1. mtDNA-associated Leigh syndrome affects the brain of afflicted in.pdf
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1. mtDNA-associated Leigh syndrome affects the brain of afflicted individuals and has an infantile onset. NARP (neurogenic muscle weakness, ataxia, and retinitis pigmentosa) has less severe symptoms with an onset in childhood. The same mtDNA mutation can cause both of these diseases. How can these differences in disease presentation, severity, and age of onset be explained for these two diseases? 2. The diploid genome of Drosophila melanogaster is approximately 3.2x10^8 base pairs of DNA. DNA synthesis occurs at approximately 30 bp/second. Calculate the minimum time required to replicate the entire genome if replication were initiated: a. at a single bidirectional origin: b. at 2000 bidirectional origins: Solution 1. Leigh syndrome is cased due to the mutations in both Nuclear or mitochondrial DNA, but NARP is mainly due the mutations in the mitochondrial DNA only. This is the reason for differences in disease presentations in terms of severity and age of onset..
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Mitochondrial disorders
A mitochondrion (singular of mitochondria) is part of every cell in the body that contains genetic material.
Mitochondria are responsible for processing oxygen and converting substances from the foods we eat into energy for essential cell functions.
The mitochondria of the zygote come from the oocyte, that is, from the mother and almost never from the sperm, form of transmission is called maternal inheritance
Which mitochondrial gene is mutated.
The extent of replicative segregation of the mutant mitochondrial genome during the early stages of embryonic development.
The abundance of the mutant mitochondrial gene in a particular tissue.
The threshold level of mutant mitochondrial DNA required in a tissue before an abnormality is evident clinically
Mitochondrial disease affects tissues most highly dependent on ATP production
*Nerves
*Muscles
Endocrine
Kidney
Low energy-requiring tissues are rarely directly affected, but may be secondarily
Lung
Connective tissue
Symptoms can be intermittent
Increased energy demand (illness, exercise)
Decreased energy supply (fasting)
Common feature
myoclonus epilepsy, deafness, blindness, anemia, diabetes, seizures and loss of cerebral blood supply (stroke).
Myoclonic epilepsy and ragged-red fiber disease (MERRF)
MERRF is a member of a group of disorders called mitochondrial encephalomyopathies that feature mitochondrial defects with altered brain and muscle functions.
The term “ragged red fibers” refers to large clumps of abnormal mitochondria that accumulate mostly in muscle cells and are stained red by a dye that is specific for complex II of the electron transport chain.
rare, maternally inherited, heteroplasmic, (point mutation in tRNA lysine gene)
Mutation is MTTK*MERRF8344G.
MT means mitochondrial gene is mutated
T means transfer RNA gene
K means the single-letter amino acid designation for lysine
MERRF means the clinical features
8344G means the mutant nucleotide is guanine (G) at nucleotide position 8344
If 90% of the mitochondria in nerve and muscle cells carry the MTTK*MERRF8344G mutation, then the defining symptoms of MERRF are present.
Maternally inherited mitochondrial disease
The MTTL1*MELAS3243G mutation accounts for more than 80% of the cases of MELAS.
This base substitution is in one of the two mitochondrial transfer RNALeu genes.
the A3243G mutation occurs in thetRNALeu(UUR) gene
When this mutation is present in ≥90% of the mitochondrial DNA of muscle tissue, there is an increased likelihood of recurrent strokes, dementia, epilepsy, and ataxia.
When heteroplasmy for the A3243G mutation
is ~40% to 50%, chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), myopathy, and deafness are likely to occur.
Other MELAS mutations occur at sites 3252, 3271, and 3291 within the tRNALeu(UUR) gene and in the mitochondrial tRNAVal (MTTV) and COX III (MTCO3) genes.
Reduced activities in Complexes I and IV are established
Human cells contain two different types of genes. Most of our genes a.pdf
Human cells contain two different types of genes. Most of our genes are in the nucleus, so they
are present in two copies (diploid) and inherited from both parents. However, we also have a
small number of genes in our mitochondrial DNA, which is effectively haploid and inherited
only from the mother. Based on your understanding of population genetics, would you expect
genetic drift to cause greater fluctuations in allele frequencies for mitochondrial genes or for
nuclear genes? Or should both types of genes be equally affected by genetic drift?
Solution
Answer:
Genetic drift is going to cause “greater fluctuations in allele frequencies for both mitochondrial
genes & for nuclear genes”. This is because according to neutral theory, these fluctuations are
nearly due to the substitutions of synonymous or nonsynonymous mutations. These are finally
resulted from \"conteracting generation time\". Nuclear DNA is mainly inherited from both
mother and father to code for mRNA finally to synthesize proteins required for the entire
organism formations but mitochondrial DNA is merely inherited from mother only because of
mutations in cytoplasmic DNA but father do not pass this inheritance to either males or females.
Nuclear DNA has composed of genetic information and useful to code for mature organism as
per environmental cues. Mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA mutations may induce
mitochondrial diseases result inability of cells to generate energy currency of cells for metabolic
activity in the resultant phenotype.
Recent research has revealed that mtDNA nonsense mutations mainly due to replicative
segregation of heteroplasmic alleles result in bioenergietic lethal defects different from mutations
in nuclear genome. It has profoundly observed that maternal genes have capability to provide
energy organelles with mtDNA. However, high mutation rate during gamete formation in
heteroplasmic alleles responsible for mutant mitochondria due to maternal
inheritance.Mitochondrial genome is circular and double helical similar to nuclear genome and
code for tRNA similar to nuclear genome. Mitochondrial DNA is matrilineal & affected via
genetic drift similar to nuclear genome. Mitochondrial genome has approximately 1100 bases in
which two regions are hypervariable or polymorphic with no genetic code functions exert
variability between human beings. Most of mitochondrial DNA is inherited from material origin
useful to detect crime aspects in forensic science.
mtDNA-associated Leigh syndrome affects the brain of afflicted indiv.pdf
mtDNA-associated Leigh syndrome affects the brain of afflicted individuals and has an infantile
onset. NARP (neurogenic muscle weakness, ataxia, and retinitis pigmentosa) has less severe
symptoms with an onset in childhood. The same mtDNA mutation can cause both of these
diseases. How can these differences in disease presentation, severity, and age of onset be
explained for these two diseases?
