Learning and regularly practicing self-management skills can help people adopt and maintain healthy lifestyles. Self-management skills include self-assessment, self-monitoring, and goal-setting. These skills can help influence factors like knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and access to resources that promote making changes to diet, physical activity, stress management, and other healthy behaviors. While it takes time to develop unhealthy habits, self-management skills allow people to progress through stages of change to eventually maintain healthy lifestyles long-term.

1. Concept2Using Self-
Management
Skills to
Adhere to
Healthy
Lifestyle
Behaviors
Learning and
regularly using
self-
management
skills can help
you to adopt
and maintain
healthy
lifestyles
throughout life.

2. Introduction
Reducing illness and debilitating conditions and promoting
wellness and fitness are important goals for all of us. Prac-
ticing lifelong healthy lifestyles is the key to health, well-
ness, and fitness. Yet, there is considerable evidence that
many people are not effective in making lifestyle changes,
even when they want to do so. Experts have determined that
people who practice healthy lifestyles possess certain char-
acteristics. These characteristics can be modified to improve
health behaviors of all people. Researchers have also identi-
fied several special skills, referred to as self-management
skills, that can be useful in helping you alter factors related
to adherence and ultimately help you to make lifestyle
changes. Like any skill, self-management skills must be
practiced if they are to be useful. In this concept, factors
relating to healthy lifestyle adherence and self-management
skills will be described.
The Facts about Lifestyle
Change
Many adults want to make lifestyle changes
but are unable to do so.
The majority of adults (66 percent) would prefer to alter
their diet to improve health rather than take medicine. Nine
of 10 people indicate that regular physical activity is
important to their health. Approximately two-thirds of
adults feel “great stress” at least one day a week and would
like to reduce their stress levels. In spite of these statistics,
those who profess interest in dietary change often are
unsuccessful in making lasting changes. Those who say
they value physical activity often fail to adhere to even
modest activity schedules. Though stress reduction is
important, nearly half of all adults still feel that there is a
stigma associated with seeking help for an emotional prob-
lem, yet they frequently lack the skills to help themselves.
Changes in other lifestyles are frequently desired, but often
not accomplished.
Practicing one healthy lifestyle does not
mean you will practice another, though
adopting one healthy behavior often leads
to adoption of another.
College students are more likely to participate in regular
physical activity than older adults. However, they are also
much more likely to eat poorly and abuse alcohol. Many
young women adopt low-fat diets to avoid weight gain and
also smoke because they have the mistaken belief that smok-
ing will contribute to long-term weight maintenance. These
examples illustrate the fact that practicing one healthy
lifestyle does not insure adherence to another. However,
there is evidence that making one lifestyle change often
makes it easier to make other changes. For example, smok-
ers who have started regular physical activity programs
often see improvements in fitness and general well-being
and decide to stop smoking.
Section 1 Lifestyles for Health, Fitness, and Wellness22
Health Goals
f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 1 0
Increase quality and years of healthy life.
Increase incidence of people reporting
“healthy days”.
Increase incidence of people reporting
“active days”.
Increase the adoption and maintenance of daily
physical activity.
Increase the proportion of all people who eat well.
Decrease personal stress levels and mental health
problems.
Reduce accidents, destructive habits, and
environmental pollution.
WEB
People do not make lifestyle changes
overnight. Rather, people progress forward
and backward through several stages of
change.
www.mhhe.com/hper/physed/clw/student/
When asked about a specific healthy lifestyle, it is
not unusual for people to respond with “yes” or
“no” answers. If asked, “Do you exercise regu-
larly?”, the answer would be “yes” or “no.” When asked, “Do
you eat well?”, the answer would be “yes” or “no.” We now
know that there are many different stages of lifestyle behavior.
Prochaska and colleagues have developed a model for
lifestyle change that suggests at least five different dynamic
stages of healthy behaviors (see Figure 1). The stages were
originally developed to help understand negative lifestyles.
WEB

