1 Livestock Industry Overviews Assignment ANEQ 103

1
Livestock Industry Overviews Assignment
ANEQ 103
After reading Chapter two in your textbook, pick two of the
different main livestock industries
(beef, dairy, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, or poultry) mentioned in
the chapter. These should be
industries you would like to learn more about.
The purpose of this assignment is to use and expand the
knowledge you gained through this
module’s reading, lecture, and videos. Reference the associated
Grading Rubric for guidance on
generating a quality paper.
PART 1: This portion of the assignment will consist of two-to-
three pages total. It should not
exceed three pages. Please give industry overview s of the two
industries you have chosen to
examine. DO NOT simply reiterate what is in the textbook.
Including information that is
presented in the textbook will be beneficial to your overviews,

but should not make up their
entirety. Additional research using credible sources is required.
You must have at least three
sources with correct citations. I have included a list of credible
sources below; use them as you
see fit. If you choose to cite iCEV videos, please make sure to
cite them in the correct APA
format. Required topics to cover (though you may include
others) in this part of the assignment
are as follows:
• Species, type, two-to-three breeds
• Demographics (number of producers, animal inventory,
volume of cash receipts,
geographic differences, etc.)
• Productivity statistics
• Primary outputs (products)
• Basic stages of production
• Industry characteristics
• Marketing of products
PART 2: This part of the assignment should be one-to-two
pages total. It should not exceed
two pages. After completing Part 1, compare the two industries

by stating their differences and
similarities. If using a diagram will help you with this portion,
please attach it in an appendix. In
this part of the assignment, you are required to have at least 12
points and/or statements total
about each industry.
Format: Please follow APA format outlined in “APA Checklist”
document linked in the
assignment dropbox. Make sure you have sub-headings (Level
One) for Part 1 and Part 2. Please
2
make sure your assignment and headers are 12-point Times New
Roman font and is double
spaced.
Total Page Count: This assignment should be a minimum of four
pages and not more than
five pages total when complete (not including reference page or
appendices).
• Part 1: two-to-three pages
• Part 2: one-to-two pages
Credible Sources:

• United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)—National
Agricultural Statistics Service
(Provides numbers and demographics for specific industries)
• CSU Libraries – You must login with your CSU student ID.
Reference OFF-CAMPUS
ACCESS as needed.
o A-Z DATABASES
o Web of Science
• Google Scholar
• PubMed
(Another database that houses many scientific articles. Try
searching terms like “dairy
industry,” “goat production in the U.S.,” etc.)
• Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects
(Published article on livestock production trends)
• National Cattleman’s Beef Association, Colorado Pork
Producers, Dairy Management,
Inc., etc.

(Different commodity groups will have useful information on
their websites)
https://www.nass.usda.gov/
https://lib.colostate.edu/technology/off-campus-access/
https://lib.colostate.edu/technology/off-campus-access/
https://libguides.colostate.edu/az.php
http://apps.webofknowledge.com/WOS_GeneralSearch_input.do
?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&SID=6DUYEaI6
KkfrGtObfDe&preferencesSaved=
https://scholar.google.com/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC2935116/
Dairy Products and Health: Recent Insights
Michael H. Tunick* and Diane L. Van Hekken
Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, Eastern Regional
Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S.
Department of
Agriculture, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania
19038, United States
ABSTRACT: Milk, cheese, yogurt, and other dairy products
have long been known to provide good nutrition. Major
healthful
contributors to the diets of many people include the protein,
minerals, vitamins, and fatty acids present in milk. Recent
studies
have shown that consumption of dairy products appears to be
beneficial in muscle building, lowering blood pressure and low -
density lipoprotein cholesterol, and preventing tooth decay,
diabetes, cancer, and obesity. Additional benefits might be