Solution
Answer:
Leigh syndrome:
Symptoms are usually observed in infants, some individuals donot develoop symptoms until they
become adult.
1) Severe neurological disorder
2) Psychomotor regression is observed
3) Dysphagia, vomiting and diarrhea are the symptoms observed.
4) involuntary muscle contractions,peripheral neuropathy and ataxia are common in this people.
5) hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
II) NARP (neurogenic muscle weakness, ataxia, and retinitis pigmentosa)
This condition is observed in early childhood
1) It effects nervous system
2) Severe pain in arms and legs
3) Muscle weakness
4) Loss of vision, due to deterioration of retina
5) Dementia, loss in hearing, seizures and cardiac defects.
Recommended
Mitochondrial disorders
A mitochondrion (singular of mitochondria) is part of every cell in the body that contains genetic material.
Mitochondria are responsible for processing oxygen and converting substances from the foods we eat into energy for essential cell functions.
The mitochondria of the zygote come from the oocyte, that is, from the mother and almost never from the sperm, form of transmission is called maternal inheritance
Which mitochondrial gene is mutated.
The extent of replicative segregation of the mutant mitochondrial genome during the early stages of embryonic development.
The abundance of the mutant mitochondrial gene in a particular tissue.
The threshold level of mutant mitochondrial DNA required in a tissue before an abnormality is evident clinically
Mitochondrial disease affects tissues most highly dependent on ATP production
*Nerves
*Muscles
Endocrine
Kidney
Low energy-requiring tissues are rarely directly affected, but may be secondarily
Lung
Connective tissue
Symptoms can be intermittent
Increased energy demand (illness, exercise)
Decreased energy supply (fasting)
Common feature
myoclonus epilepsy, deafness, blindness, anemia, diabetes, seizures and loss of cerebral blood supply (stroke).
Myoclonic epilepsy and ragged-red fiber disease (MERRF)
MERRF is a member of a group of disorders called mitochondrial encephalomyopathies that feature mitochondrial defects with altered brain and muscle functions.
The term “ragged red fibers” refers to large clumps of abnormal mitochondria that accumulate mostly in muscle cells and are stained red by a dye that is specific for complex II of the electron transport chain.
rare, maternally inherited, heteroplasmic, (point mutation in tRNA lysine gene)
Mutation is MTTK*MERRF8344G.
MT means mitochondrial gene is mutated
T means transfer RNA gene
K means the single-letter amino acid designation for lysine
MERRF means the clinical features
8344G means the mutant nucleotide is guanine (G) at nucleotide position 8344
If 90% of the mitochondria in nerve and muscle cells carry the MTTK*MERRF8344G mutation, then the defining symptoms of MERRF are present.
Maternally inherited mitochondrial disease
The MTTL1*MELAS3243G mutation accounts for more than 80% of the cases of MELAS.
This base substitution is in one of the two mitochondrial transfer RNALeu genes.
the A3243G mutation occurs in thetRNALeu(UUR) gene
When this mutation is present in ≥90% of the mitochondrial DNA of muscle tissue, there is an increased likelihood of recurrent strokes, dementia, epilepsy, and ataxia.
When heteroplasmy for the A3243G mutation
is ~40% to 50%, chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), myopathy, and deafness are likely to occur.
Other MELAS mutations occur at sites 3252, 3271, and 3291 within the tRNALeu(UUR) gene and in the mitochondrial tRNAVal (MTTV) and COX III (MTCO3) genes.
Reduced activities in Complexes I and IV are established
Human cells contain two different types of genes. Most of our genes a.pdf
Human cells contain two different types of genes. Most of our genes are in the nucleus, so they
are present in two copies (diploid) and inherited from both parents. However, we also have a
small number of genes in our mitochondrial DNA, which is effectively haploid and inherited
only from the mother. Based on your understanding of population genetics, would you expect
genetic drift to cause greater fluctuations in allele frequencies for mitochondrial genes or for
nuclear genes? Or should both types of genes be equally affected by genetic drift?
Solution
Answer:
Genetic drift is going to cause “greater fluctuations in allele frequencies for both mitochondrial
genes & for nuclear genes”. This is because according to neutral theory, these fluctuations are
nearly due to the substitutions of synonymous or nonsynonymous mutations. These are finally
resulted from \"conteracting generation time\". Nuclear DNA is mainly inherited from both
mother and father to code for mRNA finally to synthesize proteins required for the entire
organism formations but mitochondrial DNA is merely inherited from mother only because of
mutations in cytoplasmic DNA but father do not pass this inheritance to either males or females.
Nuclear DNA has composed of genetic information and useful to code for mature organism as
per environmental cues. Mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA mutations may induce
mitochondrial diseases result inability of cells to generate energy currency of cells for metabolic
activity in the resultant phenotype.
Recent research has revealed that mtDNA nonsense mutations mainly due to replicative
segregation of heteroplasmic alleles result in bioenergietic lethal defects different from mutations
in nuclear genome. It has profoundly observed that maternal genes have capability to provide
energy organelles with mtDNA. However, high mutation rate during gamete formation in
heteroplasmic alleles responsible for mutant mitochondria due to maternal
inheritance.Mitochondrial genome is circular and double helical similar to nuclear genome and
code for tRNA similar to nuclear genome. Mitochondrial DNA is matrilineal & affected via
genetic drift similar to nuclear genome. Mitochondrial genome has approximately 1100 bases in
which two regions are hypervariable or polymorphic with no genetic code functions exert
variability between human beings. Most of mitochondrial DNA is inherited from material origin
useful to detect crime aspects in forensic science.
mtDNA-associated Leigh syndrome affects the brain of afflicted indiv.pdf
mtDNA-associated Leigh syndrome affects the brain of afflicted individuals and has an infantile
onset. NARP (neurogenic muscle weakness, ataxia, and retinitis pigmentosa) has less severe
symptoms with an onset in childhood. The same mtDNA mutation can cause both of these
diseases. How can these differences in disease presentation, severity, and age of onset be
explained for these two diseases?