3. Smokers were among the first studied. Smokers who are not
considering stopping are at the stage of precontemplation.
Those who are thinking about stopping are classified in the
contemplation stage. Those who have bought a nicotine
patch or a book about smoking cessation are classified in the
preparation stage. They have moved beyond contemplation
and are preparing to take action. The action stage occurs
when the smoker makes some change in behavior, even a
small one. Cutting back on the number of cigarettes smoked
is an example. The fifth stage is the stage of maintenance.
When a person finally stops smoking for a relatively long
period of time (6 months) this stage has been reached.
The stages of change model (as illustrated in Figure 1),
has now been applied to positive lifestyles as well as nega-
tive ones. Those who are totally sedentary are considered to
be in the precontemplation stage. Contemplators are think-
ing about becoming active. A person at the preparation stage
may have bought a pair of walking shoes and appropriate
clothing for activity. Those who have started some activity,
even if infrequent, are considered to be at the stage of action.
Those who have been exercising regularly for at least 6
months are said to be at the stage of maintenance.
Whether the lifestyle is positive or negative, people
move from one stage to another in an upward or downward
direction. Individuals in action may move on to maintenance
or revert back to contemplation depending on their attitudes
and personal experiences. Smokers who succeed in quitting
permanently report having stopped and started dozens of
times before reaching lifetime maintenance. Similarly, those
attempting to adopt positive lifestyles such as eating well
often move back and forth from one stage to another
depending on their life circumstances.
Concept 2 Using Self-Management Skills to Adhere to Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors 23
it becomes easier to sustain. For example, a person who has
been physically active for years does not have to undergo the
same thought processes as a beginning exerciser—the
behavior becomes automatic and habitual. Similarly, a non-
smoker is not tempted to smoke in the same way as a person
who is currently trying to quit. Some people have termed the
end of this behavior change process as “termination.”
Factors That Promote Lifestyle
Change: The Facts
There are many factors associated with
achieving advanced stages of healthy
behavior.
The ultimate goal for any health behavior is to reach the
stage of maintenance (see Figure 1). The Surgeon General’s
Report on Physical Activity and Health outlines some of the
factors that relate to reaching and staying at the maintenance
level for physical activity. These factors relate equally well
to stages of change for other healthy lifestyles. For ease of
understanding, they are classified as personal, predispos-
ing, enabling, and reinforcing factors. Predisposing fac-
tors help precontemplators get going—to move them toward
Figure 1
Stages of lifestyle change.
“I don't want to change.”
“I am thinking about change.”
“I am getting ready to make
a lifestyle change.”
“I have made some lifestyle
changes.”
“I regularly practice
healthy lifestyles.”
Precontemplation
Contemplation
Preparation
Action
Maintenance
Once maintenance is attained, relapse is
less likely to occur.
Adherence Adopting a healthy behavior such
as regular physical activity or sound nutrition as
part of your lifestyle.
Stage of Change A stage of change refers to
the level of lifestyle behavior a given individual
has for a specific health behavior.
Relapse Reverting back to old lifestyle habits
after attempting a change in behavior.
Personal Factor Factors such as age or gen-
der that are related to healthy lifestyle
adherence but that are typically not under your
personal control.
Predisposing Factor Anything that makes
you more likely to decide that you should make
a healthy lifestyle such as regular physical activ-
ity a part of your normal routine.
Enabling Factor Anything that helps you to
carry out your healthy lifestyle plan.
Reinforcing Factor Anything that provides
encouragement to maintain healthy lifestyles
such as physical activity for a lifetime.While it is possible to relapse completely, it is generally less
likely after the maintenance stage is reached. At this point,
the behavior has been integrated into a personal lifestyle and

