal calls and visits as possible sources of information). This is the most important step, so being thorough is critical.
1. The Negotiating Process – Describe what happened in the negotiation itself. List he sequence of events and how you reacted/adjusted to the other party’s position. What was the negotiation style of the other party? What “tricks” did they try? How did you react? Were there any other influencing factors (e.g. cultural differences, misperceptions, emotion, etc.)?
1. The Outcome – What was the outcome and how did you feel about it? What worked well? What would you have done differently? Do you feel the result you arrived at was better than it would have been if you hadn’t taken the class? Why/Why not?
Your understanding of the appropriate preparation and process steps to take in negotiating this deal is more important than the final outcome.
Be sure to cite your sources, and include copies of necessary quotes/documentation.
1.
Find something to negotiate in your personal or professional life. Examples include:
redistributi
on of household chores, a personal or professional purchase, a contract at work,
asking for a raise, booking a vacation, hiring a contractor, etc. The deal does not have to be
implemented for the purposes of this class (e.g. you can finalize the price for
something you’re
thinking of buying without following through on the purchase right now). The scenario you
choose should be significant enough to allow you to do substantial research and detail for your
paper. Submit a five page paper (minimum), double
spaces, utilizing proper grammar and
spelling, which summarizes the following:
2.
Your Preparation
–
Describe the process you us
ed and results of your preparation. You should
also discuss your strategies, targets, and negotiating plan. Make sure you do your research,
working on both your BATNA and the other party’s. (Consider newspapers, bookstores, libraries,
the internet, and p
ers ...
1. FAMILYMy 57 year old mother died after a short illness MartineMccracken314
1. FAMILY
My 57 year old mother died after a short illness last June. She was a wonderful mother and my 66 year old father
adored her. They had been married for 38 years. He is finding it extremely difficult to cope without her. To make
matters worse, he retired just two months before she died and is at a loss to fill his days.
He is disorganized and has not established any pattern in his life. I invite him for meals and outings, but he is
detached and depressed. He doesn’t seem to be part of the world any more. I am terribly worried about him. How
long will he be like this? I am 34 and have small children. I thought being with the children would help him, but it’s
as though he doesn’t see or know them. He just sits and stares into space for much of the day. He seems locked
into his grief.
2. FAMILY
One of our 17 year old son’s best friends took his life several months ago. Our son didn’t say much at the time, but
he was very shaken. Since then he has gradually “retired” into himself. He stays in his room most of the time
listening to rock music.
He is unemployed and no longer sees his former schoolmates. We are very worried about him. How do we get him
out of himself? He has always been a quiet guy but his present behavior is beyond “quiet.” We have two other
children, girls aged 13 and 10, but our son now just ignores them.
3. FAMILY - rural
Ken is a 67 year old farmer who lives with his wife Margaret. Ken and Margaret had hoped to retire late in their 60s
and move to the west coast to be closer to their children, reluctantly selling the family property that has been
struggling financially. They have limited investment funds set aside to support their retirement and have been told
it is unlikely that they would be successful in selling their farm. Ken also suffers chronic back pain from a previous
farm injury. A neighbor has become concerned about Ken’s ability to cope with his property, and has visited Ken
and Margaret a number of times due to problems with his stock and pasture management. Margaret believes the
farm is “too much for them now,” but feels she can’t talk to Ken about this. Ken has become withdrawn and
refuses to discuss the issue. He talks about there being “no way out of this,” and that it “might as well be over.” He
sees his physician infrequently, having difficulty traveling the 60 miles to the nearby town.
4. FAMILY - rural
Jason is 34 years old and lives with his wife Jenny and their two children (8 and 3 years old). After completing a
mechanical trade apprenticeship in Boston, he has returned home with plans to build his future as a farmer. He has
become increasingly irritable and frustrated with what he believes is his failure to “get on top of things” on the
farm, and they are struggling to manage financially.
Jason is drinking heavily, mostly at home, but still drives his car into town. Jenny is angry and worried about this.
She is feeling isolated, having few friends in the area, and relying on Jas ...
1. Explain the four characteristics of B-DNA structure DifferentiMartineMccracken314
1. Explain the four characteristics of B-DNA structure? Differentiate between the A-DNA and Z-DNA structural features?
2. Describe the supercoiled DNA with its properties and how naturally occurring DNA under wound?
3. What are topoisomerases? Explain the two types of topoisomerases with their mechanism of action?
4. Explain the three interactions that are required to stabilize nucleic acids? How DNA denatures and renatures?
5. What are ribozymes and explain their properties?
Case 20 Restructuring
General Electric
The appointment of Larry Culp as the chairman and CEO of the General Electric
Company (GE) on October 1st, 2018 was a clear indication of the seriousness of the
problems that had engulfed the company. Culp, the former CEO of the highly-successful
conglomerate, Danaher Corporation, had been appointed a GE director only six months
previously and was the first outsider to lead GE—every one of GE’s previous CEOs had
been a career manager at the company. On the same day as Culp’s appointment, GE
abandoned its earning guidance for the year and announced a $23 billion accounting
charge arising from a write-down of goodwill at its troubled electrical power division.1
Culp’s predecessor, John Flannery had been CEO for a mere 14 months—a sharp
contrast to GE’s two previous CEOs: Jeff Immelt (16 years) and Jack Welch (20 years).
Flannery’s tenure at GE has coincided with of the company’s most difficult periods in its
entire 126-year history. In November 2017, amidst deteriorating financial performance,
Flannery announced a halving of GE’s quarterly dividend, the proposed sale of its
lighting and locomotive units—two of GE’s oldest businesses—and the elimination of
12,000 jobs in the power division.
In 2018, the situation worsened. In January, GE announced that it would be paying
$15 bn. to cover liabilities at insurance companies it had sold 12 years previously. In
February, GE confirmed suspicions over its dubious accounting practices by restating its
revenues and earnings for the previous two years, while also announcing the likelihood
of legal claims arising from its its subprime mortgage lending over a decade earlier.
The outcome was a precipitous fall in GE’s share price (see Figure 1) that culminated
in GE’s dismissal from the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA). Until June 2018, GE
was the sole surviving member of the DJIA when it was created in 1896.
The crisis at GE presented the board with two central questions. First, should GE
be broken up? Second, if GE was to continue as a widely-diversified company, how
should it be managed?
As a diversified corporation that extended from jet engines, to oil and gas equipment,
to healthcare products, to financial services, GE was an anomaly. For three decades, con-
glomerates—diversified companies comprising unrelated or loosely related businesses—
had been deeply unfashionable. CEOs, Jack Welch and Jeff Immelt, had claimed that,
by virtue of its integrated m ...
1. examine three of the upstream impacts of mining. Which of theseMartineMccracken314
1. examine three of the upstream impacts of mining. Which of these do you think would be most difficult to estimate in a life cycle assessment?
Your response should be at least 250 words in length.
2. Discuss the pollutants that are emitted during the operation stage of a life cycle assessment for a fossil fuel source.
Your response should be at least 250 words in length
Body Ritual among the Nacirema
H O R A C E M I N E R
University of Michigan
HE anthropologist has become so familiar with the diversity of ways iq T which different peoples behave in similar situations that he is not a p t to.
be surprised by even the most exotic customs. I n fact, if all of thelogically
possible combinations of behavior have not been found somewhere in the
world, he is a p t to suspect that they must be present in some yet undescribed
tribe. This point has, in fact, been expressed with respect to clan organization
by Murdock (1949: 7 1 ) . I n this light, the magical beliefs and practices of the
Nacirema present such unusual aspects that i t seems desirable t o describe
them a s an example of the extremes to which human behavior can go.
Professor Linton first brought the ritual of the Nacirema to the attention
of anthropologists twenty years ago (1936:326), but the culture of this people
is still very poorly understood. They are a North American group living in the
territory between the Canadian Cree, the Yaqui and Tarahumare of Mexico,
and the Carib and Arawak of the Antilles. Little is known of their origin, al-
though tradition states that they came from the east. According to Nacirema
mythology, their nation was originated by a culture hero, Notgnihsaw, who is
otherwise known for two great feats of strength-the throwing of a piece of
wampum across the river Pa-To-Mac and the chopping down of a cherry tree
in which the Spirit of Truth resided.
Nacirema culture is characterized by a highly developed market economy
which has evolved in a rich natural habitat. While much of the people’s time
is devoted to economic pursuits, a large part of the fruits of these labors and a
considerable portion of the day are spent in ritual activity. The focus of this
activity is the human body, the appearance and health of which loom a s a
dominant concern in the ethos of the people. While such a concern is certainly
not unusual, its ceremonial aspects and associated philosophy are unique.
The fundamental belief underlying the whole system appears to be that the
human body is ugly and that its natural tendency is t o debility and disease.
Incarcerated in such a body, man’s only hope is to avert these characteristics
through the use of the powerful influences of ritual and ceremony. Every house-
hold has one or more shrines devoted to this purpose. The more powerful in-
dividuals in the society have several shrines in their houses and, in fact, the
opulence of a house is often referred to in terms of the num ...
1. Examine Hofstedes model of national culture. Are all four dimeMartineMccracken314
1. Examine Hofstede's model of national culture. Are all four dimensions still important in today's society as it relates to the success of the multinational manager? Why, or why not? Which do you think is the least important as it relates to multinational management? Why?
2. More companies are seeking to fill multinational management positions due to the influx of business growth abroad. If you were offered and accepted a position as a multinational manager, what would you do to personally prepare for the culture of a different country? Where would you seek information? What overall responsibilities would you expect of the job? How do you think the managerial responsibilities would be different from those you would face in the United States?
3. Multinational managers encounter many levels of culture. Which of the culture levels do you think might be the most difficult to manage? Why? Share an example. Which culture level do you think might be the easiest to understand? Why? Give an example of this.
4. In your own words, what is your perception of free trade? Think about the advantages of free trade; what are two benefits that result from free trade? There is also a downside to free trade; what are two disadvantages resulting from free trade? Provide reasoning for your choices.
5. What are the three major economic systems that nations utilize, and what is the role of each? How does each affect and influence individuals, multinational managers, and corporations?
6. How would you define ethical convergence? What are the four basic reasons for ethical convergence? Which might be the most difficult for multinational companies to follow, and why?
7. Describe the four major world religions. What are the impacts of each religion type on an economic environment? What do you think makes religion a concern in societies?
8. If you were a multinational manager, and you encountered an ethical dilemma within the multinational company, what heuristic questions would you use to decide between ethical relativism and ethical universalism? Of the different heuristic questions, which one do you think is most important? Explain your reasoning.
1
Week Two Instructor’s Notes
PHIL 1103 Summer
This week you will be learning in detail about the four different moral perspectives that
we will use to analyze moral questions.
Notice two things right at the start. First, because normative ethics is our main focus this
term, we are not going to attempt to settle the question of whether any moral perspective at all
could be correct or known to be correct—that is a task for metaethics. Our task in this second
week is to learn in some detail about four different kinds of consideration or value that often
seem relevant when we try to decide what is morally right or wrong in particular cases, namely:
(1) Respect for the rights and autonomy of the persons involved
(2) Increasing the overall well-being of the most individuals possible
(3) Asking wha ...