provided
by organic milk and by probiotic microorganisms using milk
products as a vehicle. New research on dairy products and
nutrition
will improve our understanding of the connections between
these products, the bioactive compounds in them, and their
effects
on the human body.
KEYWORDS: dairy, health, nutrition
■ INTRODUCTION
Dairy products have long been advertised as being excellent
sources of nutrition, and a large segment of the U.S. population
consumes them as a part of a well-balanced diet. Recent
investigations have suggested benefits from dairy products
beyond the classic “building strong bones”. Some components
in milk and milk products play roles that were not imagined just
one or two generations ago, such as benefits to gastrointestinal
health and the immune system.1 These advantageous effects
arise from the proteins, minerals, vitamins, lipids, and
carbohydrates in dairy products, the amounts of which have
been tabulated by the USDA2 and are compared in Table 1.
Earlier perceptions of dairy products being harmful to health
are no longer supported by the evidence. The most-cited
general review in the past 10 years that highlighted the
advantages conveyed by dairy products was by Huth et al.3 The
review was written in 2005, and much has been accomplished
since then. This paper will cover more recent findings
concerning the contributions to human health of the
components in milk and products derived from milk. Using
milk to deliver bioactive compounds will also be discussed, as
will differences between organic milk and milk from herds
under conventional management.

■ PROTEIN
About 80% of the protein in milk consists of αs1-, αs2-, β-, and
κ-
caseins, and about 20% is classified as whey protein, which is
mostly α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, and serum albumin. Milk
fat globule membrane (MFGM) protein represents a small
percentage and is described under Lipids below. The Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has recom-
mended a new assessment method that ranks proteins based on
the bioavailability of their amino acids, and milk protein scores
high on their list.4 The Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid
Score reveals that the true digestibility values of milk protein
(95%) and of casein alone (94.1%) are higher than those of soy,
pea, wheat, lupin, and rapeseed proteins (84−91.5%).4 A
number of milk-derived peptides have been found to be
bioactive and have been added to commercial products such as
Special Issue: 1st ACS-AGFD and ACS-Thailand Chapter Joint
Symposium
Received: September 3, 2014
Revised: November 5, 2014
Accepted: November 13, 2014
Published: November 13, 2014
Table 1. Constituents of Milk, Cheddar Cheese, and Yogurt2
milk, 3.25% fat,
vitamin D added
Cheddar
cheese
yogurt, plain
low-fat

proximates (g/100 g)
protein 3.15 24.90 5.25
lipid 3.25 33.14 1.55
carbohydrate 4.80 1.28 7.04
minerals (mg/100 g)
calcium 113 721 183
copper 0.025 0.031 0.013
iron 0.03 0.68 0.08
magnesium 10 28 17
manganese 0.004 0.010 0.004
phosphorus 84 512 144
potassium 132 98 234
selenium 0.0037 0.0014 0.0031
sodium 43 621 70
zinc 0.37 3.11 1.51
vitamins (μg/100 g)
A 46 265 14
B1 (thiamin) 46 27 44
B2 (riboflavin) 169 375 214
B3 (niacin) 89 80 114
B6 (pyridoxine) 36 74 49
B9 (folate) 5 18 11
B12 (cobalamin) 0.45 0.83 0.56
C 0 0 0.8
D 1.3 0.6 0
E 70 290 30
K1 0.3 2.8 0.2
Review
pubs.acs.org/JAFC
This article not subject to U.S. Copyright.
Published 2014 by the American Chemical

Society
9381 dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf5042454 | J. Agric. Food Chem.
2015, 63, 9381−9388
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soft drinks.5 Most of these products are not available in the
United States. The benefits of dairy proteins are described
below.
Building and Maintaining Muscle Mass. Over one-third
of those who exercise say they seek out products that contain
protein to help build and maintain strong, healthy muscles.6 Of
the amino acids in whey protein, 26% are of the branched-chain
variety (notably leucine), which have been identified in building
muscle mass.6 The amino acid composition of whey proteins is
quite similar to that of skeletal muscle, making whey an
effective anabolic supplement.6 People who are interested in
physical fitness often supplement their diet with whey protein
concentrate (containing <90% protein) or isolate (at least 90%
protein).
Whey protein powders are obtained from cheesemaking,
which generates on average 10 kg of liquid whey for every
kilogram of cheese produced. Most cheeses, including the
Cheddar in Table 1, contain little whey. A meta-analysis of 14
studies and over 600 participants supported a modest favorable
effect of whey protein on body composition, with significant
decreases in body weight and body fat when whey protein was
provided as a dietary replacement and resistance exercise was
performed.7