4. contemplation or even preparation. Enabling factors help
those in contemplation or preparation take the step toward
action. Reinforcing factors move people from action to
maintenance and to help those in maintenance stay there.
Personal factors affect health behaviors but
are often out of your personal control.
Your age, gender, and heredity are examples of personal fac-
tors. While these factors do not cause differences in behav-
ior, differences in behavior are evident across these factors.
For example, there are significant differences in health
behaviors among those of various age groups. According to
one survey, young adults between the ages of 18 and 34 are
more likely to smoke (30 percent) than those 65 and older
(13 percent). On the other hand, young adults are much
more likely to be physically active than older adults.
Gender differences are illustrated by the fact that
women use health services more often than men. Women are
more likely than men to have identified a primary care doc-
tor and are more likely to participate in regular health
screenings. As you will discover in more detail later in this
book, heredity plays a role in health behaviors. For example,
some people have a hereditary predisposition to gain weight,
and this may affect their eating behaviors.
While personal factors should be considered in making
lifestyle changes, there is little you can do about your age,
gender, or heredity. However, self-management skills can be
effective for all people regardless of personal factors. Your
personal characteristics may affect the way you use self-
management skills but they do not prevent you from using
them effectively.
Predisposing factors are important in
getting you started with the process of
change.
Predisposing factors are factors that are likely to help you
move from precontemplation to contemplation or a higher
state of healthy behavior. As illustrated in Figure 2, predis-
posing factors are associated with two basic questions: “Am
I able?” and “Is it worth it?”
Am I able to do regular activity? Am I able to change
my diet or to stop smoking? People who have “feelings that
they are able” are said to have good perceptions of compe-
tence. They have the self-confidence and self-efficacy to
embark on behavior changes for health improvement. Per-
ceptions of competence, as evidenced by self-confidence
and self-efficacy, are considered to be predisposing factors.
If you feel competent, you are more likely to try something
than if you feel incompetent. Later in this concept, you will
learn several self-management skills that can help you
improve perceptions of competence (if you do not already
possess them).
Is it worth it? Making a change in behavior takes effort.
You are more likely to make a change in behavior if you
think your effort is worthwhile. Some factors that make a
behavior change worthwhile are having the belief that the
change will have benefits. Part of changing your beliefs is
becoming knowledgeable about the behavior and its bene-
fits. Enjoyment is another factor that makes a behavior
change worthwhile. If you enjoy doing something, the
enjoyment is its own benefit. Finally, attitudes make a differ-
ence. Research shows that people who have more positive
feelings (attitudes) than negative attitudes are likely to adopt
healthy behaviors.
Enabling factors are important in moving
you from the beginning stages of change to
action and maintenance.
Enabling factors help people follow through with decisions
to make changes in behavior (see Figure 2). Having self-
management skills is one type of enabling factor. Examples
of self-management skills are self-assessment, self-monitor-
ing, and goal-setting skills. You will learn more about these
later in this concept.
Having access to the things you need to make changes
in lifestyle is another type of enabling factor. For instance,
having access to fitness facilities or cooking facilities would
enable you to do regular exercise or cook healthy meals.
Reinforcing factors are important in adher-
ing to lifestyle changes.
Section 1 Lifestyles for Health, Fitness, and Wellness24
Women are more likely to use health care services
than men.

5. Self-Management Skills:
The Facts
Learning self-management skills can help
you alter factors that lead to healthy
lifestyle change.
Once a person has reached the action stage, it is important to
move on to maintenance. Once a person has reached the
maintenance stage, it is important to stay at that stage. Rein-
forcing factors help people stick with a behavior change (see
Figure 2). Family, peer, and health professional influence are
all reinforcing factors. If your family and friends or a doctor
encourage you, it may help you adhere. It is important, how-
ever, that support from others does not create unnecessary
pressure. Though support from others can be reinforcing,
perhaps the most important reinforcing factor is success. If
you change a behavior and have success, it makes you want
to keep doing the behavior. If you fail, you may conclude
that the behavior does not work and give up on it. Planning
for success is very important in adhering to healthy lifestyle
change.
Being aware of factors that influence
lifestyles can lead to lifestyle change.
The factors described in the previous paragraphs and illus-
trated in Figure 2, are susceptible to change. Learning about
these factors and studying how they affect you personally can
help you in moving through the stages of lifestyle change.
Concept 2 Using Self-Management Skills to Adhere to Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors 25
Figure 2
Factors that influence change in healthy behaviors.
Maintenance
Action
Preparation
Contemplation
Precontemption
Am I able? Is it worth it?
Healthy behaviors
Knowledge
Beliefs
Enjoyment
Attitudes
Self-confidence
•
•
•
•
•
Predisposing factors
Age
Gender
Heredity
•
•
•
Personal factors
Self-management
skills
Access
Environment
•
•
•
Enabling factors
Family
Peers
Health
professionals
•
•
•
Reinforcing factors
Self-Confidence The belief that you can be
successful at something (for example, the belief
that you can be successful in sports and physical
activities, and can improve your physical fitness).
Self-Efficacy Confidence that you can
perform a specific task. (A type of very specific
self-confidence.)
Self-Management Skills Skills that you can
learn to help you adhere to healthy lifestyles
such as regular physical activity. Examples
include goal setting, time management, and
program-planning skills.