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The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
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1 Personality Theory From Everyday Observations to System
1. 1
Personality Theory: From Everyday Observations to Systematic
Theories
Questions to be Addressed in this Chapter
Defining Personality
Why Study Personality?
Three Goals for the Personality Theorist
Answering Questions about Persons Scientifically:
Understanding Structures,
Processes, Development, and Therapeutic Change
Important Issues in Personality Theory
Evaluating Personality Theories
The Personality Theories: An Introduction
Major Concepts
Review
Chapter Focus
I can be selfish, but I believe it is because I try to be perfect.
Perfect in the sense I
want to be an “A” student, a good mother, a loving wife, an
2. excellent employee, a
nourishing friend. My significant other thinks I try too hard to
be “Mother Teresa”
at times—not that that is a bad thing. But I can drive myself
insane at times. I have
led a hard childhood and adulthood life; therefore I believe I am
trying to make up
for all the bad times. I want to be productive, good—make a
difference in my
world.
I'm a real jackass. I'm intelligent enough to do well in school
and study genetics
but have no idea when to shut up. I often am very offensive and
use quite abrasive
language, although I'm shy most of the time and talk to few
people. I'm sarcastic,
cruel, and pompous at times. Yet I've been told that I'm kind
and sweet; this may be
true, but only to those I deem worthy of speaking to with some
frequency. I'm very
fond of arguing and pretty much argue for fun.
I have always been described by others as cynical and/or as
having integrity. I
would describe myself as inquisitive, philosophical and
justice‐ oriented. I craze
organization, but my room is the messiest one I have seen thus
far … like the room
of a toddler. I am introspective but I don't reach many
conclusions about myself. I
seem very passive and mellow – but I am just too tired to get
fired up.
3. This person is shy at times. They tend to open up to some
people. You never know
when they're happy or sad. They never show their real feelings,
and when they do
it's so hard for them. They did have a trauma experience that
closed them up—
where they seem to be afraid to let their real self show. They
are funny and do have
a lot of fun and are fun to be around, but at times it's hard to
know if they're really
having a good time. The person is loved by a lot of people and
is an extremely
giving person but doesn't like “seriousness.”
These sketches were written by people just like you: students
beginning a course on
the psychology of personality. When I teach the class, on Day 1,
I ask people to
describe their personality and that of a friend. Two things
happen. First, students
can answer the question; when asked to “describe your
personality,” they rarely
say “I don't know how to do that; it's only the first day of
personality class.”
Second, as you see here, their answers are often detailed,
nuanced, and
insightful—so much so that one is tempted to ask: Is the class
filled with
personality theorists?
In a sense, it is. We're all personality theorists. We ask about
ourselves and others:
“Why am I so shy?” “Why are my parents so weird?” “Am I so
shy because my
parents are so weird?” Even before taking a personality class,
4. we devise answers
that are sophisticated and often accurate. You already hold
ideas about
personality and put them to work to understand the events of
your day, to
anticipate the events of your next day, and to help yourself and
your friends handle
the stresses, bumps, and bruises of life.
“But”—you may be asking yourself—“if I already know so
much about
personality, what will I learn in this class? In other words,
“What is the
professional personality psychologist doing that I'm not doing
already?” This
chapter addresses this question by introducing the scientific
goals and methods of
psychologists who study personality. But first, we will define
our key term and
comment on the status of this scientific field.
Defining Personality
Personality psychology is concerned with the dynamics of
intra‐ individual
functioning and the coherence and thematic unity of particular
lives.
Block (1992, p. xiii)
You already have an intuitive understanding of “personality.” Is
a formal definition
even necessary? It is because—as so often happens with
words—different people
5. use the word “personality” in different ways. The differences
can create confusion
in both an introductory course and the professional field
(Cervone, 2005). Let us
therefore examine some ways in which the word “personality” is
used. We then
will provide a formal definition of the term.
In one common usage, people say, for example, that “Ellen
DeGeneres has a lot of
personality” or “My psych professor has no personality.”
Personality here means
“charisma”. This is not the way that personality psychologists
use the word; this
book is most definitely not about “Charisma: Theory and
Research”.
Professional psychologists use the word “personality” in two
ways. Specifically,
they propose two types of personality variables, that is, two
types of concepts for
understanding people and how they differ.
1. Dispositions.
One type of variable is personality dispositions. In general, in
the sciences,
dispositions are descriptions; dispositional terms describe what
a person or thing
tends to do. A glass vase tends to break if you bump into it.
“Fragile” is a
dispositional term that describes this tendency. Some types of
turtles tend to live
very long lives. “Longevity” describes this tendency (turtles are
6. “high in
longevity” compared to many other species). In the study of
personality,
psychologists try to identify the personality dispositions that
best describe
individuals and the major ways that people differ from one
another.
People have a lot of tendencies: sleeping when tired, eating
when hungry, bored
when reading a textbook. Which count as personality
dispositions? You can figure
this out for yourself. Think about how you use the word
“personality,” and you
will quickly realize that you employ the word to describe
psychological
characteristics with two qualities: “personality” tendencies are
(a) enduring and (b)
distinctive.
• By “enduring,” we mean that personality characteristics are at
least
somewhat consistent across time and place. If one day you find
yourself
acting a little strange—maybe because you are stressed about
something—
you likely would not say that your “personality has changed” on
that day.
You use the word “personality” to describe characteristics that
endure for
long periods of time: months and years and perhaps your entire
life.
7. • By “distinctive,” we mean that personality characteristics
differentiate
people from one another. If asked to describe your personality,
you would
not say, “I tend to feel sad when bad things happen but happy
when good
things happen.” Everybody feels sad/happy when bad/good
things happen.
These tendencies are not distinctive. But if, like one of our
opening sketches,
someone is “shy most of the time … sarcastic, cruel, and
pompous at times
… yet kind and sweet to those deemed worthy of speaking to,”
then that is a
distinctive—and is therefore a (rather complex) personality
disposition.
2. Inner Mental Life.
A second set of concepts refers to inner mental life. Personality
psychologists
study the beliefs, emotions, and motivations that comprise the
mental life of the
individual. Conflicts between alternative desires; memories that
spring to mind and
fill you with emotion; emotions that interfere with your ability
to think; long‐ term
goals that make otherwise mundane tasks meaningful;
self‐ doubts that undermine
efforts to achieve these goals—these and more are the features
of mental life
targeted by the personality psychologist.
A technical term—used in the quote above, from the personality
psychologist Jack
Block—for this scientific target is “intraindividual
8. functioning”. Personality
psychology is not only concerned with differences between
people or
interindividual differences. Personality psychologists are
fundamentally concerned
with the interplay of thoughts and emotions within the mind or
intraindividual
mental functioning.
Many branches of psychology study mental life. What's unique
about personality
psychology? One distinctive feature is the field's concern with
how multiple
aspects of mental life are connected to one another or “cohere”
(Block, 1992;
Cervone & Shoda, 1999). Compare this interest to the primary
interests in other
branches of psychology. A cognitive psychologist may study
memory. A social
psychologist may study self‐ concept. An educational
psychologist might address
perfectionistic tendencies at school. But the personality
psychologist is concerned
with how these distinct systems cohere in the life of an
individual. You just saw
such personality coherence in the opening quote above; the
person's memory (of a
hard life) was connected to her self‐ concept (being a
productive person who makes
a difference to the world), which, in turn, explained her
perfectionism (“striving to
be perfect”).
9. A useful concept to describe these connections is “system”. A
system is any
connected set of interacting parts that comprise whole.
Personality can be thought
of as a system. Distinct psychological qualities—beliefs, values,
emotions, goals,
skills, memories—influence one another and comprise the
person as a whole
(Mischel & Shoda, 1995; Nowak, Vallacher, & Zochowski,
2005)
We now are in a position to define personality. In psychology,
personality refers to
psychological systems that contribute to an individual's
enduring and distinctive
patterns of experience and behavior. As you can see, the
definition combines the
two meanings above. Ideally, the personality psychologist will
be able to identify
psychological systems (aspects of inner mental life) that help to
explain people's
distinctive experiences and actions (their dispositions).
Why Study Personality?
Why take a course in personality? One way to answer this
question is to compare
the material in this course with other courses in psychology.
Consider intro
psych—the typical Psych 101. Students are sometimes
disappointed with its
content. The course does not seem to be about whole, intact
people. Instead, one
learns about parts of people (e.g., the visual system, the
autonomic nervous system,
long‐ term memory, etc.) and some of the things people do
10. (learning, problem‐
solving, decision‐ making, etc.). “Where in psychology,” one
reasonably might ask,
“does one learn about the whole, intact person?” The answer is
here, in personality
psychology. Personality theorists address the total person,
trying to understand
how different aspects of an individual's psychological life are
related to each other
and relate also to the society and culture in which the person
lives (Magnusson,
2012). One reason for studying personality psychology, then, is
that it addresses
psychology's most complex and interesting topic: the whole,
integrated, coherent,
unique individual.
Another reason is the impact of personality psychology on the
wider intellectual
world. Personality theories have been influential not only within
scientific
psychology. They also have influenced society at large. In fact,
they have been so
influential that they probably have affected your thinking even
before you enrolled
in this course. Have you ever said that someone has a big
“ego”? Or called a friend
an “introvert”? Or asked whether a slip‐ of‐ the‐ tongue reveals
something about the
hidden beliefs of the speaker? If so, you were already using
terms and ideas that
come from personality psychology.
11. Here are three indications of the influence of personality
psychology:
• At the end of the 20th century, scholars (Haggbloom et al.,
2002) identified
the most influential scientific psychologists of the 20th century.
Who made
the list? In the top 25, the majority were investigators who
contributed to the
psychology of personality.
• The end of the century was also the end of the millennium. A
television
network polled historians and others to determine the 100 most
influential
people—of any sort—of the past 1000 years. The only
psychologist to make
the list—and easily, at #12—was a personality theorist: the
psychodynamic
theorist, Sigmund Freud (A & E's Biography: 100 Most
Influential People of
the Millennium
https://wmich.edu/mus‐ gened/mus150/biography100.html).
• In 2007, a statistical analysis identified the highest‐ impact
book authors in
the humanities or social sciences (fields including not only
psychology, but
also political science, philosophy, linguistics, literary criticism,
sociology,
and cultural studies). The singularly most‐ cited living author
was a
personality theorist: the social cognitive theorist Albert
Bandura
(https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/most‐ cited‐ auth
ors‐ of‐ books‐
12. in‐ the‐ humanities‐ 2007/405956.article).
Here, in personality theory and research, you will find the most
influential ideas in
the history of the psychological sciences.
Three Goals for the Personality Theorist
Now let's return to an earlier question: What is the professional
personality
psychologist doing that you, the reader, are not?
Consider what you do. You interact—in person and
electronically—with friends
and family. You observe people not only in person, but also in
movies and videos,
and (through writing) in books, magazines, and blogs. You think
about yourself:
your strengths and weaknesses, hopes and plans, and
responsibilities to others. And
you learn how others do these same things, when they tell you
about themselves,
their friends and families, and their hopes and dreams.