Solution
Answer:
Leigh syndrome:
Symptoms are usually observed in infants, some individuals donot develoop symptoms until they
become adult.
1) Severe neurological disorder
2) Psychomotor regression is observed
3) Dysphagia, vomiting and diarrhea are the symptoms observed.
4) involuntary muscle contractions,peripheral neuropathy and ataxia are common in this people.
5) hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
II) NARP (neurogenic muscle weakness, ataxia, and retinitis pigmentosa)
This condition is observed in early childhood
1) It effects nervous system
2) Severe pain in arms and legs
3) Muscle weakness
4) Loss of vision, due to deterioration of retina
5) Dementia, loss in hearing, seizures and cardiac defects.
Mitochondrial dna
about genome of mitochondria, dharacteristics, differences between nuclear and mitochondrial dna.
Learning Objectives Block2 1
Learning Objectives for Lectures 24,25, 30&31, 32, 37,38, 40, 43, 44, 45
Genetics in Epilepsy.pptx
This presentation summarises the importance of genetics in epilepsy, whom to test, and the various tests available. It looks at the role of genetics in various forms of epilepsy and recent advances in precision medicine.
Dra. Mary Reilly - 'Neuropatías periféricas hereditarias'
Los días 11 y 12 de diciembre de 2014, la Fundación Ramón Areces celebró el Simposio Internacional 'Neuropatías periféricas hereditarias. Desde la biología a la terapéutica' en colaboración con CIBERER-ISCIII y el Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe. El tipo más común de estas patologías es la enfermedad de Charcot-Marie-Tooth, un trastorno neuromuscular hereditario con una prevalencia estimada de 17-40 afectados por 100.000 habitantes. Durante estos dos días, investigadores mostraron sus avances en la mejora del diagnóstico y el tratamiento y, por ende, de la aproximación clínica y la calidad de vida de las personas afectadas por estas patologías.
Explain in details three of the technological impacts that we must b.pdf
Exercise 2.3.11: Let us prove a stronger version of Theorem 2.3.7. Suppose that {xn} is a
sequences such that every subsequence {xn,} has a subsequence {xnn} that converges to x. a)
First show that {xn} is bounded. b) Now show that {xn} converges to x.
Solution
(a):- Let (X,d) be a metric space. A sequence in X is a function from N to X. If : N X is a
sequence we write (xn), (xn)nN or (x0,x1,...) for , where xn = (n) is the nth term of the sequence
= (x0,x1,...). Sequences in R are called real sequences.
Definition 5.1. A sequence (xn) in X converges to x if for every neighborhood U of x there exists
N N such that xn U for all n N. In this case we write xn x or limn xn = x or limn xn = x. A
sequence (xn) which does not converge is called divergent.
Proposition 5.2. The following are equivalent. (i) limn xn = x. (ii) For every > 0, there is N N
such that xn B(x,) for all n N. (iii) For every > 0, there is N N such that d(xn,x) < for all n N
Proposition 5.3. (i) (Uniqueness of the limit) A sequence cannot have more than one limit. (ii)
(Boundedness) If (xn) converges to x, then there is r > 0 such that xn Br(x). Proof of (ii).
Assume that (xn) converges to x. By (iii) of the previous proposition with = 1, there is N so that
xn B1(x) for all n N. Now take r be any number bigger or equal to d(x1,x),... ,d(xN1,x) and 1.
Then xn Br(x) for all n, as claimed.
(b):- Let (xnk ) be a subsequence of (xn). Take a neighborhood U of x. Since lim xn = x, there is
N N such that xn U for all n N. From the definition of a subsequence, nk k for all k N. So, nk
N for all k N. Thus xnk U for all k N. Hence (xnk ) converges to x as claimed.Let (xnk ) be a
subsequence of (xn). Take a neighborhood U of x. Since lim xn = x, there is N N such that xn U
for all n N. From the definition of a subsequence, nk k for all k N. So, nk N for all k N. Thus
xnk U for all k N. Hence (xnk ) converges to x as claimed..
Describe the shapestructure of lymph nodes. Make a note of where co.pdf
Describe the shape/structure of lymph nodes. Make a note of where concentrations of lymph
nodes are found in the body. (2-3 paragraphs)
Solution
Lymph nodes are kidney or oval shaped and are few millimeters to about 1–2 cm long. Each
lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule,which is composed of dense irregular connective
tissue with some plain collagenous fibers. From, the internal surface of the capsule, arise many
maembranous processes called trabeculae. They pass inward, radiating toward the center of the
node, for about one-third or one-fourth of the space between the circumference and the center of
the lymph node. Inside the capsule, the lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner
medulla. The cortex is continuous around the medulla except where the medulla comes into
direct contact with the hilum.Hilum is the depressed area of the surface of a lymph node through
which the efferent lymphatics emerge from the medulla and through which blood vessels enter
and leave the node.
Actually, main function of the lymph nodes is the filtering of lymph to identify and fight
infection. To do this, lymph nodes contains lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, which
includes B cells and T cells. The lymph node is divided into compartments called lymph nodules
(or lobules) each consisting of a cortical region of combined follicle B cells, a paracortical region
of T cells, and a basal part of the nodule in the medulla.
Lymph is present throughout the body, and circulates through lymphatic vessels. These drain
into and from lymph nodes -- afferent vessels drain into nodes, and efferent vessels from nodes.
When lymph fluid enters a node, it drains into the node just beneath the capsule in a space called
the subcapsular sinus. The subcapsular sinus drains into trabecular sinuses and finally into
medullary sinuses. However, lymph nodes are most dense in the inguinal also called groin (lower
portion of the anterior abdominal wall), axillary (where the arm connects the shoulder) and
cervical regions of the body..