Older people often eat less than half of the recommended
daily intake of protein, which may lead to sarcopenia, a loss of
muscle mass. People are strongly motivated to keep their health
and independence as they age, and they feel that maintaining
strong bones and muscles will help them accomplish this.1
Ingestion of whey protein by 15 subjects aged 60−85 years has
been found to improve accrual of skeletal muscle, and this
increase of muscle mass was greater than that obtained by
ingesting a mixture of the amino acids found in whey.8 This
finding may have practical implications for the formulation of
nutritional supplements.
Casein may also promote muscle building. A study of 56
novice weightlifters who exercised 1 h/day and 5 days/week for
12 weeks showed that consuming skim milk following their
workouts resulted in greater development of lean muscle mass
than consumption of soy or carbohydrate drinks.9
Blood Pressure. The caseins facilitate absorption of Ca and
phosphate in the small intestine and are the main substrates for
production of bioactive peptides.10 These small dairy peptides
are the product of either fermentation of milk by lactobacilli or
by digestion of milk protein in the small intestine, with the
peptides absorbed intact. Some of these bioactive molecules are
lactotripeptides, including Ile-Pro-Pro and Val-Pro-Pro, which
have been the subject of much research.10 Ile-Pro-Pro and Val-
Pro-Pro are present in Swiss-type cheeses at concentrations
ranging from 19 to 182 mg/kg.11 These lactotripeptides inhibit
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in vitro. ACE converts
angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a hormone that restricts blood
vessels and leads to hypertension, and ACE from milk products
have been shown to have a positive association with lower
blood pressure.12 A study of over 2500 Welsh men over a 22.8
year period revealed that high milk intake (>586 mL/day) was

associated with lower systolic blood pressure (by 10.4 mmHg)
and less arterial stiffness. Apart from butter, which had some
negative effects, dairy products were found be cardioprotec-
tive.13 A study of over 2200 residents of a Rotterdam suburb
who were at least 55 years old showed that consumption of
low-fat dairy products was associated with a 20% reduction in
the incidence of hypertension.14 A review of other recent work
concluded that the preponderance of evidence indicates a
strong likelihood that eating dairy products helps to lower
blood pressure.15
Dental Caries. Cheese has been tied to protection against
dental caries, or tooth decay, through a series of mechanisms
that are partially understood and involve more than the
presence of Ca. It appears that casein-derived bioactive peptides
inhibit bacteria, engage in competitive exclusion of enamel
binding sites, improve buffering capacity in the pellicle
surrounding teeth, reduce enamel demineralization, and
improve enamel remineralization.16 Even when casein, lactose,
and fat were removed as factors in one study, milk was found to
largely prevent demineralization of teeth, apparently due to
proteose-peptone, which is derived from β-casein and is a
minor component of whey proteins.17
Learning and Memory. A peptide from β-casein, β-
casomorphin-5 (Tyr-Pro-Phe-Pro-Gly), is a μ-opioid receptor
agonist (other such agonists, such as morphine, are analgesics)
and may assist in learning and memory. Administration of a low
dose of β-casomorphin-5 has been shown to alleviate
impairment of learning and memory in tests on mice.18 β-
Casomorphins are important for the psychomotor development
of infants, with breast milk having more of an effect than
bovine
milk.19
Cancer. Studies have shown that the minor milk protein