Somehow, from this
everyday observations, you develop thoughts about human
nature and the main
ways that people differ from one another.
For most people, that is plenty of thinking about personality.
But personality
psychologists are not “most people.” Psychologists who study
personality pursue
three goals that distinguish their activities from the
nonprofessional who is
13. interested in persons.
1. Scientific Observation
Personality psychologists do not observe people casually.
Instead, they pursue
scientific observation. The features that make observations
“scientific” vary from
one science to another. In personality psychology, three stand
out:
1. Study diverse groups of people. Psychologists cannot base
personality
theories merely on observations of people they happen to run
into in daily
life. They must observe diverse groups of individuals, to ensure
that
conclusions about personality represent the lives the world's
citizens. This
need is particularly critical because people from different
nations and
cultures may differ in ways that become apparent only once they
are studied
within their specific life contexts (Cheng, Wang, & Golden,
2011). Not only
nations and cultures, but also subcultures—associated with
ethnicity,
spiritual beliefs, or economic circumstances —may display
distinctive
psychological characteristics (Oyserman, 2017).
In today's personality science, researchers often succeed
admirably in reaching
such diverse participants group. For example, one research team
summarized self‐
descriptions of personality from participants in 56 nations
14. (Schmitt et al., 2007).
Another studied personality tendencies across regions of the
globe and found that
more mild climates foster more outgoing (sociable,
open‐ minded) personality
styles. The ability to study global populations is made easier by
a technological
advance. By analyzing “big data”—large bodies of information
acquired by
recording computer users' preferences and statements on soci al
media and other
internet sites (Bleidorn, Hopwood, & Wright, 2017)—
researchers can get
information about people throughout the world.
These trends, however, are recent. Before the 21st century, the
majority of
participants in psychological research were from Europe and
North America—
which contain less than 20% of the world's population,
combined. This is
significant in that all of the major theories of personality
developed prior to the
present century.
2. Ensure that observations of people are objective. A second
requirement is
“objectivity”. Information that is not influenced by the
subjective personal
opinions and desires of the person getting the information is
called
“objective”. If you step on a scale and it tells you your weight,
the scale is
“objective”: It is not influenced by your own subjective desires
15. for a
different weight. Psychologists strive for scientific methods that
provide
information about personality that is objective.
Objective methods promote a key goal of science: replicability.
Whenever one
scientist reports a finding, others should be able to replicate it;
in other words, they
should be able to repeat the procedures and get the same result.
Using an example
above, if one team of researchers found that mild climates
predict outgoing
personality styles, you should be able to repeat their procedures
and find the same
thing.
It turns out that replicability is difficult to achieve—so much so
that psychology
recently has experienced a “replication crisis” (Shrout &
Rodgers, 2017).
Researchers have sometimes found it hard to replicate
well‐ known findings.
Although these difficulties primarily have occurred in branches
of the field other
than personality psychology, the overall question of
replicability is significant in
our field—particularly so because one valuable source of
evidence in personality
psychology cannot, even in principle, be replicated: case
studies. Case studies are
in‐ depth examinations of a particular individual (see Chapter
2). For example, a
therapist might report a case study of a client in therapy. As a
general rule, case
studies cannot be replicated; if you read a clinical case study,
16. you cannot contact
the client and repeat the study.
3. Use specialized tools to study thinking, emotion, and
neurobiological
systems. Psychologists observe people, just as you do. But they
also make
observations using specialized tools. These tools often are
designed to
overcome specific obstacles to obtaining scientific information.
Here are two
examples. Suppose that you want to learn about the personality
characteristics of large numbers of people. An obstacle is the
sheer cost and
difficulty of contacting people and having them complete
personality tests.
A specialized tool researchers use to overcome this obstacle is
computer
software that assesses personality characteristics by analyzing
the language
use in social media (Park et al., 2014). A second example is
that, if you try
to study people's feelings—their moods and emotions—by
asking them how
they feel, some people are reluctant to discuss their feelings
openly.
Researchers have developed tools to assess moods and emotions
without
ever explicitly asking people to talk about themselves (Quirin,
Kazén, &
Kuhl, 2009). For example, if research participants are asked to
describe the
emotion expressed in an abstract image, their descriptions
17. reveal their own
emotional state (Bartoszek & Cervone, 2017).
2. Scientific Theory
The fundamental goal of science is to explain events (Salmon,
1989). Scientists
develop explanatory frameworks —that is, theories—to explain
their scientific
observations.
What exactly is a scientific theory? The word “theory” can be
used in different
ways. For example, you might say that you “have a theory that
my friend Liliana is
anxious because she's really attracted to some guy and hasn't
told him.” Even if
you are right, your idea about Liliana is not, in and of itself, a
scientific theory of
Liliana's personality. Scientific theories of personality have
three distinctive
qualities; they are systematic, testable, and comprehensive.
1. Systematic. As we have noted, you already have developed
lots of different
ideas about different people. But you probably have not gone to
the trouble
of relating all of them to one another. Suppose that on one you
say “Liliana
is anxious because she's really attracted to some guy and hasn't
told him”
and on another you say “My mother gets anxious all the time;
she must have
inherited it.” If so, you usually do not have to relate the
statements to each
other; people don't force you to explain why one case had an
18. interpersonal
cause (relationship breakup) and another had a biological cause
(inherited
tendencies). But personality psychologists must relate all their
ideas to one
another, to create a systematically organized theory.
2. Testable. If you tell a friend “My parents are weird,” your
friend is not
likely to say “Prove it!” But the scientific community says
“Prove it!” any
time a scientist says anythi ng. The personality psychologist
must develop
theoretical ideas that can be tested by objective scientific
evidence. This is
true of any science, of course. But in personality psychology,
attaining the
goal of a testable theory can be particularly difficult. This is
because the
field's subject matter includes features of mental life—goals,
dreams,
wishes, impulses, conflicts, emotions, unconscious mental
defenses—that
are enormously complex and inherently difficult to study
scientifically.
3. Comprehensive. Suppose that you have just rented an
apartment and are
considering inviting in a roommate to share rent costs. When
deciding who
to invite, you might ask yourself questions about their
personalities: Are
they fun loving? Conscientious? Open‐ minded? And so forth.
Yet there also
19. are a lot of other questions that you do not have to ask: If they
are fun
loving, is it primarily because they inherited this quality or
learned it? If they
are conscientious now, are they likely to be more or less
conscientious 20
years from now? When thinking about persons, you can be
selective, asking
some questions and ignoring others. But a personality theory
must be
comprehensive, addressing all significant questions about
personality
functioning, development, and individual differences. This is
what
distinguishes personality theory from theorizing in most other
branches of
psychology. The personality theorist cannot be satisfied with
studying
“parts” of persons. The personality theorist is charged with
comprehensively
understanding the person as a whole.
3. Applications: From Observation and Theory to Practice
As the quotes from students that open this chapter make clear,
people formulate
insightful ideas about personality prior to studying personality
psychology. Yet, in
everyday life, people rarely convert their personal insights into
systematic
applications. You may recognize that one friend's problem is a
lack of self‐
confidence and that another's is an inability to open up
emotionally. Yet, after
realizing this, you probably don't design therapies to boost
people's confidence in
20. themselves or enable them to open up. Personality
psychologists, however, do this.
They aim not only to develop testable, systematic theory but
also to convert their
theoretical ideas into beneficial applications.
In fact, many of the personality theorists you will learn about in
this book did not
start out in personality psychology. Instead, they often first
worked as counselors,
clinical psychologists, or physicians. Their personality theories
were efforts to
understand why their clients were experiencing psychological
distress and how that
distress could be reduced.
In summary, personality psychologists aim to (1) to observe
people scientifically,
(2) develop theories that are systematic, testable, and
comprehensive, and (3) to
turn their research findings and theoretical conceptions into
practical applications.
It is these goals that distinguish the work of the personality
psychologist from that
of the poet, the playwright, the pop psychologist—or the student
writing
personality sketches on the first day of class. Lots of people
develop insightful
ideas about the human condition. But the personality
psychologist is uniquely
charged with organizing theoretical ideas into comprehensive,
21. testable, and
practical theories.
Throughout this book, we evaluate the personality theories by
judging how well
they achieve these goals. This book's final chapter, a
commentary on the current
state of the field that can be found on the text's companion
website
www.wiley.com/college/cervone, judges how successful the
field of personality
psychology as a whole has been in achieving these five aims.
Answering Questions about Persons Scientifically:
Understanding Structures,
Processes, Development, and Therapeutic Change
Personality psychologist addresses four distinct topics; in other
words, there are
four issues that every personality theory must address. We can
introduce them
with a simple “mental experiment”.
Think of someone you know well, for example, a good friend or
family member.
Two things you know for sure are:
1. Whatever the individual's personality is like today, it likely
was similar last
month and last year, and likely will be similar next month and
next year.
You might say that personality is “stable” over time.
22. 2. Despite this stability in personality, the individual's thoughts,
feelings, and
actions also change. Sometimes they are happy and other times
sad.
Sometimes they are in control of their emotions and sometimes
they “fly
off the handle.”
Two things you do not know absolutely for sure, but that
probably think are
correct, are:
3. If you saw the person when they were a toddler or a grade
schooler, their
personality would not be the same as it is now. Their
personality likely has
changed, or “developed,” over time.
4. If the person suddenly experiences a period of psychological
distress—for
example, a period of depression or anxiety—they probably
could “bounce
back” from this. In fact, there might be something you could do
to improve
the person's psychological well‐ being.
These four points correspond directly to the topics addressed by
personality
psychologists. The psychologist introduces formal scientific
terms to describe the
topics, but the topics themselves are fundamentally the same.
They are: (1)
personality structure—the enduring “building blocks” of
personality; (2)
23. personality process—dynamic changes in thinking, emotion, and
motivation that
can occur from one moment to the next; (3) growth and
development—how we
develop into the unique person each of us is, and (4)
psychopathology and
behavior change—how people change and why they sometimes
resist change or
are unable to change. We introduce these topics now. You will
see them again,
over and over, in later chapters.
Structure
People possess psychological qualities that endure from day to
day and from year
to year. The enduring qualities that distinguish individuals from
one another are
referred to as personality structures.
Structural concepts in personality psychology are similar to
structural concepts you
are familiar with from other fields. For example, from study of
human biology, you
already know that there are enduring biological structures
including individual
organs (the heart, the lungs) and organ systems (the circulatory
system, the
digestive system). Analogously, personality theorists hope to
identify enduring
psychological structures. These structures may involve emotion
(e.g., a biological
structure that contributes to good or bad mood), motivation
(e.g., a desire to
achieve succeed or to be accepted by others), cognition (e.g., a
negative belief
24. about oneself that contributes to states of depression, Beck,
1991), or skills (e.g., a
high or low level of “social intelligence,” Cantor & Kihlstrom,
1987).
You will see throughout this textbook that the different
personality theories
provide different conceptions of personality structure. A more
technical way of
saying this is that the theories adopt different units of analysis
when analyzing
personality structure (Little, Lecci, & Watkinson, 1992). The
“units of analysis”
idea is important, so we will illustrate it.