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Learning Objectives for Lectures 24,25, 30&31, 32, 37,38, 40, 43, 44, 45
Genetics in Epilepsy.pptx
This presentation summarises the importance of genetics in epilepsy, whom to test, and the various tests available. It looks at the role of genetics in various forms of epilepsy and recent advances in precision medicine.
Dra. Mary Reilly - 'Neuropatías periféricas hereditarias'
Los días 11 y 12 de diciembre de 2014, la Fundación Ramón Areces celebró el Simposio Internacional 'Neuropatías periféricas hereditarias. Desde la biología a la terapéutica' en colaboración con CIBERER-ISCIII y el Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe. El tipo más común de estas patologías es la enfermedad de Charcot-Marie-Tooth, un trastorno neuromuscular hereditario con una prevalencia estimada de 17-40 afectados por 100.000 habitantes. Durante estos dos días, investigadores mostraron sus avances en la mejora del diagnóstico y el tratamiento y, por ende, de la aproximación clínica y la calidad de vida de las personas afectadas por estas patologías.
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Explain in details three of the technological impacts that we must b.pdf
Exercise 2.3.11: Let us prove a stronger version of Theorem 2.3.7. Suppose that {xn} is a
sequences such that every subsequence {xn,} has a subsequence {xnn} that converges to x. a)
First show that {xn} is bounded. b) Now show that {xn} converges to x.
Solution
(a):- Let (X,d) be a metric space. A sequence in X is a function from N to X. If : N X is a
sequence we write (xn), (xn)nN or (x0,x1,...) for , where xn = (n) is the nth term of the sequence
= (x0,x1,...). Sequences in R are called real sequences.
Definition 5.1. A sequence (xn) in X converges to x if for every neighborhood U of x there exists
N N such that xn U for all n N. In this case we write xn x or limn xn = x or limn xn = x. A
sequence (xn) which does not converge is called divergent.
Proposition 5.2. The following are equivalent. (i) limn xn = x. (ii) For every > 0, there is N N
such that xn B(x,) for all n N. (iii) For every > 0, there is N N such that d(xn,x) < for all n N
Proposition 5.3. (i) (Uniqueness of the limit) A sequence cannot have more than one limit. (ii)
(Boundedness) If (xn) converges to x, then there is r > 0 such that xn Br(x). Proof of (ii).
Assume that (xn) converges to x. By (iii) of the previous proposition with = 1, there is N so that
xn B1(x) for all n N. Now take r be any number bigger or equal to d(x1,x),... ,d(xN1,x) and 1.
Then xn Br(x) for all n, as claimed.
(b):- Let (xnk ) be a subsequence of (xn). Take a neighborhood U of x. Since lim xn = x, there is
N N such that xn U for all n N. From the definition of a subsequence, nk k for all k N. So, nk
N for all k N. Thus xnk U for all k N. Hence (xnk ) converges to x as claimed.Let (xnk ) be a
subsequence of (xn). Take a neighborhood U of x. Since lim xn = x, there is N N such that xn U
for all n N. From the definition of a subsequence, nk k for all k N. So, nk N for all k N. Thus
xnk U for all k N. Hence (xnk ) converges to x as claimed..
Describe the shapestructure of lymph nodes. Make a note of where co.pdf
Describe the shape/structure of lymph nodes. Make a note of where concentrations of lymph
nodes are found in the body. (2-3 paragraphs)
Solution
Lymph nodes are kidney or oval shaped and are few millimeters to about 1–2 cm long. Each
lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule,which is composed of dense irregular connective
tissue with some plain collagenous fibers. From, the internal surface of the capsule, arise many
maembranous processes called trabeculae. They pass inward, radiating toward the center of the
node, for about one-third or one-fourth of the space between the circumference and the center of
the lymph node. Inside the capsule, the lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner
medulla. The cortex is continuous around the medulla except where the medulla comes into
direct contact with the hilum.Hilum is the depressed area of the surface of a lymph node through
which the efferent lymphatics emerge from the medulla and through which blood vessels enter
and leave the node.
Actually, main function of the lymph nodes is the filtering of lymph to identify and fight
infection. To do this, lymph nodes contains lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, which
includes B cells and T cells. The lymph node is divided into compartments called lymph nodules
(or lobules) each consisting of a cortical region of combined follicle B cells, a paracortical region
of T cells, and a basal part of the nodule in the medulla.
Lymph is present throughout the body, and circulates through lymphatic vessels. These drain
into and from lymph nodes -- afferent vessels drain into nodes, and efferent vessels from nodes.
When lymph fluid enters a node, it drains into the node just beneath the capsule in a space called
the subcapsular sinus. The subcapsular sinus drains into trabecular sinuses and finally into
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Describe fin placement as it relates to the maintenance of position i.pdf
Describe fin placement as it relates to the maintenance of position in the H_2 0 column and
shark locomotion. How many gill slits are present? Compare with that of the lamprey. What
have the \"missing\" gill arches become? Look at the jaw. How does this differ from other
fishes? What benefits might be gained by this style jaw attachment? (You will need to look at
figures in text/powerpoint to answer this). On the front bench there was a shark jaw (from a
different species). Approximately how many rows of teeth did it have? How often do sharks
replace their teeth? Draw the heterocercal caudal fin. Do the vertebrae extend into the tail? How
would you \"age\" a shark? (two ways) How variable are these methods/what are the caveats for
using them? How would you determine the sex of a shark based solely on external
investigation? Was your shark male or female? Briefly describe the gonads and presence/absence
of claspers, testes, ovaries, eggs or developing young. Are spiny dogfish oviparous or
viviparous? What is the significance of the Ampullae of Lorenzini? Where are they located?
Sketch the structure. What is their function?
Solution
2. Describe fin placement as it relates to the maintenance of position in the H2o column and
shark locomotion?