lactoferrin has anticancer properties. In research on mice
containing a human gene that induces lung tumors, lactoferrin
significantly decreased the proliferation of cancer cells and lung
cell inflammation.20 Lactoferrin decreased the viability of
breast
cancer cell lines,21 and a lactoferrin peptide was shown to
reduce DNA damage from colon cancer cells.22 Our laboratory
has succeeded in cloning peptides from lactoferrin and αs1-
casein into Streptococcus thermophilus, a common starter
culture
for cheese and yogurt, which would optimize the activity of
these peptides.23 A significant antiproliferative effect on
CaCo2
cancer cells was demonstrated by peptides isolated from the
Table 2. Dietary Elements Required by Humans and Commonly
Found in Dairy Products26
function Ca Mg P K Na Mn Cu Zn Se Fe
muscular activity, neural transmission, vascular constriction and
dilation; maintaining normal acid−base
balance, osmotic pressure, and water balance
+ + + + +
forming and maintaining bones + + + +
blood clotting +
energy metabolism + + +
component of cell membranes, nucleic acids, and nucleotides +
components of enzyme systems or cofactors in enzymatic
reactions + + + +
defense against oxidative damage + + +
structural role in some proteins +
oxygen and electron transport +

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Review
dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf5042454 | J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63,
9381−93889382
waste whey from the manufacture of water buffalo mozzarella;
β-casomorphin-5 and -7 have been identified in this material.24
■ MINERALS
More correctly referred to as dietary elements, Ca, Cu, Fe, K,
Mg, Mn, Na, P, Se, and Zn are found in dairy products and are
responsible for a number of essential processes in the
body.25,26
A summary is shown in Table 2.
An adequate Ca intake increases bone mineral density during
skeletal growth and prevents bone loss and osteoporotic
fractures in the elderly.27 Clinical trials have shown that intake
of dairy Ca is 50−100% more effective than supplemental Ca.5
Ca and other minerals in dairy products, whether full or
reduced fat, decrease accumulation of body fat and accelerate
loss of weight and fat during dieting.28 In a short-term human
and animal study using a high-fat diet containing a milk mineral
concentrate, the dietary elements significantly attenuated the
increase in total and LDL cholesterol concentrations; HDL did
not decrease.29 Ca reduces absorption of fat in the intestine
through formation of soaps and also decreases serum
cholesterol levels through binding of calcium phosphate with
bile acids, which have to be regenerated in the liver fr om LDL
and total cholesterol.30 Dairy products, which supply at least
70% of the Ca in the diet,3 have been cited as the best sources
of Ca due to their high content of this mineral, high absorptive
rate, and relatively low cost.31

Obesity, glucose intolerance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia
(elevated blood lipids) are components of metabolic syndrome,
which increases the risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)
and heart disease. Components of insulin resistance syndrome
and T2DM appear to decrease as dairy food consumption
increases, a result that was associated with intake of dairy
foods,
Ca, and vitamin D.32 In a French study of 288 men aged 28−60
years, a higher intake of dairy products was associated with
improvement in the metabolic profile in a 5 year period, and a
higher Ca intake was associated with a lower 5 years increase of
the BMI and waist circumference.33 No significant difference
was observed in the 300 women in the study, however, which
the authors suggest may have been due to sex-related behaviors
and attitudes toward diet and lifestyle.
■ VITAMINS
Milk is a source of all vitamins except vitamin C, which is
broken down by pasteurization. Vitamin A (retinol) is critical
for vision and is involved in immune function, reproduction,
and cellular communication, differentiation, and growth.34
Vitamin B1 (thiamin) helps with metabolism of branched-
chain amino acids, carbohydrates, and fatty acids.26 Vitamin B2
(riboflavin) is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates,
fats,
and proteins.26 Vitamin B3 (niacin) is the precursor for
coenzymes NAD and NADP, which are responsible for the
catabolism of alcohol, carbohydrates, fats, and protein and the
synthesis of macromolecules.26 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) has a
role in more than 100 enzyme reactions, mostly concerned with
protein metabolism, and is involved in cognitive development
and immune function.34 Vitamin B9 (folate) is used to make
DNA, RNA, and amino acids.34 Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) helps
to create DNA and hemoglobin and to maintain nerve cells.34