As you read this textbook, you may be sitting in a chair. If we
ask you to describe
it, the chair, you may say that it “weighs about 15 pounds,” or
that it “is made of
wood,” or that it “is unattractive”. Weight, physical substance
(the wood), and
attractiveness are different units of analysis for describing the
chair. Although the
units may be related in some way (e.g., wood chairs may be
heavier than plastic
ones), they plainly are distinct.
The general idea is that virtually anything can be described in
more than one
way—that is, through more than one unit of analysis.
Personality is no exception.
The different theories of personality you will learn about in this
book use different
25. units of analysis to analyze personality structure. The resulting
analyses may each
be correct, in their own way. Yet each may provide different
types of information
about personality.
We will illustrate this point with an example: a difference
between “trait” and
“type” units of analysis.
One popular unit of analysis is that of a personality trait. The
word trait generally
refers to a consistent style of emotion or behavior that a person
displays across a
variety of situations. Someone who consistently acts in a way
that we call
“conscientious” might be said to have the trait of
“conscientiousness”. A term that
is essentially synonymous with trait is disposition; traits
describe what a person
tends to do or is predisposed to do. You probably already use
trait terms to
describe people. If you say that a friend is “outgoing,” “honest,”
or “disagreeable,”
you are using trait terms. There is something implicit—
something that “goes
without saying”—when you use these terms. If you say that a
friend is, for
example, “outgoing,” the term implies two things: (1) the
person tends to be
outgoing on average in his/her own daily behavior (even if, on
occasion, he/she
does not act this way), and (2) the person tends to be outgoing
compared to others.
If you use trait terms this way, then you are using them in the
same way as most
26. personality psychologists do.
Traits usually are thought of as continuous dimensions. Like the
biological traits of
height and weight, people have more or less of a given trait,
with most people
being in the middle of the dimension.
A different unit of analysis is type. A personality “type” is a
clustering of many
different traits. For example, some researchers have explored
combinations of
personality traits and suggested that there are three types of
persons: (1) people
who respond in an adaptive, resilient manner to psychological
stress; (2) people
who respond in a manner that is socially inhibited or
emotionally overcontrolled;
and (3) people who respond in an uninhibited or undercontrolled
manner
(Asendorpf, Caspi, & Hofstee, 2002).
Types, unlike traits, may be thought of as distinct categories. In
other words,
people of one versus another type do not simply have more or
less of a given
characteristic but have categorically different characteristics.
Process
Just as theories can be compared in terms of how they treat
personality structure,
one can compare their treatment of personality processes. In any
scientific field, a
27. “process” is something that changes over time; as the
philosopher Wittgenstein put
it, we use the word “process” to refer to psychological
phenomena that “have
duration and a course” (Wittgenstein, 1980, §836). A
personality process thus is a
psychological activity (involving thoughts, feelings, or actions)
that may change
over relatively brief periods of time.
Even though you are the same person from one day to the next,
you experience
rapidly changing personality processes all the time. One
moment you are studying.
The next, you are distracted by thoughts of a friend. Next,
you're hungry and
getting a snack. Then you're feeling guilty about not studying.
Next, you're feeling
guilty about overeating. This rapidly changing flow of
motivation, emotion, and
action is what personality psychologists attempt to explain
when studying
personality processes.
Personality processes are often referred to by a more technical
name: personality
“dynamics”. When using this term, psychologists are borrowing
a word from a
different field of study: physics. In physics, “dynamics” refers
to the ways in which
physical objects move across some period of time (e.g., how an
object moves
toward Earth if you drop it). In personality, “dynamics” refer to
psychological
processes (involving thinking, emotion, or motivation) that
change over time
28. (Cervone & Little, 2017).
Study of personality processes, or dynamics, is where the
contemporary science of
personality started. European psychologists of the late 19th
century became
interested in how different parts of mental life—for example,
memory of past
events and conscious experiences in the present—become
connected to one
another in the self‐ concept of an individual person (Lombardo
& Foschi, 2003).
Throughout the first two‐ thirds of the 20th century, dynamic
processes remained a
centerpiece of personality theory. In the late 20th century,
personality psychology's
focus of attention shifted somewhat, with more researchers
studying the stable
differences between people rather than the personality dynamics
of the individual.
But in the current field, the study of personality dynamics is, in
a sense, “making a
comeback” (Rauthmann, in press). Researchers increasingly
explore dynamic
changes in personality dynamics that occur across the diverse
circumstances of an
individual's life.
Just as in the study of personality structure, one finds that, in
the study of
personality processes, different theorists employ different units
of analysis. The
differences commonly involve different approaches to the study
29. of motivation.
Personality theorists emphasize different motivational
processes. Some highlight
basic biological drives. Other theorists argue that people's
anticipations of future
events are more important to human motivation than are
biological drive states
experienced in the present. Some theorists emphasize the role of
conscious
thinking processes in motivation. Others believe that most
important motivational
processes are unconscious. To some, the motivation to enhance
and improve
oneself is most central to human motivation. To others, such an
emphasis on “self‐
processes” underestimates the degree to which, in some cultures
of the world, self‐
enhancement is less important to motivation than is a desire to
enhance one's
family, community, and wider world. In their explorations of
motivational
processes, the personality theorists you will read about in this
book are attempting
to bring contemporary scientific evidence to bear on classic
questions about human
nature that have been discussed and debated in the world's
intellectual traditions
for more than two millennia.
Growth and Development
Personality theorists try to understand not only what individuals
are like in the here
and now, but how they got this way. They strive, in other
words, to understand
personality development (Mroczek & Little, 2006; Specht,
30. 2017).
The overall study of personality development encompasses two
challenges that are
relatively distinct. One is to characterize patterns of
development that are
experienced by most, if not all, persons. A theorist might, for
example, posit that
all individuals develop through a distinct series of stages, or
that certain motives or
emotional experiences are more common at one versus another
age for most
persons. A second challenge is to understand developmental
factors that contribute
to individual differences. What factors cause individuals to
develop one versus
another personality style?
In the study of individual differences, a classic division of
possible causes
separates “nature” from “nurture”. We may be who we are
because of our
biological nature, that is, because of biological features that we
inherited.
Alternatively, our personality may reflect our nurturing, that is,
our experiences in
our family and in society. In a joking manner, we might say, “If
you don't like your
personality, who should you blame: Your parents, because of
the way they
nurtured you? Or your parents, because of the genes they passed
on to you that
shaped your biological nature?”
31. At different points in its history, psychological research has
tended to highlight
either nature or nurture as causal factor. In the middle parts of
the 20th century,
theorists focused heavily on environmental causes of behavior
and devoted
relatively little attention to genetic influences. Starting in the
1970s, investigators
began systematic studies of similarity in the personalities of
twins. These studies
provided unambiguous evidence that inherited factors contribute
to personality.
In recent years, there has been a third trend. Researchers have
identified
interactions between genetic and environmental factors. A
critical finding is that
environmental experiences activate genetic mechanisms,
essentially “switching”
genes on and off (Champagne, 2018). Since genes code for
proteins that become
the structural material of the body, this means that certain types
of experiences can
alter the biology of the organism (Gottlieb, 1998; Rutter, 2012).
This finding, in
turn, implies that the traditional notion of nature versus nurture
hardly makes
sense. Nature and nurture—experience and biology—are not
competing forces;
instead, they work together, shaping the organism across its life
span (Lewontin,
2000; Meaney, 2010).
You might already be asking yourself: What aspects of
personality are affected by
32. what types of biological and environmental influences? This is a
big question
whose answers are considered throughout this textbook. For
now, though, we will
provide a quick preview of some of the factors highlighted by
contemporary
findings in personality psychology.
Genetic Determinants
Genetic factors contribute strongly to personality and individual
differences (Kim,
2009). Contemporary advances enable the personality
psychologist to pinpoint
specific paths through which genes affect personality. One main
path is through
temperament, a term that refers to biologically based emotional
and behavioral
tendencies that are evident in early childhood (Strelau, 1998).
Temperament characteristics that have been studied in depth are
fear reactions and
inhibited behavior (Fox, Henderson, Marshall, Nichols, &
Ghera, 2005). People
differ considerably in the degree to which they respond
fearfully, especially when
encountering unfamiliar, novel situations (e.g., a social setting
with many
strangers). Genes contribute to individual differences in brain
systems that are
involved in this fear response. These biological differences, in
turn, produce
psychological differences in behavior and emotion (Fox &
Reeb‐ Sutherland,
33. 2010). Since genetic factors contribute to the development of
the brain, in this
work, the psychologist can identify a precise link from genes to
biological systems
to temperament, as expressed in emotion and behavior. An
interesting feature of
this work is that it points to the impact not only of genes, but
also of the
environment. Some evidence indicates that temperamentally shy
children change,
becoming less shy, when they experience day care in which they
encounter large
numbers of other children every day (Schmidt & Fox, 2002),
though data on this
point are somewhat mixed (Kagan, 2011).
Genetic bases of personality also are explored by evolutionary
psychologists, that
is, psychologists who study the evolutionary basis of
psychological characteristics
(Buss & Hawley, 2011). Evolutionary psychologists propose
that contemporary
humans possess psychological tendencies that are a product of
our evolutionary
past. People are predisposed to engage in certain types of
behavior because those
behaviors contributed to survival and reproductive success over
the course of
human evolution. An evolutionary analysis of genetic influences
differs
fundamentally from the analyses reviewed in the two preceding
paragraphs. In an
evolutionary analysis, investigators are not interested in genetic
bases of individual
differences. Instead, they are searching for the genetic basis of
human universals,
34. that is, psychological features that all people have in common.
Most of our genes
are shared. Even so‐ called racial differences involve merely
superficial differences
in features such as skin tone; the basic structure of the human
brain is universal
(Cavalli‐ Sforza & Cavalli‐ Sforza, 1995). The evolutionary
psychologist suggests,
then, that we all inherit psychological mechanisms that
predispose us to respond to
the environment in ways that proved successful over the course
of evolution. For
example, some scientists who study emotion suggest that a
number of basic
emotions (e.g., anger, sadness, joy, disgust, fear) are products
of evolution (Ekman,
1993, 1994; Izard, 1994; Panksepp, 2011).
Culture
Significant among the environmental determinants of
personality are experiences
individuals have as a result of membership in a particular
culture: “Culture is a key
determinant of what it means to be a person” (Benet‐ Martinez
& Oishi, 2008, p.
543). Each culture has its own institutionalized and sanctioned
patterns of learned
behaviors, rituals, and beliefs. These cultural practices, which
in turn often reflect
long‐ standing religious and philosophical beliefs, provide
people with answers to
significant questions about the nature of the self, one's role in
35. one's community,
and the values and principles that are most important in life. As
a result, members
of a culture may share personality characteristics.