Answer:
Sharks have two sets of paired fins on the sides of their body and they can position these fins at
different angles, changing the path of the water moving around them. When the shark tilts a fin
up, the water flows so there is greater pressure below the fin than above it. This creates upward
lift. When the shark tilts the fin down, there is greater pressure above the fin than below it. This
pushes the shark downward. The shark also has one or two vertical dorsal fins on its back and
sometimes a vertical anal fin on its underside. They help the shark keep its balance as it moves
through the water and they can be moved from side to side to turn the shark left and right. By
theses fin arrangements, sharks can cruise at high speeds, stop suddenly and make sharp turns in
every direction..
Database Management Systema. What are the 2 valid reasons to form.pdf
Database Management System:
a. What are the 2 valid reasons to form subsets in an EER diagram?
b. What is a defining predicate and where is it placed on an EER diagram?
Solution
more advantageous-ER (EER) version concepts
The EER version introduce the extra ideas of subclasses, superclasses, specialization
generalization, characteristic inheritance. The ensuing model is called the improved-ER or
prolonged ER version. it\'s miles used to model programs greater absolutely and accurately if
wanted. It consists of some item-oriented ideas, which includes inheritance .
14
2. Subclasses and Superclasses
An entity type may additionally have additional meaningful subgroupings of its entities
3. example: worker may be in addition grouped into SECRETARY, ENGINEER, supervisor,
TECHNICIAN, SALARIED_EMPLOYEE, HOURLY_EMPLOYEE,…
4. every of these groupings is a subset of employee entities
5. each is known as a subclass of worker.
Compare and Discuss the Differences between Jean Piaget’s Stages of .pdf
Compare and Discuss the Differences between Jean Piaget’s Stages of Development and Erik
Erickson’s. Which theory do you believe is more closely associated with your own beliefs.
***PSYCHOLOGY
Solution
Development psychology has undergone many changes since the beginning of the 20th century.
Most early theorists influenced the field of psychology significantly. Notable theorist whose
impact determines child psychology and early childhood education are Jean Piaget and Erik
Erikson
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
The theory proposed by Piaget focuses on the various stages of a child where transition from one
stage to the other follows a sequence. He developed the stages with key ideas as his building
blocks. It is necessary to look into the concepts that form the bases of his theory. Firstly is the
issue of schemata that he conceptualized as the mental structure that represents the world.
Through the learning process, children change their schemata by adapting, due to assimilation
and accommodation. Assimilation adds new information to the existing schemata while
adaptation modifies new information into the schemata. Ideally, there is balance between
assimilation and accommodation to ensure equilibrium.
From the above ideas, he developed the four stages through observation of children. He believed
all children passed through the stages sequentially throughout their lifetime. The stages are
divided based on age and abilities accompanying them. He divided the stages into four.
Sensorimotor stage: This represents the period from infancy and up to two years of age. At this
period, movement and application of senses takes place. Additionally, mental images begin to
form while images of objects remain engrained in the child’s mind.
Preoperational period: It takes place between two and seven years where symbolic thoughts
develop. Reasoning is nonetheless shallow. Measurement abilities are equally low even when
features of objects change.
Concrete stage: Children between the ages of seven to eleven learn to reason and perform mental
problems on numbers; the children also look into problems from different perspectives and can
reverse activities mentally.
Formal operation stage: It occurs from eleven years of age to adulthood. Abstract thinking takes
center stage. Similarly, in this stage hypothesis formation and deduced reasoning become easier
to understand.
Eric Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
He developed his theory much later than Piaget did, but he also dealt in development with eight
unique stages across the life of a person. New hurdles characterized each stage; the way the
person deals with hurdles at a stage determines the aftermath. Consequently, naming of the
stages occurred with the likely outcomes in mind. The stages include:
Trust vs. mistrust: Occurs in children below the age of one. The theory posits that, in this stage,
the infant is totally dependent on parents and caregivers. Thus, trust is established when the
inf.
Chapter 11, Q2What types of products might not benefit from ID in.pdf
Chapter 11, Q2:
What types of products might not benefit from ID involvement in the development process?
Solution
ID involvement in development process are not beneficial to certain products which are-
1)Work Scheduling - Process layout is hampered by using industrial design because there is
unnecessary movement of product from one workstation to other and thus have negative impact
on production time.
2) Product Quality - Due to improper work scheduling the product has to tavel unnecessary and
through many workstation which involve different workers thus product is passing through many
hands before reaching final stage thus possibility of damage could occur. Also if there is any
flaw in any design now this flaw is noticed at the end till the product is finished.
3) Equipment Use - Although assembly line production has advantages in saving time and
money yet a disadvantage result in equipment down time for repairs or installment hence the
production line stops involving wastage of time and huge cost in repairs.
4) Available Space - The space required for manufacturing process or to store the product
decreases due to industrial design hence extra space is required for storing the products which
involves transportation cost or an unecessarily rent of a warehouse for storing the inventory or
both may be required..
C++ Find the largest complex number in an array using recursive met.pdf
C++: Find the largest complex number in an array using recursive method. The largest number is
the one who has the largest (real)*(real) + (img)*(img)
Solution
#include
using namespace std;
class Complex
{
public:
float real;
float img;
Complex()
{
real = img = 0.0;
}
Complex(float real,float img)
{
this->real = real;
this->img = img;
}
};
void findLargest(Complex arr[],int size,Complex &max)
{
if(size==0)
return;
else
{
float val = arr[size-1].real*arr[size-1].real+arr[size-1].img*arr[size-1].img;
float maxval = max.real*max.real+max.img*max.img;
if(val>maxval)
max = arr[size];
return findLargest(arr,size-1,max);
}
}
int main() {
// your code goes here
Complex c1(4,4);
Complex c2(5,5);
Complex arr[2];
arr[0] = c1;
arr[1] = c2;
Complex max;
findLargest(arr,2,max);
cout << \"Max complex number is : \" << max.real << \" + i\"<< max.img;
return 0;
}.