Vitamin D (calciferol) levels are fortified in milk to help with
calcium and phosphate absorption, which promotes bone
growth.34 Vitamin E (tocopherol) is an antioxidant that helps
prevent cell injury.34 Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and vitamin
K2 (the menaquinones), produced by bacteria in fermented
dairy products, are necessary for blood clotting.26
A meta-analysis of 16 studies showed that consumption of
200 g of dairy products per day resulted in a 6% reduction of
risk of T2DM, with a significant association between reduction
of incidence of T2DM and intake of cheese, yogurt, and low -fat
dairy products.35 The authors attributed the cheese and yogurt
correlation with the presence of vitamins D and K2, which have
recently been linked to a reduced risk of T2DM.36 Another
study used daily food diaries instead of retrospective data
(which involves a recall period ranging up to a year) and also
found a reduced risk of T2DM.37 This relationship was
observed only in fermented dairy food (cheese and yogurt) , and
the result was also attributed to vitamin K2 generated by
bacterial fermentation. A meta-analysis of over 26000 cases of
colorectal cancer showed that higher consumption of dairy
products reduced the risk of colon cancer, with Ca and vitamin
D being associated with a reduction of risk of cancer.38 A study
of over 800 Japanese subjects also showed a decreased risk of
colorectal cancer with increased consumption of calcium and
vitamin D.39
■ LIPIDS
The lipids in milk are in the form of droplets, consisting mostly
of triacylglycerols, surrounded by a MFGM containing 60%
protein and 40% lipids, including polar lipids (phospholipids
and sphingolipids), cholesterol, and some minor components.40
The polar lipids amount to <40 mg/100 g milk, but contribute

biological activity such as inhibition of colon cancer and
intestinal pathogens.40 Phosphatidylserine seems to be related
to cognitive function.41 The MFGM proteins are mostly
glycoproteins such as butyrophilin, which may suppress
multiple sclerosis, and BRCA1 and BRCA2, which appear to
inhibit breast cancer.42
Milk fat, which is approximately 72% saturated, 25%
monounsaturated, and 3% polyunsaturated (w/w), carries
flavor compounds as well as fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and
K.43 Lipids, although essential for humans, have historically
been thought to elevate blood cholesterol and therefore been
considered as dangerous to health. This attitude has been
changing in recent years. A meta-analysis of 76 studies
concluded that guidelines encouraging high consumption of
polyunsaturated fatty acids and low consumption of total
saturated fats is not clearly supported by the evidence.44
Moreover, dairy products and other foods high in saturated fat
contain an array of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, each
of which affects metabolism of lipoproteins in various ways.
These foods also contribute significant amounts of other
nutrients, which may be beneficial. Areas in which milk lipids
may be healthful are as follows.
Cardiovascular Disease. Observational studies and meta-
analyses have shown no connection between the intake of milk
fat and the risk of cardiovascular disease, coronary heart
disease,
or stroke. In fact, most clinical studies have shown that
consumption of full-fat natural cheese significantly lowers low-
density lipoproteins (LDL or “bad cholesterol”) compared with
consumption of butter containing the same total fat and
saturated fat content.45 These results may be due to the high
level of Ca in cheese as well as the presence of fermentation
products from the bacteria. Higher consumption of cheese in a

study of 1750 Iranian adults was associated with higher high-
density lipoprotein (HDL or “good cholesterol) and lower
LDL, cholesterol, and triglycerides.46 The authors theorized
9381−93889383
that their results could be due to consumption of Ca and
fermenting bacteria. Some studies have shown that yogurt
products have beneficial effects on plasma lipids and
lipoproteins, although these advantages appear to be specific
to the strain of bacteria used to ferment the product.45
Anticarcinogenesis. In 1996, the National Academy of
Sciences stated that conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is the only
fatty acid that definitely inhibits carcinogenesis in experimental
animals.47 Many studies using in vivo and in vitro models have
shown that relatively low dietary levels of CLA inhibit
multistage carcinogenesis at different sites.48 Research has
also indicated that CLA influences weight control, possibly by
exerting an effect on hypothalamic appetite regulation.49 CLA
is
a mixture of isomers of linoleic acid (18:2), with the
predominant isomer, rumenic acid (cis-9,trans-11 18:2), being
the biologically active form.50 Dairy products are the major
sources of CLA in the human diet, and its concentration in
these products is not affected by heat processing.51
Trans fatty acids have been implicated in increases in LDL
and decreases in HDL in humans. These effects have been tied
to the trans fatty acids in hydrogenated fats, predominately
elaidic acid (trans-9 18:1). Elaidic acid is present in only trace