Interestingly, people often may be unaware of shared cultural
tendencies because
they take them for granted. For example, if you live in North
America or western
Europe, you may underestimate the extent to which your
conception of yourself
and your goals in life are shaped by a culture that strongly
values individual rights,
in which individuals compete in an economic marketplace, and
in which the
society as a whole is marked by high levels of financial
inequality (Stephens,
Markus, & Phillips, 2014). Since everyone in these regions of
the world
experiences these cultural features, we take them for granted
and may assume that
they are universal. Yet much evidence indicates that people in
other regions of the
world experience different cultural features. Asian cultures
appear to place a
greater value on a person's contribution to his or her community
rather than on
individualism and personal gain (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, &
Norenzayan, 2001). In
fact, even within the Western world, cultural beliefs about the
individual's role in
society have changed from one historical period to another. The
idea that
individuals compete against one another in an economic
marketplace in order to
improve their position in life is a feature of contemporary
36. Western societies, but it
was not evident in these same societies in the Middle Ages
(Heilbroner, 1986).
Culture, then, may exert an influence on personality that is
subtle yet pervasive.
The culture we live in defines our needs and our means of
satisfying them, our
experiences of different emotions and how we express what we
are feeling, our
relationships with others and with ourselves, what we think is
funny or sad, how
we cope with life and death, and what we view as healthy or
sick (Markus &
Kitayama, 2011).
Social Class
Although certain patterns of behavior develop as a result of
membership in a
culture, others may develop as a result of membership in a
particular social class
within a given culture. Many aspects of an individual's
personality can only be
understood by reference to the group to which that person
belongs. One's social
group—whether lower class or upper class, working class or
professional—is of
particular importance. Research indicates that socioeconomic
status influences the
cognitive and emotional development of the individual (Bradley
& Corwyn, 2002).
Social class factors affect not only educational opportunities,
37. job prospects, and
access to social resources. They may also indirectly affect
social experiences, such
as the experience of small or large networks of friends and
family, and
psychological qualities such as the tendency to focus, or not, on
one's long‐ term
future (Markus & Stevens, 2017).
Family
Another environmental factor of profound importance is the
influence of the family
(Park, 2004; Pomerantz & Thompson, 2008). Parents may be
warm and loving or
hostile and rejecting, overprotective and possessive, or aware of
their children's
need for freedom and autonomy. Each pattern of parental
behavior affects the
personality development of the child. Parents influence their
children's behavior in
at least three important ways:
1. Through their own behavior, parents present situations that
elicit certain
behavior in children (e.g., frustration leads to aggression).
2. Parents serve as role models for identification.
3. Parents selectively reward behaviors.
Experiences in a family can create both similarities and
differences among family
members.
At first, we may think of family practices as an influence that
38. makes family
members similar to one another. Yet family practices also can
create within‐ family
differences. Consider differences between male and female
family members.
Historically, in many societies, male children have received
family privileges and
opportunities that were unavailable to female children. These
differences in how
families have treated boys and girls surely did not make boys
and girls similar to
one another; rather, they contributed to differences in male and
female
development. In addition to gender, other family practices that
may produce
differences between family members involve birth order.
Parents sometimes
express subtle preferences toward firstborn children (Keller &
Zach, 2002), who
tend to be more achievement‐ oriented and conscientious than
later‐ born siblings
(Paulhus, Trapnell, & Chen, 1999).
Peers
What environmental features outside of family life are
important to personality
development? The child's experiences with members of his or
her peer group are
one feature. Personality development is influenced by peer
groups as a whole—
who socialize the individual into rules and norms for behavior —
and by one‐ on‐ one
39. relationships within peer groups, which can shape people's
perceptions of
themselves (Reitz, Zimmermann, Hutteman, Specht, & Neyer,
2014). Some
psychologists view peer influences as more important to
personality development
than family experiences (Harris, 1995). Perhaps “the answer to
the question ‘Why
are children from the same family so different from one
another?’ (Plomin &
Daniels, 1987) is, because they have different experiences
outside the home and
because their experiences inside the home do not make them
more alike” (Harris,
1995, p. 481). Peer groups. These experiences may affect
personality in an
enduring manner. For example, children who experience
low‐ quality friendships
that involve a lot of arguing and conflict tend to develop
disagreeable, antagonistic
styles of behavior (Berndt, 2002).
Psychopathology and Behavior Change
Constructing a personality theory may strike you as an ivory
tower activity, that is,
an abstract intellectual exercise that fails to relate to the
important concerns of
everyday life. Yet personality theories are potentially of great
practical importance.
People often face complicated psychological problems: They are
depressed and
lonely, a close friend is addicted to drugs, they are anxious
about sexual relations,
frequent arguments threaten the stability of a romantic
40. relationship. To solve such
problems, one requires some sort of conceptual framework that
specifies causes of
the problem and factors that might bring about change. In other
words, one needs a
personality theory.
Historically, the practical problems that have been most
important to the
development of personality theories have involved
psychopathology. Many of the
theorists discussed in this book were also therapists. They
began their careers by
trying to solve practical problems they faced when trying to
help their clients.
Their theories were, in part, an attempt to systematize the
lessons about human
nature that they learned by working on practical problems in
therapy.
Although not all personality theories had clinical origins, for
any theory, a crucial
bottom line for evaluating the theoretical approach is to ask
whether its ideas are of
practical benefit to individuals and to society at large.
Important Issues in Personality Theory
We have just reviewed four topic areas in the study of
personality: (1) personality
structure, (2) personality processes, (3) personality
development, and (4)
psychopathology and behavior change. Next, we will consider a
41. series of
conceptual issues that are central to the field. By “conceptual
issues,” we mean a
set of questions about personality that are so fundamental that
they may arise no
matter what topic one is addressing and that one must address
regardless of one's
theoretical perspective.
Philosophical View of the Person
No theory can be adequately understood without some
knowledge of the cultural
and personal soil from which it springs.
Rogers (1959, p. 185)
Personality theorists do not confine themselves to narrow
questions about human
behavior. Instead, they boldly tackle the big, broad question:
What is the basic
nature of human nature? Personality theorists, in other words,
provide
philosophical views about the basic nature of human beings.
One critical
consideration when evaluating a theory, then, is the overall
view of the person that
it provides.
Personality theories embrace strikingly different views of the
essential qualities of
human nature. Some view people as rational actors—beings who
reason about the
world, weigh the costs and benefits of alternative courses of
action, and behave
based on these rational calculations. To others, human nature is
42. animalistic, with
people primarily driven by irrational forces.
Where did the difference among theories come from?
Philosophical views arise in
sociohistorical contexts. In other words, the historical
circumstances of the
psychologist influence the theory that he or she develops. In the
late 19th century,
scientists explored the physics of energy—and Sigmund Freud
proposed an
energy‐ based model of mind (Chapter 3). The crisis of World
War II prompted a
broad intellectual movement that confronted issues of personal
responsibility and
freedom of choice, and this movement, in turn, informed the
humanistic and
phenomenological personality theories (Chapters 5 and 6) that
developed in the
1950s (Fulton, 1999). At around the same time, mathematicians
and engineers
developed machines that seemed to think – computers—and
psychologists adopted
the metaphor that the mind is like a computer. In our current
era, scientists in
multiple fields explore the nature of complex systems (Holland,
2014; a complex
system is one that contains large numbers of highly interacting
parts)—and
personality theorists adopt “systems” perspectives on
personality structure and
dynamics (Kuhl, Quirin, & Koole, 2015; Mayer, 2015; Mischel
&
43. Internal and External Determinants of Behavior
Is human behavior and experience determined by processes
inside the person or
causes external to the person? If you are a hardworking student,
is it because of
your confidence and personal goals (an internal cause) or your
parents and
schooling (an external cause). If you are disappointed in
yourself, is it because of
your perfectionistic thinking (an internal cause) or because
social forces provided
less support and fewer opportunities to people of your
nationality, ethnic group, or
gender (an external cause)?
All theories of personality recognize that both external and
internal factors are
influential. Nonetheless, they differ considerably in the
emphasis they give to one
or the other. Consider the differences between the most
influential psychologists of
the 20th century: Sigmund Freud and B. F. Skinner. According
to Freud, we are
controlled by internal forces: unconscious impulses and
emotions that are buried
deep in our unconscious minds. According to Skinner, we are
controlled by
external forces: environmental rewards and punishments that
govern our actions.
“A person does not act upon the world, the world acts upon
him,” Skinner writes
(1971, p. 211).
Freud's and Skinner's views are extreme in the light of
44. contemporary scientific
knowledge. Virtually all personality psychologists today
acknowledge both
external and internal determinants of human action.
Nonetheless, contemporary
theories continue to differ markedly in the degree to which they
emphasize one
versus the other factor. These differences become apparent
when one examines the
basic variables—or, as we called them earlier, the basic units of
analysis—of a
given theory. Consider two perspectives you will read about in
later chapters. In
trait theories of personality, the basic units of analysis refer to
structures in the
person that purportedly are inherited and produce highly
generalized patterns of
behavior (McCrae & Costa, 2008). In social cognitive theori es
of personality, the
basic units of analysis are knowledge structures and thinking
processes that are
acquired through interaction with the social and cultural
environment (Bandura,
1999; Mischel & Shoda, 2008). As you can infer from their
basic units, these
theories differentially emphasize internal and external
determinants of personality.
Consistency Across Situations and Over Time
How consistent is personality from situation to situation? To
what extent are you
“the same person” when with friends as you are with your
45. parents? Or when you
are at a party versus present during a classroom discussion?
And how consistent is
personality across time? How similar is your personality now to
what it was when
you were a child? And how similar will it be 20 years from
now?
Answering these questions is more difficult than it may appear.
In part, this is
because one has to decide on what counts as an example of
personality consistency
versus inconsistency. Consider a simple example. Suppose that
you have two
supervisors at a job, one male and one female, and that you tend
to act in an
agreeable manner toward one supervisor and disagreeably
toward the other. Are
you being inconsistent in your personality? If one thinks that a
basic feature of
personality is agreeableness, then the answer is yes. But
suppose this situation
were analyzed by a psychologist who adheres to psychoanalytic
theory, which
suggests that (1) people you encounter in your adult life may
symbolically
represent parental figures and (2) a basic personality dynamic
involves attraction
toward one's opposite‐ sex parent and rivalry toward the
same‐ sex parent—
something called an “Oedipal complex”. From this view, you
may be acting in a
very consistent manner. The different job supervisors may
symbolically represent
different parental figures, and you may be consistently
reenacting Oedipal motives
46. that cause you to act in a different manner toward one versus
the other person.
Even if people agree on what counts as consistency, they may
disagree about the
factors that cause personality to be consistent. Consider
consistency over time. It
unquestionably is the case that individual differences are stable,
to a significant
degree, over long periods of time (Fraley, 2002; Roberts & Del
Vecchio, 2000). If
you are more extraverted than your friends today, you are quite
likely to be more
extraverted than these same people 20 years from now. But
why? One possibility is
that the core structures of personality are inherited and that they
change little
across the course of life. Another possibility, however, is that
the environment
plays a critical role in fostering consistency. Exposure to the
same family
members, friends, educational systems, and social
circumstances over long periods
of time may contribute to personality consistency over time
(Lewis, 2002).