Based on the human pedigree below, determine if the disease condition.pdf
Based on the human pedigree below, determine if the disease condition is caused by a recessive
or a dominant allele. What other pattern of inheritance is evident from the pedigree?
Solution
It is sex linked recessive trait
1. it is skiping genration that menas it is a recessive trait.
2. and its occured only in male indicating the trait is sex linked..
Background(Need help with problem in photo)Methanol is produced.pdf
Background:
(Need help with problem in photo)
Methanol is produced by fruit during the ripening process. The major source of this methanol is
likely to be from the enzyme pectin methylesterase (PME) which acts upon pectin methyl esters
to de-esterify them and produce methanol and other pectic substances. One might assume that
the production of methanol is correlated with PME activity, but this has not been firmly
established. In this case, the investigators at the Plant Science Department at Rutgers University
developed a transgenic tomato which was deficient in PME activity. By comparing the behavior
of the transgenic tomato with the wild type tomato, the production of methanol in the ripening
tomato fruit may be better understood. 5. In order to understand the mechanism for ethanol
production, the investigators measured the activity of the alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) enzyme
in both the wild type and transgenic tomatoes at each stage of the fruit-ripening process. The
results are shown in Figure 12.4. What factor or factors might influence ADH activity in the
ripening tomato? 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 Developmental Stage Figure 12.4: Alcohol dehydrogenase
activity in ripening wild-type and transgenic tomato fruit (based on Frenkel, et al., 1998).
Solution
Answer:
Here, methanol may regulate ethanol metabolism in ripening fruits. The decline in methanol may
have caused metabolic conditions for accumulation of ethanol in the PME antisense tissue. An
increase in ADH activity during tomato fruit ripening suggests that the capacity of fruit tissue for
alcoholic fermentation is not a limitation to the production of ethanol.
ADH-catalyzed reduction of acetaldehyde to ethanol is the only known pathway for ethanol
biosynthesis and thus may be a putative target for methanol regulated ethanol production. The
figure supports the hypothesis that methanol is an inhibitor in vivo since the transgenic fruit had
an overall higher ADH activity than did the wild-type fruit indicating that methanol does
possibly regulate ADH.
Also, there are indications that the ADH activity in the PME antisense pericarp was overall
higher than in the fruit tissue of wild-type fruit suggesting that ADH activity in the mutant was
not a limitation to the enzyme catalyzed conversion of acetaldehyde to ethanol..
write a task statement from the list below1. organise and maintain.pdf
Why do only some of the plant cells exposed to a particular [hormone] respond?
Solution
hormones present in the plants act as growth regulators. in plants hormones acta s signal
producers which target to a particular region and helps in the growth of that particular regoin.
hormones are produced in small quantities in one part and then they transfer to the targeted
region and acts accordingly in that region and hence help in the development of the plant of that
particualr region. hence plant cells exposed to hormones respond diffrently. this process takes
place through signaling pathways.
eg:the hormones that are involves in the growth of the plant are auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins,
brassinosteroids and oligosaccharides, ethylene and abscisic acid.
-auxin helps in stem elongation, formation of roots
-cytokinins help in stimulation of cell division but only along with the presence of auxin
-gibberellins help in stimulatipn of enzyme production in germinating seeds
-brassinosteroids helps auxins and cytokinins functioning
-oligosaccharides helps in pathogen defence
-ethylene helps in control of leaf,flower and fruit abscission and also in fruit ripening
-abscisic acis helps in the inhibition of bud growth.
Why is it so important that the CPU be allowed to do other tasks whil.pdf
Which is more likely: rolling a total of 9 when two dice are rolled or rolling a total of 9 when
three dice are rolled?
Solution
Answer :
First we have to determine the probability of two die summing to 9. I began by calculating the
sample space. There are 6 * 6 different ways the two die could sum. Now to figure out how
many of those ways sum to 9.
The favourable out comes are ( 3 , 6 ) , ( 6, 3 ) , ( 5 , 4 ) , ( 4 , 5 )
So the probability of rolling two dice which sum to 9 is 4/62 = 4/36 =1/9
, while rolling a 9 with three dice has the probability is [ 8C2 – 3]/63 = 25/216 which is greater
Computing the probabilities I found that 25/216 > 1/9 .
Therefore , Therefore, it is more likely with 3 dice..
What test do I use when checking for significance between two variab.pdf
What does the thyroid gland do for the body? CITE REFERENCES
Solution
The Thyroid gland secretes hormones and plays an important role in metabolism, growth and
maturation of the human body. Thyroid produces the following hormones-
Thyroid gland takes iodine, found in many foods, and convert it into thyroid hormones:thyroxine
(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid cells are the only cells in the body which can absorb
iodine. These cells combine iodine and the amino acidtyrosine to make T3 and T4. T3 and T4 are
then released into the blood stream and are transported throughout the body where they convert
oxygen and calories to energy. Every cell in the body depends upon thyroid hormones for
regulation of their metabolism. The thyroid gland is under the control of the pituitary gland, a
small gland the size of a peanut at the base of the brain (shown here in orange). When the level
of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) is lower than usual, the pituitary gland produces Thyroid
Stimulating Hormone (TSH) which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce more hormones.
Under the influence of TSH, the thyroid will manufacture and secrete T3 and T4 thereby raising
their blood levels.
.Calcitonin is involved in calcium and bone metabolism.calcitonin protects against calcium loss
from skeleton during periods of calcium mobilization, such as pregnancy and, especially,
lactation. It acts to reduce blood calcium (Ca2+).It lowers blood Ca2+levels in two ways:
References:
Costoff A. \"Sect. 5, Ch. 6: Effects of CT on Bone\". Medical College of Georgia. Archived from
the original on June 22, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-07
Rhoades R (2009).Medical Physiology: Principles for Clinical Medicine. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-6852-8..
What is the very beginning of an frame called Header Data Tr.pdf
what are the characteristics of the various types of leukemia
Solution
Acute myeloid leukemia : In this type of leukemia, bone marrow makes immature blast cells
which do not develop into white blood cells and therefore are not able to ward off infections.