amounts in bovine milk. One-fourth of the trans fatty acids in
milk fat is rumenic acid, and most of the rest is vaccenic acid
(trans-11 18:1).52 Rumenic acid may be associated with
anticarcinogenic properties in humans,53 and vaccenic acid
may decrease tumor growth and the risk of coronary heart
disease.54 On average, humans convert about a fifth of dietary
vaccenic acid into rumenic acid.55
Obesity. Many people believe that increasing their intake of
dairy fat will result in an increase in weight. However, the
opposite appears to be the case. A 12 year study of over 1500
rural Swedish men revealed that a high intake of dairy fat was
associated with a lower risk of developing central obesity (ratio
of waist and hip measurements >1) and a low dairy fat intake
was associated with a higher risk of central obesity.56
Moreover,
a 9 year study of over 19000 Swedish women aged 40−55 years
showed that at least one serving per day of whole milk and sour
milk and of cheese was inversely associated with weight gain.57
The mechanisms for this effect may involve elevated Ca levels
resulting in more fecal fat excretion,58 oxidation of fat by
Ca,59
or satiety effects.
A study of 70 overweight and obese individuals whose diet
was supplemented with whey protein experienced significant
decreases in blood triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL, and
insulin levels over 12 weeks.60 The results may have been due
to effects of whey protein on cholesterol biogenesis, adsorption,
or excretion. Another 12 week study of 108 overweight and
obese men and women on a calorie-restricted diet showed that
high dairy consumption significantly increased fat loss.61 The
authors attributed the effectiveness of the dairy foods to
suppression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, which has been

implicated in the retention of fat.
Inflammation. A study of sheep’s milk cheese rich in CLA
showed a significant reduction in inflammatory parameters such
as interleukin.62 Phospholipids have been identified as having
anti-inflammatory properties and may also protect against liver
damage.63
■ CARBOHYDRATES AND OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Lactose comprises >99% of the carbohydrates in milk, with
citrate accounting for 0.2%. Some dairy flavors arise from
citrate
breakdown, but no health effects have been reported. Lactose
stimulates intestinal absorption of Ca64 and can be enzymati -
cally hydrolyzed in the gut to form galacto-oligosaccharides,
which are readily utilized by bifidobacteria and contribute to
improved digestive function.1 The majority of the world
population is lactose intolerant and cannot digest this
carbohydrate, but lactose-reduced milk, developed in our
laboratory in the 1970s, allows consumers to drink milk
without suffering digestive issues.65 In cheese, yogurt, and
other
fermented dairy products, lactic acid bacteria break down the
lactose into digestible glucose and galactose.
Bovine milk contains about 1 g oligosaccharides/L, whereas
the concentration in human milk is estimated at 7−12 g/L.5
Oligosaccharides in milk pass through the upper gastro-
intestinal tract and are bioavailable to beneficial bacteria in
the colon, stimulating their growth. These probiotics are
credited with inhibiting the binding of pathogens and toxins by
competing with the host’s binding sites.66 Glycoproteins have
oligosaccharide chains attached and are also protective against
microbes, toxins, and viruses in newborns.67