No personality theorist thinks that you will fall asleep an
introvert and wake up the
next morning an extravert. Yet the field's theoretical
frameworks do provide
different views on the nature of personality consistency and
change and on people's
capacity to vary their personality functioning across time and
47. place. To some
theorists, variation in behavior is a sign of inconsistency in
personality. To others,
it may reflect a consistent personal capacity to adapt one's
behavior to the different
requirements of different social situations (Mischel, 2004).
The Unity of Experience and Action and the Concept of Self
Our psychological experiences generally have an integrated, or
coherent, quality to
them (Cervone & Shoda, 1999b). Our actions are patterned and
organized, rather
than random and chaotic. As we move from place to place, we
retain a stable sense
of ourselves, our past, and our goals for the future. There is a
unity to our
experiences and action.
Although we take it for granted that our experiences are unified,
in some sense this
fact is quite surprising. The brain contains a large number of
information‐
processing systems, many of which function at the same time, in
partial isolation
from one another (Pinker, 1997). If we examine the contents of
our own conscious
experiences, we will find that most of our thoughts are fleeting.
It is hard to keep
any one idea in mind for long periods. Seemingly random ideas
pop into our heads.
Nonetheless, we rarely experience the world as chaotic or our
lives as disjointed.
Why?
A major challenge for personality science is to understand how
48. people developed
a consist, unified sense of self.
There are two types of answers to this question. One is that the
multiple
components of the mind function as a complex system. The
parts are
interconnected, and the patterns of interconnection enable the
multipart system to
function in a smooth, coherent manner. Computer simulations of
personality
functioning (Nowak, Vallacher, & Zochowski, 2002), as well as
neuroscientific
investigations of the reciprocal links among brain regions
(Sporns, 2010; Tononi &
Edelman, 1998), are beginning to shed light on how the mind
manages to produce
coherence in experience and action.
The second type of answer involves the concept of the self.
Although we may
experience a potentially bewildering diversity of life events, we
do experience
them from a consistent perspective, that of ourselves (Harré,
1998). People
construct coherent autobiographical memories, which contribute
to coherence in
our understanding of who we are (Conway & Pleydell‐ Pearce,
2000). The concept
of the self, then, has proven valuable in accounting for the unity
of experience
(Baumeister, 1999; Robins, Norem, & Cheek, 1999; Robins,
49. Tracy, &
Trzesniewski, 2008).
Varying States of Awareness and the Concept of the
Unconscious
Are we aware of the contents of our mental life? Or do most
mental activities occur
outside of awareness or unconsciously?
On the one hand, much of the brain's activities unquestionably
occur outside of
awareness. Consider what is happening as you read this book.
Your brain is
engaging in large numbers of functions ranging from the
monitoring of your
internal physiological state to the deciphering of the marks of
ink that constitute
the words on this page. All this occurs without your conscious
attention. You do
not consciously have to think to yourself “I wonder if these
squiggles of ink form
words” or “Maybe I should check to see if sufficient amounts of
oxygen are getting
to my bodily organs.” These functions are executed
automatically. But these
functions are not the ones of main interest to the personality
psychologist.
Personality scientists ask whether significant aspects of
personality functioning—
motivation, emotions—occur outside of awareness. If there is
evidence that they
do, the personality scientist tries to conceptualize the mental
systems that give rise
50. to conscious and unconscious processes (Kihlstrom, 2008;
Pervin, 2003). The fact
that some brain functions occur outside of awareness does not
imply that the most
significant personality processes occur without our awareness.
People engage in
much self‐ reflection. They are particularly likely to reflect on
themselves when
they face life circumstances of great importance, where the
decisions that are made
(e.g., whether and where to attend college, whether to marry a
certain person,
whether to have children, what profession to pursue) have major
long‐ term
consequences. In these critical circumstances, conscious
processes are influential.
Thus, many personality psychologists study conscious
self‐ reflection, even while
recognizing that numerous aspects of mental life occur outside
of awareness.
The Influence of the Past, Present, and Future on Behavior
Are we prisoners of our past? Or is our personality shaped by
present events and
personal aspirations for the future? Theorists agree that
behavior can be influenced
only by factors operating in the present; a basic principle of
causality is that
presently active processes are the causes of events. In this
sense, only the present is
important in understanding behavior. But the present can be
influenced by
51. experiences in the remote past or in the recent past. Similarly,
what one is thinking
about in the present can be influenced by thoughts about the
immediate future or
the distant future. People vary in the extent to which they worry
about the past and
the future. And personality theorists differ in their concern with
the past and the
future as determinants of behavior in the present. As you will
see in the chapters
ahead, some theorists suggest that we are primarily prisoners of
our past.
Psychoanalytic theory posits that personality structures are
formed through
experiences in childhood and that the personality dynamics
established then persist
throughout the life course. Others are harshly critical of this
psychoanalytic
conclusion. Personality construct theory (Chapter 11) and
social‐ cognitive theory
(Chapters 12–13) suggest that people have the capacity to
change their own
personal capabilities and tendencies and to explore the social
and psychological
systems that give people this lifelong capacity for personal
agency (Bandura,
2006).
Meaning and Reasons for Action
If you observe some people and want to describe what they are
doing, how would
you do it? It sounds simple at first: Just count their behaviors.
You might count the
number of times a person talks, or smiles, or frowns, or checks
52. social media. But is
this sufficient? Are any two people who have the same
“counts”—for example, 6
talks, 5 smiles, 2 frowns, and 29 social media checks in an
hour—the same, in a
psychologically significant way?
The problem with “just counting” is that the counts overlook
people's reasons for
action. One person might be smiling because she's happy.
Another might smile as a
way of putting other people in a good mood. Yet others might
smile to make a
good impression or as a strategy to control their anxiety. The
existence of different
reasons means that people who are doing the same thing
behaviorally are not the
same psychologically. Reasons for action may vary widely from
one person to the
next. When one research team asked people why they had sex,
participants
identified more than a dozen different reasons: stress reduction,
attaining social
status, expressing love and commitment to someone, sheer
physical pleasure,
feelings of obligation, and more (Meston & Buss, 2007).
The implication is that, in personality theory and research, one
often must pay
attention to subjective meaning rather than merely to observable
behavior. People
do not respond merely to physical stimuli in the environment.
53. They respond to
social circumstances that have personal meaning to them.
Although this point is obvious once stated, you will see that
personality theories
differ in the degree to which they pay attention to subjective
meaning and people's
reasons for action. Some theorists do count behaviors (Chapter
8) or study the
influence of physical stimuli (Chapter 10) without deeply
exploring people's
reasons for action. However, most of the personality theorists
are centrally
concerned with the way in which people make sense of—or
“assign meaning to”—
the situations, events, and relationships that make up their lives.
Can We have a Science of Personality? What kind of a Science
can it be?
A final issue of importance concerns the type of theory of
personality that one
reasonably can pursue. We have taken it for granted thus far
that one can craft a
science of personality, in other words, that the methods of
science can inform the
nature of persons. This assumption seems to be a safe one.
People are objects in a
physical universe. They consist of biological systems comprised
of physical and
chemical parts. Science thus should be able to tell us something
about them.
54. Nonetheless, one can reasonably question the forms of scientific
analysis that can
be applied to the understanding of persons. Much of the
progress of science has
involved analyses that are reductionistic. A system is
understood by reducing a
complex whole to its simpler parts and showing how the parts
give rise to the
functioning of the whole.
One challenge is building a theory of personality is cultural
variation; the nature
of personality and individual differences may vary from one
culture to another.
For example, in India, people recognize three main personality
traits, the
trigunas, which are characteristics first identified centuries ago
in Hindu
philosophy (Singh, Misra, & De Raad, 2013). These traits
generally are not
found in studies conducted in Western cultures, such as the
United States.
Such analyses work wonderfully when applied to physical
systems. A biological
system, for example, can be understood in terms of the
biochemistry of its parts.
The chemistry, in turn, can be understood in terms of the
underlying physics of the
chemical components. But personality is not merely a physical
system. As just
noted, people respond to meaning. There is no guarantee that
the traditional
55. scientific procedures of breaking a system into constituent parts
will be sufficient
to understand processes of meaning construction. Numerous
scholars have
suggested that importing the methods of the physical sciences
into the study of
human meaning systems is a mistake (e.g., Geertz, 2000). To
such commentators,
the idea that people have “parts” is “at best a metaphor” (Harré,
1998, p. 15). The
risk of adopting this metaphor is that, to use a cliche, “the
whole may be greater
than the sum of the parts.”
By analogy, consider an analysis of a great work of art. In
principle, one could
analyze its parts: There's paint of one color over here, paint of
some other color
there, and so on. But this sort of analysis will not enable one to
understand the
greatness of the painting. This requires viewing the work as a
whole and
understanding the historical context in which it was made. By
analogy, a listing of
the psychological parts of an actual person may, in principle,
fail to portray the
whole individual and the developmental processes that
contributed to his or her
uniqueness. A question to ask yourself when reading this
textbook, then, is whether
the personality theorists are as successful as was da Vinci at
providing holistic
psychological portraits of complex individuals.
Evaluating Personality Theories
56. As we have noted, a unique feature of the scientific field of
personality psychology
is that it contains more than one guiding theory. Multiple
theories of personality
inform us about human nature and individual differences. A
natural question, then,
is how to evaluate the theories, one versus the other. How can
one judge the
strengths and limitations of the various theories? What criteria
should be used to
evaluate them?
To evaluate something, one generally asks what it is supposed
to do. One then can
judge how well it is doing it. A more formal way to say this is
that one asks about
the functions that the entity is supposed to serve. One then can
evaluate the degree
to which it is carrying out those functions. Like all scientific
theories, theories of
personality can serve three key functions: They can (1) organize
existing
information, (2) generate new knowledge about important
issues, and (3) identify
entirely new issues that are deserving of study.
The first of these functions is obvious. Research provides an
array of facts about
personality, personality development, and individual
differences. Rather than
merely listing these facts in an unordered manner, it would be
useful to organize
57. them systematically. A logical, systematic ordering of facts
would enable one to
keep track of what scientists know about personality. This can
make it easier to put
that knowledge to use.
The second function is somewhat less obvious. In any field of
study, there are
issues—involving both basic science questions and applications
of scientific
knowledge—that everyone in the field recognizes as important.
A good theory
fosters new knowledge about these issues. It is generative. The
theory helps people
to generate new knowledge about the topics they recognize as
important to their
field. In biology, Darwin's theory of natural selection was
useful not only because
it organized known facts about the world's flora and fauna. Its
additional value is
that it opened new pathways of knowledge about biology. In
personality
psychology, some theories have proven to be highly generative.
They have
prompted researchers who are familiar with the theory to use its
ideas to generate
new knowledge about personality.
The third function is of particular interest to both the
personality scientist and the
public at large. A personality theory may identity entirely new
58. areas of study—
areas that people might never have known about were it not for
the theory.
Psychodynamic theory opened the door to psychological issues
that were utterly
novel to most people: the possibility that our most important
thoughts and
emotions are unconscious, the possibility that events early in
childhood determine
our adult personality characteristics. Other theories also have
this quality.