There are 8 subtypes of this form of leukemia depending upon the cells from which the leukemia
has developed i.e, Myeloblastic M0, Myeloblastic M1, Myeloblastic M2, Promyelocytic M3,
Myelomonocytic M4, Monocytic M5, Erythroleukemia M6, Megakaryocytic M7.
Chronic myelogenous leukemia : It affects bone marrow and blood. It begins in the blood
forming cells of the bone marrow and eventually spreads to blood and rest of the body parts. It is
caused due to translocation between two chromosomes i.e chromosome 9 and 22. It progresses
slowly.
Acute lymphocytic leukemia: Here, abnormal blood cells accumulate in the bone marrow. It
progresses rapidly and these leukemia cells are carried in the blood stream and are transported to
testes,liver, spleen etc. number of B cells increase than T cells. It usually occurs below the age of
15 and above the age of 45. Adult cases of this type of leukemia is rare.
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia : It occurs in the lymphocytes in bone marrow and grows slowly
and reaches other organs through blood. Normal blood cells are replaced and occupied by these
cells which makes it difficult for the body to fight infections. It takes several years before it
becomes serious..
6. What types of epithelia would be suited for the following functio.pdf
6. What types of epithelia would be suited for the following functions? Explain why.
a. Resistance to abrasive forces in areas such as the epidermis, oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
anal canal, and vaginal canal.
b. Transport of substances across the epithelial sheet in areas where rapid exchange occurs, such
as with capillaries and alveoli, and where secretion and absorption occurs, such as with the
gastrointestinal tract.
c. Trapping and removal of particulates that have been inhaled into the respiratory passages (e.g.
trachea and bronchi).
Solution
Epithelial cells are composed of one or more layers of closely packed cells and will have little or
no extracellular matrix between them. These cells forms covering on body surface or lining of
body cavities and majority of glands.
a
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
These cells always remain alive way to the tissue\'s apical surface and will be maintained moist
with secretions such as saliva or mucus.
Keratin is absent here and no this layer will not be tough and non-keratinized. Here the flattened
nuclei you can see throughout the tissues as all cells are alive.
These cells are found forming lining of the oral cavity (mouth), the esophagus, part of the
pharynx (throat), the vagina, and the anus.
b
Simple Squamous Epithelium
It consist of a single layer of flattened cells and are irregular in shape and has a spherical to oval
nucleus. They are tightly bound together in a mosaic-like pattern. These cells will look like a
fried egg, with the nucleus representing the yolk. Like this, this epithelium will form an
extremely delicate and highly specialized lining so that rapid movement of molecules across its
surface by filtration, osmosis, or diffusion can take place. This also prevents friction and
abrasion and this epithelium found to be forming the lining of the lung air sacs (alveoli) allows
the gas exchange and also found in lumen of blood vessels allowing exchange of nutrients and
waste between the blood and the interstitial fluid.
c
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
On the apical surface of these cells, we can find cilia. Like this they form houses goblet cells and
these cells are specialized to secrete mucin, this will help in hydrating the mucus, and thus they
can trap foreign particles and is moved by the beating cilia. These type of cells are found air
passageways of the respiratory system (part of the pharynx, the nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, and
bronchi)
a
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
These cells always remain alive way to the tissue\'s apical surface and will be maintained moist
with secretions such as saliva or mucus.
Keratin is absent here and no this layer will not be tough and non-keratinized. Here the
flattened nuclei you can see throughout the tissues as all cells are alive.
These cells are found forming lining of the oral cavity (mouth), the esophagus, part of the
pharynx (throat), the vagina, and the anus.
b
Simple Squamous Epithelium.
What is an autotrophic bacteriumSolutionAutotrophic Bacteria.pdf
Using these axioms:
Prove: We will assume the existence of a set Z, whose elements are called integers, along with a
well-defined binary operation on Z (called addition), a second well-defined binary operation on
Z (called multiplication), and a relation on Z (called less than), and that the following fourteen
statements involving Z, and are true A1. For all a, b, c in Z, (a b) c a (b c). A2. There exists a
unique integer 0 in Z such that a 0 0-+ a a for every integer a. A3. For every a in Z, there exists a
unique integer a in Z such that a (-a) (-a) A4. For all a, b in Z, a b b a M1. For all a, b, c in Z, (a
b) c a (b. c) M2. There exists a unique integer 1 in Z such that a 1 1. a a for all a in Z M4. For all
a, b in Z, a b b. a. D1. For all a, b, c in Z, a (b c) a .b+a c. NT1. 1 0. 01. For all a in Z, exactly one
of the following statements is true: 0 a, a 0,0 -a. O2. For all a, b in Z, if 0 a and 0 b, then 0 a b
O3. For all a, b in Z, if 0 a and 0 b, then 0 a b
Solution
Let \'a\' be an integer
Suppose \'a\' be the multiplicative inverse of 0.
then a.0=1
implies a=1/0 this is not an integer.
1. (1) Use the command to display the contents of a file one page at.pdf
1. (1) Use the command to display the contents of a file one page at a time.
Solution
1.
The more command is a pager function used to view text in the visual display unit window one
page or screen at a time
Syntax : $ more file_name
For example:
If we want to see the content of syslog file located in log directory ie, /var/log/directory we use
$more /var/log/syslog
2.
Since ‘.’ Refers to the home directory the command used is
./hello.sh
Or
By giving the execute permissions to the script
chmod +x /path/to/hello.sh
and to run command is /path/to/hello.sh.
Short questions The access time of memory is the time required for p.pdf
QUESTION:
Milrinone is a commonly used small molecule that has been show to inhibit a liverisoform of
cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. The use of this molecule in cellularculture has been shown
to increase hepatocyte glucose production (among other things).Given this information answer
the following questions: a. What does the phosphodiesterase do in a typical hepatocyte (2
points)?
b. Explain how it’s (the phosphodiester) inhibition will alter glucagon signaling (2
points)?
c. Will Milrinone use increase or decrease F26BP levels in the cell (1 points)? Why(2 points)?
d. Finally explain how Milrinone leads to increased glucose output (2 points).