■ HEALTH ASPECTS OF MILK COMPONENTS IN
COMBINATION
The various components of dairy products confer health
benefits when in combination, and the substitution of milk
products with other foods adversely affects the balance of
nutrients consumed. Replacing dairy products with foods
containing equivalent amounts of Ca has been shown to alter
the overall nutritional profile of the diet, affecting intake of
protein, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and vitamins A,
B2, B12, and D.
68 The investigators concluded that eating
nondairy Ca replacement foods (such as bony fish, Ca-set tofu,
leafy greens, or fortified soy drink, rice drink, or orange juice)
is
not realistic because these foods are rarely consumed in the
amounts needed to replace milk products.68 Some studies have
demonstrated advantages of milk products arising from
interactions among the components, as outlined below.
Cognitive Function. In a study of nearly 1000 people,
participants who ate dairy products at least once per day scored
significantly higher in several tests of cognitive function
compared with those who rarely or never consumed dairy
food.69 The reason is not yet known but is likely due to a
synergistic effect among several milk components. A review of
the methodology of eight studies about dementia pointed out
that no research has been conducted on dairy intake and
cognitive function across all ages, but that a beneficial effect is
probably present.70
Satiety. Three fourths of shoppers in a survey said they are
interested in satiety, the feeling of being full after eating.6 The
dairy industry has conducted research revealing that dairy
products are viewed by consumers as reasonably satiating; they

are not as filling as fruit, meat, nuts, or pasta, but they are on a
par with oatmeal and soup, and are considered more filling than
snacks such as cookies and potato chips.6 A diet rich in Ca and
dairy food did not result in weight loss in a study of 49 people,
but did increase blood levels of a particular peptide that was
associated with greater satiety and reduced fat intake.71
Consumption of milk products may therefore have an indirect
role in improving health by enhancing satiety, thus aiding loss
of fat and body weight.72
Mortality. A meta-analysis of over 62000 study participants
showed no connection between consumption of milk and all-
cause mortality and a modest inverse correlation with
cardiovascular disease.73 All-cause mortality showed a
reduction
9381−93889384
associated with dairy food intake in a meta-analysis of five
studies in England and Wales covering 509,000 deaths in
2008.74 The same laboratory found that the risk of stroke also
appears to decrease with increasing dairy intake, although
further research in this area is needed. The cause of this effect
may be inhibition of platelet aggregation.75 The authors
concluded that there was a large discrepancy between evidence
from long-term studies and perceptions of harm from dairy
foods.
■ DELIVERY OF BIOACTIVES
Dairy products are the primary vehicles for probiotic bacteria,

which commonly include species of lactobacilli, lactococci, and
bifidobacteria. Probiotics are live strains that confer benefits by
improving the balance of microorganisms in the intestine by
enhancing the population of beneficial bacteria and suppressing
pathogens.76 A study of 571 Finnish children aged 1−6 showed
that milk fortified with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG stimulated
immune response and reduced respiratory infections and days
of absence from school.77
Casein films exhibit high tensile strength, making them good
tablet coatings, and drug−milk preparations seem to confer
higher bioavailability than drugs alone.78 Casein micelles act as
a natural delivery system, which should lead to their use as
nanocarriers.78 They bind ions and small molecules, form
complexes with other macromolecules, possess good gelation,
self-assembly, and surface properties, and exhibit pH-
responsive
gel swelling behavior that helps with programmable release.79
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the major extractable
polyphenol found in green tea and the most bioactive one,
has been shown to prevent proliferation of colon cancer cells.
When EGCG was nanoencapsulated in casein micelles of skim
milk, the proliferation of HT-29 cancer cells in vitro was
decreased.80 Encapsulation did not decrease the bioavailability
of EGCG, which may lead to the development of other delivery
systems using casein. Curcumin, which may have anti-
inflammatory, antimutagenic, and anticancer properties, and
thymol, an antimicrobial, can be encapsulated in sodium
caseinate, improving solubility and presumably bioavailabil -
ity.81,82
■ ORGANIC VERSUS CONVENTIONAL MILK
In the United States, the “organic” regulations for foods were
established by the U.S. Department of Agriculture under the
National Organic Program in 2000.83 The most important rules