Evolutionary psychology (reviewed in Chapter 9) makes the
novel suggestion that
contemporary patterns of thought and behavior are not learned
in contemporary
society but, instead, are inherited from our ancestral past.
Behaviorism (Chapter
10) raises the possibility that actions that we attribute to our
free choice, or free
will, are ultimately caused by the environment. These theories'
fascinating and
sometimes radical hypotheses about human nature have
prompted much valuable
new investigation into human nature.
In sum, you can evaluate the theories you will learn about in
this textbook by
gauging their success in (1) organizing information, (2)
generating knowledge, and
(3) identifying important issues to study.
The Personality Theories: An Introduction
59. We have now reviewed a series of points: topics that must be
addressed by a
personality theory, important issues that arise as one confronts
these topics, and
criteria that can be used to evaluate a theory of personality.
Now, in the final
section of this chapter, we turn to the theories themselves.
The Challenge of Constructing a Personality Theory
By this point in our chapter, it is clear that constructing a
comprehensive theory of
personality is extremely difficult. Theorists must pursue a
challenging set of
scientific goals that go beyond one's intuitive thinking about
personality. They
must address a broad set of what, how, and why questions about
personality
structure, processes, development, and change. They must
consider determinants of
personality ranging from the molecular to the sociocultural and
conceptual issues
ranging from the philosophical view of persons that is
embedded in their theory to
the question of whether one can have a scientific theory of
persons in the first
place.
Does any one person do this ideally? Is there a single theory
that is so
comprehensive in its scope, so consistent with scientific
evidence, and so uniquely
60. able to foster new knowledge that it is accepted universally?
The answer, quite
simply, is no. There exist different theoretical frameworks.
Each has its strengths,
and each its limitations. More important, each has its unique
virtues; in other
words, each of a variety of theories provides some unique
insights into human
nature. It is for this reason that this textbook is organized
around personality
theories—plural.
The Personality Theories: A Preliminary Sketch
What theoretical frameworks have had the biggest impact on the
field? This book
will introduce you to six theoretical approaches. We provide a
brief sketch of these
approaches here, so that you can get a sense of the terrain
ahead.
We begin with psychodynamic theory (Chapters 3 and 4), the
approach pioneered
by Freud. Psychodynamic theory views the mind as an energy
system; the basic
biological energies of the body reside, in part, in the mind.
Mental energies, then,
are directed to the service of basic bodily needs. However,
people generally cannot
gratify sexual and other bodily desires whenever they wish.
Instead, the drive to
gratify bodily needs often conflicts with the dictates of society.
Behavior, then,
reflects a conflict between biological desires on the one hand
61. and social constraints
on the other. In psychoanalysis, the mind is said to contain
different systems that
serve different functions: satisfying bodily needs, representing
social norms and
rules, and striking a strategic balancing between biological
drives and social
constraints. An additional defining feature of psychodynamic
theory is that much
of this mental activity is said to occur outside of one's
conscious awareness. We are
not aware of the drives that underlie our emotions and behavior;
they are
unconscious.
Phenomenological theories, reviewed next (Chapters 5 and 6),
contrast starkly with
the psychodynamic view. Phenomenological theories are less
concerned with
unconscious process and more concerned with people's
conscious experience of the
world around them, that is, their phenomenological experience.
Phenomenological
theorists recognize that people have biologically based motives,
yet they believe
that people also possess “higher” motives involving personal
growth and self‐
fulfillment and that these motives are more important to
personal well‐ being than
are the animalistic drives highlighted by Freud. Finally,
compared to
psychodynamic approaches, phenomenological theory places
much greater
62. emphasis on the self. The development of a stable and coherent
understanding of
oneself is seen as key to psychological health.
Trait approaches to personality, reviewed in Chapters 7 and 8,
differ strikingly
from both of the previous formulations. The differences reflect
not only different
views about the nature of personality, but also different
scientific beliefs about the
best way of building a personality theory. Most trait theorists
believe that, to
construct a theory of personality, one must begin by solving two
scientific
problems: (1) determining which individual differences are most
important to
measure and (2) developing a reliable measure of these
individual differences.
Once these problems are solved, one would be able to measure
the most important
individual differences in personality, and these measurements
could serve as a
basis for constructing a comprehensive theory of persons. A
main development in
the late‐ 20th‐ century history of the field is that many
personality psychologists
came to conclude that these problems had, in fact, been solved.
Much consensus
has been achieved on the question of what individual
differences are most
important and on how they can be
Chapter 9 addresses one of the most exciting aspects of
contemporary personality
63. science, namely, research on the biological foundations of
personality. This
includes findings regarding the genetic bases of personality
traits, as well as work
revealing the brain systems that underlie individual differences.
In this chapter, we
devote coverage not only to trait theories but also to
evolutionary psychology.
Evolutionary psychologists explain contemporary patterns of
social behavior in
terms of mental mechanisms that are a product of our
evolutionary past.
Chapter 10 introduces the ideas of behaviorism, which represent
a learning
approach to personality. In behavioral theories, behavior is seen
as an adaptation to
rewards and punishments experienced in the environment. Since
different people
experience different patterns of reward in different settings,
they naturally
developed different styles of behavior. Basic learning processes,
then, are said to
account for the stylistic variations in behavior that we call
“personality.”
Behaviorism presents a profound challenge to the theories
presented previously. To
the behaviorist, the units of analysis of the previous theories —
the psychodynamic
theorist's “unconscious forces,” the “self” of phenomenological
theories,
personality “traits”—are not causes of behavior. They merely
64. are descriptions of
patterns of thinking, emotion, and behavior that ultimately are
caused by the
environment that, according to the behaviorist, shapes our
behavior.
Chapter 11 introduces a markedly different theoretical
approach, that of personal
construct theory. Personal construct theory addresses people's
capacity to interpret
the world. Unlike the behaviorist, who is most concerned with
how the
environment determines our experiences, the personal construct
theorist studies the
subjective ideas, or constructs, that people use to interpret the
environment. One
person may view the college environment as challenging,
another as boring; one
person may view dating circumstances as romantic, another as
sexually
threatening. Personal construct theorists explore the possibility
that most individual
differences in personality functioning stem from the different
constructs that
people use to interpret their world.
Chapter 14 considers personality in context. We explore
contemporary research
that illustrates the critical point that you often can learn much
about people's
personalities by studying the life contexts —the social
situations, cultural settings,
interpersonal relationships, and so on—that make up their life.
This research
heavily capitalizes on the social‐ cognitive perspective
65. discussed in Chapters 12
and 13, while providing a broad portrait of contemporary
psychological research
on social settings and the individual. We end, in Chapter 15
(available at the
book’s website, www.wiley.com/go/cervone/personality14e), by
critically
evaluating the field of personality psychology as a whole.
The textbook takes advantage of contemporary knowledge in
brain science.
Today's personality psychologist has access to information
about the brain that was
unavailable in the past, when the primary personality theories
were developed.
This knowledge enables us to reevaluate the personality theories
from a
contemporary brain‐ science perspective. We'll do this
throughout the book, in
multiple chapters, in a feature called Personality and the Brain.
Finally, Personality: Theory and Research recognizes that
theoretical innovation in
this field did not cease at the end of the 20th century.
Contemporary Developments
sections, found in a number of chapters ahead, show you how
current‐ day
psychologists have built upon the foundations established by
earlier theorists.
The fact that this book presents these multiple theories might at
66. first seem odd.
Courses in most other scientific disciplines (e.g., chemistry,
physics) are not
organized around a series of different theories. Knowledge is
organized by one
commonly accepted conceptual framework. In part, this reflects
the maturity of
these other fields, which have been around longer than the
science of psychology.
Yet even the “mature sciences” may harbor different views of
the same
phenomenon. Suppose that you were to ask a physicist about the
nature of light.
You might learn that physics has a theory that says that light is
a wave. And you
might learn that physics also has a theory that says that light is
composed of
individual particles. If you were to ask “Which theory is
right?”, you would be told
“Neither”. Light acts as a wave and as a particle. Both a wave
theory and a particle
theory capture important information about the nature of light.
The same is true for the personality theories. Each captures
important information
about human nature. As you read about them, you should not be
asking yourself
“Which theory was right, and which ones are wrong?” Instead,
it is better to
evaluate them by asking how useful they are in advancing basic
knowledge and
applications. Even a theory that gets some things wrong may
have much value
(Proctor & Capaldi, 2001).
67. As we were preparing a recent edition of this textbook, a
colleague suggested to us
a useful metaphor for thinking about personality theories. It is
useful because it
moves one away from simplistic right/wrong evaluations and
toward a more
sophisticated view. She suggested that theories are like toolkits.
Each theory
contains a set of “tools”. Some of these tools are theoretical
concepts. Others are
research methods. Some are techniques for assessing
personality. Yet others are
methods for doing therapy. Each element of the theory is a tool
in that each serves
one or more functions; each, in other words, enables one to
carry out one or more
jobs. The jobs are things like describing individual differences,
identifying basic
human motivations, explaining the development of
self‐ concept, identifying the
causes of emotional reactions, predicting performance in work
settings, or reducing
psychological distress via therapy. These are jobs the
psychologist wants to do.
Each theory provides conceptual tools for doing them.
The toolkit metaphor has two benefits: It leads one (1) to ask
good questions about
personality theories and (2) to avoid asking bad ones. To see
these benefits,
imagine that you are evaluating actual physical toolkits. If you
68. saw a plumber, an
electrician, and an auto mechanic each carrying a toolkit of
their profession, you
would not go up to any of them and say “Your toolkit is wrong.”
The idea that a
toolkit could be wrong hardly makes sense. A toolkit may be
less good than
another for doing a particular job. It may be less useful for a
range of jobs than
some other toolkit that contains more tools. It may be more
practical than some
other toolkit that contains more tools because the larger toolkit
is unwieldy. You
would evaluate toolkits by asking about what you can do with
them and how they
might be improved by adding, or sometimes removing, tools.
You would not
evaluate them by asking “Which one is correct?”
Similarly, when evaluating the different personality theories we
present, we
encourage you to ask questions such as “What can one do with
the conceptual tools
of this theory?” “What advantages do its conceptual tools have
in relation to other
theories?” or “What tools could be added to (or subtracted
from) the theory to
make it better?” These questions are better than asking “Which
theory is right?”
The toolkit metaphor has a final implication. It suggests that the
existence of
multiple theories in contemporary personality psychology might
not be such a bad
69. thing. In the world of actual physical tools, when people have
different toolkits
they might learn new things from one another. They might add a
tool from
someone else's kit or be inspired to attempt someone else's job
with the tools they
have. In the long run, the diversity among toolkits may improve
everyone's work.
The same may be true in the world of theoretical tools. When
multiple theories
exist, investigators are more likely to face research findings and
theoretical
arguments that challenge their favored view. The challenges
may prompt them to
refine, extend, and ultimately improve their own thinking.
Theoretical diversity
thus can accelerate the overall progress of a discipline.
We hope you enjoy your tour through the erratic, but
progressing, enterprise of
personality theory and research.
We all think about personality in our day‐ to‐ day lives. The
work of personality
theorists differs from this everyday thinking in that personality
theories pursue five
goals that are uncommon in everyday thinking about persons.