*This is a question related to the Metabolism biochemistry.
Solution
a) cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases degrade the phosphodiester bond in secondary
messenger molecules such as cAMP and cGMP. cAMP causes activation of protein kinase A
which stimulates gluconeogenesis resulting in glucose from glycogen.
glucagon stimulates the production of cAMP from ATP by adenylyl cyclase, which causes
activation of protein kinase A. Four molecules of cAMP are required to activate PKA as PKA
consists of 2 catalytic and 2 regulatory subunits. The regulatory subunits bind to 2 cAMP
molecules and bring a conformational change which allows them to move apart from the
catalytic subunits making them free to phosphorylate proteins. This reaction is regulated by
feedback mechanism using phosphodiesterase. whenever cAMP levels are high, they are
converted to AMP reducing the PKA activity.
b) if PDE is inhibited by milrinone, glucagon signalling gets altered with increased PKA activity
as the feedback regulation by PDE is inhibited, therefore protein kinase A activity will be high.
PKA activates phosphorylase kinase which phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase b to form
glycogen phosphorylase a which helps in the breakdown of glycogen to glu-1P. it phosphorylates
PFK2 domain and inactivates it thereby activating FBPase2 which is a bifunctional enzyme.
Phosphorylation at serine position activates the Fructose2,6bisphosphatse converting F26BP to
fru-6-P, the primary step in glycolysis, thereby slowing the glycolysis and dominating the
gluconeogenesis.
c) as milrinone use increases cAMP levels, there will be a decrease in F26BP in the cell as
FBPase gets activated by PKA thereby inhibiting glycolysis.
d) there is an increase in the breakdown pathways such as glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis and
pathways such as glycolysis and glycogenesis are inhibited by protein kinase A by a glucagon
epinephrine mechanisms. the feedback mechanisms are lost by the use of milrinone so there is
more glucose output..
Red-green color blindness is a human X-linked recessive disorder. A y.pdf
Put the following events in the correct order: 1) Synaptic vesicles fuse with the presynaptic
membrane 2) Synaptotagmin changes its three-dimensional configuration 3) Neurotransmitter
bind to receptors 4) Calcium enters the presynaptic cell through voltage-gated calcium channels
5) Action potential changes voltage in the presynaptic cell
Solution
5. Action potential reaches presynaptic cell and changes it\'s voltage.
4. Calcium gates in the membrane opens up and calculus influx starts in the axon.
2. Synaptotagmin changes it\'s three dimensional configuration. This chemical is important for
docking of early synaptic vesicles to the presynaptic membrane.
1. Vesicle containing neurotransmitter substances fuse with synaptic membrane.
3. Neurotransmitter diffuses across the membrane and binds to specific receptor proteins.
So correct order is 5-4-2-1-3..
Question 1- what secondary storage devices are appropriate ... Save.pdf
President Barack Obama\'s quest to raise the federal minumum wage to $10.10 an hour would
eliminate about 500,000 jobs by 2016 but increase pay for millions of American\'s and lift nearly
a million out of poverty, a Congressional Budget Office report found. Analyze the labor market
with a minimum wage of $10.10 per hour. Show the shift of supply and/or demand curves and
explain why the curve(s) shifted.
Solution
Wages is the price paid by business sector for using labor service. Laborers are supplying labor
and producers are creating demand. Supply of labor is directly related with it price. If wages is
rising, then income of the people will rise. Here wage rise by $10.10 is raising the income of the
people. As a result about million of people is moving above the poverty line. This increase in
income will increase consumption demand. They will now spend a portion of their extra income
for additional consumption. So demand of commodities will rise. Thus demand of commodity in
the commodity market will rise. In factors market, due to higher wages more laborers are now
ready to do the job. So supply of labor will rise. It will shift supply curve of labor to the right.
Now consider demand created by manufacturer. Due to rise in wage rate, cost of production is
going up. So profit will decrease. It will reduce the demand for labor. In the problem it has been
mentioned that 500,000 jobs will be eliminated. So the demand curve of labor will shift to the
left. In commodity market, due to loss of jobs by 5 lakh laborers, demand of commodities will
drop.
Now consider the combined effect. Here 5 lakh jobs are lost but one million people are moving
out of poverty. Although more workers are available for the job, the emplyment will fall due to
decrease in demand. It is short run effect. In long run average wages will decrease although
minimum wage is maintained as perdecision of federal. Also due to increase in commodity
demand manufacturer will increase the production. So demand of laborers in the long run will
rise by lowering average wage rate. Ultimately employment will rise from L1 to L2 as shown
below with lowr average wage rate.
In commodity market, increase in demand due to rise in minimum wage rate will be more than
decrease in commodity demand due to loss of employment. Net effect will be a rise in price of
commodity. It will induce producers to produce more in the long run to satisfy increased
demand.
Conclusion: In labor market, supply of labor will rise and demand of labor will fall. So demand
curve will shift to the left and supply curve to the right.
In commodity market demand of commodity will rise in short run. Supply of commodity will
drop due to elimination of 5 lakh jobs. So price of commodity will move up..
Mnemonics are useful memory aids. Construct a mnemonic for the five .pdf
Let X be a topological space and let AcX. Then The interior of A, denoted A, is the union of all
open sets contained in A The closure of A, denoted A, is the intersection of all closed sets
containing A. The boundary of A, denoted A, is the intersection Anx-A Observe that ACACA
Solution
As A is contained in X,
Consider all open sets contained in A
Then union of all open sets contained in A denoted by A0, is always the interior of A
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If A\' denote a closed set in A
Consider the intersection al all such closed sets
Then they will end up in the boundary of set of A
Hence closure of A is the intersection of all closed sets containing A
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The boundary of A is the common line between A and A completment.
Or A and X-A
Hence A\' the closed set of A and (X-A)\' the closed set of complement of A intersect in the
boundary..
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