for dairy farms are as follows. Animals must be fed and
managed according to approved organic practices for a full year
before the milk that is produced can be certified and sold as
organic. The animals must be given feed that is 100% organic
and must obtain a minimum average of 30% of their dry matter
intake from pasture during a minimum 120 day grazing season.
Sick animals must be treated, and if the medicine is not on the
approved-for-organic list, the animal is no longer considered
organic and must be removed from the herd. All feed and
medicine given to the organic animals must be documented.
Growth hormones, antibiotics, genetic engineering, and cloning
cannot be used in organic systems. The farming system must
adhere to all regulations, whether they raise animals or grow
feed for them.83
The compositions of organic and conventional milk are
similar except for some of the fatty acids.84 The key question is
whether the fatty acid profile of milk obtained from organic
dairies is more healthful than the milk fat from conventional
(not certified as organic) dairies. CLA and ω-3 fatty acids (α-
linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosapentaenoic) are im-
portant for cell membrane function, and many studies have
shown the beneficial effects of ω-3 fatty acids in cancer
prevention, cardiovascular disease, and infant development.85
ω-3 fatty acids also have positive roles in some mental
conditions, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,
dementia, and depression.85 ω-6 fatty acids (linoleic, 8,11,14-
eicosatrienoic, and arachidonic) are also necessary for health
maintenance; the optimum ratio of ω-6 to ω-3 is thought to be
about 2.3, but Americans are consuming these fatty acids at a
ratio around 10.86 A 2013 analysis of milk from 14 commercial
processors from seven regions throughout the United States
showed that, averaged over a year, organic milk contained 25%
fewer ω-6 fatty acids and 62% more ω-3 fatty acids than

conventional milk, leading to a favorable ratio of the two (Table
3).86 Organic dairy farmers can elevate the levels of CLA in
milk and the cheese manufactured from it by supplemeting the
diet of their cows, for example, with sunflower oil.87
Homogenization and pasteurization have little effect on CLA
concentration.5
Our laboratory has completed a 3 year study of milk from
two adjacent farms; one was conventional and the other
transitioned to organic during the first year (Tunick et al.,
unpublished results). The fatty acid analyses focused on CLA
and the most predominant ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids, linoleic acid
and α-linolenic acid, respectively. In the final year of the study,
the organic milk contained 26% fewer ω-6 fatty acids and 41%
more ω-3 fatty acids than conventional milk (Table 4). As in
Table 3. Concentrations of Selected Fatty Acids in Organic
and Conventional Milk from a National Study86
fatty acid, abbreviation
organic milk
(mg/100 g milk)
conventional milk
(mg/100 g milk)
conjugated linoleic acid, CLA 22.7 19.2
ω-3 fatty acids
α-linolenic, 18:3 25.5 15.9
eicosapentaenoic, 20:5 3.3 2.5
docosapentaenoic, 22:5 4.4 3.7
ω-6 fatty acids

linoleic, 18:2
(nonconjugated)
63.9 85.6
8,11,14-eicosatrienoic, 20:3 3.2 4.3
arachidonic, 20:4 4.8 5.8
all fatty acids 3108 3098
ω-6/ω-3 ratio 2.28 5.77
Table 4. Concentrations of Selected Fatty Acids in Organic
and Conventional Milk in a Study by Our Laboratory
(Tunick et al., Unpublished Results)
fatty acid, abbreviation
organic milk
(mg/100 g milk)
conventional milk
(mg/100 g milk)
conjugated linoleic acid, CLA 32.8 27.7
ω-3 fatty acid
α-linolenic, 18:3 29.7 21.1
ω-6 fatty acid
linoleic, 18:2
(nonconjugated)
101 137
all fatty acids 3622 356
ω-6/ω-3 ratio 3.40 6.49

9381−93889385
the national study,86 the CLA content of the organic milk was
18% higher than that of the conventional milk. The ω-6 to ω-3
ratio was also more desirable in the organic milk.
■ FUTURE EFFORTS
Despite advertising and educational efforts, many consumers
are still not fully aware that dairy foods and dairy ingredients
are a good source of high-quality proteins.6 The public should
also be taught about the benefits of milk fat and milk in general.
These efforts will have to be supported by further research on
the mechanisms whereby milk components benefit humans. As
scientists continue to investigate food as it relates to health,
people will realize the importance of dairy products in the diet.
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*(M.H.T.) Phone: (215) 233-6454. E-mail: [email protected]
ars.usda.gov.
Notes
Mention of trade names or commercial products in this
publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific
information and does not imply recommendation or endorse-
ment by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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