They engage in (1)
scientific observations that underlie theories that are (2)
internally coherent and
systematic, (3) testable, and (4) comprehensive, and that foster
(5) useful
70. applications.
Personality theories address what, how, and why questions
about personality by
developing theories that address four distinct topics: (1)
personality structure, (2)
personality processes, (3) personality development, and (4)
personality change
(including via psychotherapy).
Personality theorists have confronted a range of issues
throughout the history of
the field. In developing theories that encompass these issues,
the theorist hopes to
develop a framework that serves three scientific functions: (1)
organizing existing
knowledge about personality, (2) fostering new knowledge on
important issues,
and (3) identifying new issues for study.
The existence of multiple theories in the field can be understood
by thinking of
theories as toolkits, each of which provides unique conceptual
tools for doing the
jobs of the personality psychologist.
Project Proposal
Unleashing the Commercial EV Charging Market in the State of
Arizona
71. 2019
Implementing Agent: Aidan Coyle
Date: 03/19/2019
Applied Project Course Advisor: Steven Trimble
Academic Advisor: Kris Mayes
Industry Advisor: Lee Feliciano
Table of Contents
72. I. INTRODUCTION2
II. INDUSTRY ISSUE BACKGROUND AND
JUSTIFICATION3
III. PROBLEM STATEMENT, REQUIREMENTS AND
INDUSTRY SIGNIFICANCE3
A. PROBLEM STATEMENT3
B. SOLUTION REQUIREMENTS3
C. INDUSTRY SIGNIFICANCE4
IV. SCOPE5
V. OBJECTIVES6
A. SOCIAL OBJECTIVE (MORE ELCTRIC VEHICLE
DRIVERS)6
B. ECONOMIC OBJECTIVES (MORE ELECTRIC VEHICLE
CHARGING INVESTMENT)7
C. PSM PROGRAM COMPLETION7
D. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT7
VI. PROJECT APPROACH PLAN8
SUMMARY8
PHASE 4: INITIAL WORK8
PHASE 5: MAJOR WORK10
PHASE 6: FINAL WORK11
PHASE 7: FINAL DOCUMENTATION11
VII. PROJECT SCHEDULE12
VIII. LABOR BUDGET / ACTUALS13
IX. RISK MITIGATION PLAN14
X. TOP FIVE PROJECT SUCCESS FACTORS15
I. INTRODUCTION
The applied project is the culminating event of the Professional
Science Masters (P.S.M) in Solar Energy Engineering and
Commercialization program at Arizona State University. The
quality of the final product should be analogous to that of a
typical master’s thesis. However, the accelerated nature of the
program inevitably reduces the comparative labor requirement
73. and technical expectations of this final product. Whilst
seemingly a detriment to the program, it is actually a part of the
program design and is an advantageous process to assist
students in their transition from academia to industry.
The purpose of participation and engagement in the P.S.M
program is to immerse oneself in the field of solar energy as
much as possible. This range of experience varies from learning
physical photovoltaic principles of P-N junctions to
commercialization processes of the industry interconnected with
complementary commercial and utility entities. A graduate of
this program will be prepared and expected to participate as a
member of this industry right away. The justification for this
expectation is attributed to the project management and
executive experience provided by the applied project. Most
projects in the commercial world do not reach completion and
those that do often experience schedule alterations and
obstacles that test the capability of the project team. Thus,
learning this process and experiencing the growing pains of
compartmentalizing an unforeseeable future is just as important
as the final deliverable.
The implementing agent of this particular project is a current
student that gained valuable work experience in the field of
construction document engineering for 3.5 years after
graduating as a Magna Cum Laude with a Bachelor’s in
Mechanical Engineering from Arizona State University in May
2014. During this time, the field of solar has continued to grow
and client behavior has adjusted accordingly. Observation of
this market opportunity, in conjunction with a lifelong passion
and desire for participation in the solar industry, is the reason
for their return to academia. The applied project is the first
work assignment of a prospective solar professional.
This project proposal presents the preliminary structure of the
project approach and a high-level description of project goals
74. and deliverables. This process begins through the analysis of
present industry issues and how further study illuminates a
clear, concise, and yet noteworthy problem statement worth
investigation. The first step towards answering or best
approaching the problem statement is to compartmentalize the
information and research required into individual and/or
interconnected objectives. These objectives can, in turn, be
divided into steps. Within the timeframe of the graduate
program, these steps and milestones form the basis of a
schedule that keeps the student/implementing agent to task and
greater increases the probability of thorough research and a
high-quality deliverable product.
The project proposal is specifically for the referential benefit of
the student and the applied project advisory team. The applied
project advisory team consists of the Applied Project Director
and SEC 593 course professor (Dr. Steven Trimble), the
academic advisor (Kris Mayes), and the industrial advisor (Lee
Feliciano).
The specific target audience for the final deliverable are each of
the five members of the Arizona Corporation Commission and
corresponding electric vehicle stakeholders with a vested
interest in the policy initiatives and action of the commission.
II. INDUSTRY ISSUE BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION
According to a multitude of global information providers, with
information provided by the Auto Manufacturers Alliance and
the Advanced Technology Sales Dashboard, the market share of
all electric vehicles is estimated to account for approximately
21% of total vehicle sales in the United States by 2025.
Presently, the Arizona Corporation Commission is hosting a
number of electric vehicle stakeholder meetings to address the
lack of publicly available electric vehicle charging stations
required to meet the ever-increasing demand such projections
75. entail. Although there are publications denoting charging
infrastructure installation guidelines for the Phoenix and Tucson
metropolitan areas, there is little comparative analysis of the
market and policy conditions needed to galvanize the
commercial market specific to the state. This is the critical
issue the project proposal seeks to resolve. While there are
other development strategies regarding policies, subsidies, or
market conditions, there is little precedent of such a study
specific to the conditions of Arizona. However, these precedent
studies will provide useful first and third person customer
testimony, in conjunction with quantitative market data, to form
the basis of existing condition assumptions for additional study.
III. PROBLEM STATEMENT, REQUIREMENTS AND
INDUSTRY SIGNIFICANCE
A. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The problem statement can be summarized as follows: The
present infrastructure of commercial electric vehicle charging
stations is insufficient to meet present and projected demand.
What market and policy conditions, specific to the state of
Arizona, can be implemented to inspire utility and third-party
investment in charging stations. Although not directly related,
how does the propagation of charging stations benefit the
commercial and residential solar industry through common
sense economics without forcing an interconnection?
B. SOLUTION REQUIREMENTS
The problem statement shall be approached in the same manner
as a thesis. This begins with the presentation of a hypothesis:
Electric vehicle adoption rates in a commercial market can be
facilitated through direct Arizona Corporation Commission
policy initiatives whilst promoting the use of solar and energy
storage systems. Subsequently, various location dependent
policy initiatives and their resulting market effects shall be
interpolated to Arizona within project specified assumptions
and constraints. Thus, the solution to the problem statement
must meet the following requirements:
76. · The utilization of first-person research data and perspective of
electric vehicle owners and users to determine economic and
behavioral patterns
· Prescribed assumptions and limitations regarding the scope of
the project and a firm structure to minimize deviation from the
scope
· Analysis of electrical billing and cost information for
residential and commercial applications with and without
electric vehicle charging stations for comparison
· Valid precedent research on alternative state policies and any
documentable testimony regarding the logic behind their
implementation
· Specific requirements for qualitative market conditions and
quantitative measurables to be deemed acceptable, through
presented justification, for interpolation to Arizona
· First person interviews with present industrial members to
establish a list of criteria that investors look for when
determining how to allocate investment funds, time and
attention
· Final report structure and presentation tailored to the Arizona
Corporation Commission
To meet the specific solution requirements, the academic and
industrial advisors were selected for their practical insight and
experience with the commission and energy investment markets,
respectively. Their advice and guidance will allow for more
efficient allocation of the labor budget towards areas of study
more relevant to the target audience and beneficiaries without
wasting time on established or irrelevant information.
The relevant experience and capabilities of the project
implementing agent includes previous work experience in the
field of commercial project electric design. Working in this
field provided valuable experience regarding project planning,
implementation management and follow up. In addition, present
exposure to the interconnection of the solar and electric vehicle
77. industries as a student intern at Ameresco allows for access to
real-time industrial information.
C. INDUSTRY SIGNIFICANCE
The specific need for the project began through initial inquiry
on the topic of electric vehicle charging stations with the
industrial advisor. Upon deliberation, the conclusion ar rived
that, whilst incentives and programs greatly assist in the initial
growth of an industry, continual commercial viability makes it
sustainable. At the moment, there are not enough electric
vehicles to justify investment in widespread charging
installations by indirect beneficiaries. However, if such
installations are not available then the public relations issue of
range anxiety will limit the ability of the industry to expand
beyond light-duty vehicles in commuter patterns. Thus,
particular attention must be paid to the ancillary services the
power electronic components of the stations can provide. This
will justify investment until the customer pool of electric
vehicles is saturated enough to where charging can form its own
viable income stream.
From a policy perspective, the academic advisor stressed that
the Arizona Corporation Commission is looking into this
subject with great vigor and are requesting any valuable input
as to what policies can be shaped within the framework of
commission influence. As commercial markets are shaped
within the policy world, an understanding of the correlation
between policy implementation and resulting market conditions
is essential to answering the problem statement. Thus, the
Arizona Corporation Commission has been determined to be the
most effective target audience for enacting change and, as such,
are the short-term beneficiaries of the project. If effective in
assisting transformation of eventual policy and market
galvanization, the long-term beneficiaries of the project are
electric vehicle owners, commercial investors, and, ideally,
solar developers.
78. Accordingly, the solar industry can benefit from such a study as
states with large solar infrastructure are currently experiencing
issues with cutting off solar installation from grid integration
(otherwise known as curtailment). This is due to an insufficient
amount of load demand during periods of peak solar production
and negates a major benefit of solar installation through net
metering. Thus, the widespread growth of new loads,
particularly during present low demand periods, will only
benefit the health of the industry. IV. SCOPE
The scope of the project is the study of existing and proposed
public utility commission and state legislation initiatives in the
United States. These initiatives, based on specific qualitative
and measurable criteria determined through additional study,
are to be analyzed for their short- and long-term effects on their
respective states. Within specific condition assumptions and
limitations for direct translation, these effects are to be
interpolated within the existing legal framework and
commercial market conditions of the state of Arizona. Such
interpolated effects will be used to measure the change of
behavior of electric vehicles owners and potential energy
industry investors, assisted by first person testimony. This
conclusory data shall be presented as a figure of financial
ramifications and potential electric vehicle charger propagation
figures. How proximate this figure is to projected electric
vehicle purchase data will confirm how well these policy
initiatives will meet the demands of the problem statement.
Additional time and research will be dedicated to how the
growth of the electric vehicle charging industry benefits the
solar industry without forcing a relationship between the two.
This involves understanding the technical components of
electric vehicle chargers by classification, size, and output. In
addition, electric vehicle chargers can be viewed as storage
devices when more storage is required to account for the
limitations of and allow for continual increased solar