6. Personal, predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors
influence the way you live. These factors are of little
practical significance, however, unless they can be altered
to promote lifestyle change. Self-management skills
influence many of the factors that are associated with
healthy lifestyle change. It takes effort to learn self-man-
agement skills, but, with practice and effort, they are
skills all people can learn. Descriptions of various self-
management skills that are especially useful in promoting
lifestyles that enhance health, wellness, and fitness are
included in Table 1.
It takes time to develop unhealthy lifestyles
and time to change them.
People in Western culture are used to seeing things happen
quickly. We flip a switch, and the lights come on. We want
Section 1 Lifestyles for Health, Fitness, and Wellness26
Table 1 Self-Management Skills
Self-Management Skill Lifestyle Examples How Is It Useful?
Self-Assessment Skills
This involves how to assess your own fit-
ness, health, and wellness. In addition it
requires you to learn to interpret your
own self-assessment results. It takes
practice to become good at doing self-
assessments.
A person wants to know his/her health
strengths and weaknesses. The best pro-
cedure is to select good tests and self-
administer them. Practicing the
assessments at the end of many
concepts in this book will help you
become good at self-assessment.
• Helps in setting goals
• Provides basis for planning
• Helps make success possible
• Basis for new way of thinking
• Basis for learning skills
Self-Monitoring Skills
This involves monitoring behavior and
record keeping. Many people think that
they adhere to healthy lifestyles, but they
do not. They have a distorted view of
what they actually do. Self-monitoring
helps give you a true picture of your own
behavior. Monitoring progress in meeting
goals is also important.
A person can’t understand why he/she
is not losing weight even though
restricting calories. Keeping records
may show that the person was eating
more than he/she thought. Learning to
keep records of progress is also impor-
tant to adherence.
• Provides information
• Helps in setting goals
• Provides basis for planning
• Provides feedback
• Increases chance of success
• Provides information
• Helps alter beliefs
Goal-Setting Skills
This involves learning how to establish
things that you want to achieve in the
future. It is important that goals be realis-
tic and achievable. Learning to set goals
for behavior change is especially impor-
tant for beginners.
A person wants to lose body fat. If he/she
sets a goal of losing 50 pounds, success
is unlikely. Setting a process goal of
restricting 200 Calories a day or expend-
ing 200 more a day for several weeks
makes success more likely.
• Provides basis for planning
• Increases chance of success
• Basis for feedback
• May enhance enjoyment
• May influence attitudes
• May alter beliefs
• May help build confidence
Planning Skills
This involves learning how to plan for
yourself rather than having others do all
the planning for you. Knowledge and
practice in planning can help you develop
these skills.
A person wants to be more active, to eat
better, and to manage stress. Self-
planning skills will help him/her plan a
personal activity, nutrition, or stress-
management program.
• Provides basis for success
• Basis for reinforcement
• May help self-confidence
• Improves enjoyment
Performance Skills
This involves learning skills necessary
for performance of specific tasks, such
as sport or relaxation. These skills can
help you feel confident and enjoy
activities.
A person is stressed and anxious in many
life situations. Learning stress-manage-
ment skills, such as relaxation, can help a
person cope. Like all skills, stress-man-
agement skills must be practiced to be
effective.
• Enhances enjoyment
• Provides for success
• Enhances self-confidence
• Influences attitudes
Balancing Attitudes
This involves learning to balance positive
and negative attitudes. To adhere to a
healthy lifestyle, it is important to develop
positive attitudes and reduce the
negative attitudes.
A person does not do activity because he
or she lacks support from friends, has no
equipment, and does not like to get
sweaty. These are negatives. Shifting the
balance to positive things such as fun,
good health, and looking good can help
promote activity.
• Enhances enjoyment
• Basis for planning
• Helps in setting goals
• Influences beliefs

7. Concept 2 Using Self-Management Skills to Adhere to Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors 27
Table 1 (continued)
Self-Management Skill Lifestyle Examples How Is It Useful?
Overcoming Barriers
This involves developing skills that allow
you to overcome problems such as lack of
facilities, lack of equipment, and inconve-
nience. People who develop skills to over-
come barriers can learn to rearrange
schedules and acquire personal equipment
and other skills to overcome these barriers.
People at work are often exposed to
snack foods high in empty calories. For
this reason his/her nutrition is not what
it could be. Skills in overcoming barri-
ers include planning and preparing
your own food and selecting good
foods.
• Improves access
• Provides good environment
• Makes time available
• Contributes to enjoyment
• Improves self-confidence
Learning Consumer Skills
This involves gaining knowledge about
products and services. It also may require
rethinking untrue beliefs that may lead to
poor consumer decisions.
A person avoids seeking medical help
when symptoms of illness are present.
Instead, the person takes an unproven
remedy. Learning consumer skills
provides knowledge for making sound
medical decisions.
• Builds knowledge
• Promotes founded beliefs
• Influences attitudes
• Improves self-confidence
Finding Social Support
This involves learning how to get the sup-
port of others for healthy lifestyles you
want to adopt. You learn how to get this
support from family and friends. Support
of an outside authority such as a doctor
can help.
A person abuses alcohol. If friends and
family also abuse alcohol, the abuse
will probably continue. In some cases,
it is best to find support elsewhere
and then seek support of friends and
family.
• Reinforces healthy behavior
• Doctor’s advice motivates
• Supports idea that you are able
• Supports idea that it is worth it
• Improves self-confidence
Preventing Relapse
This involves staying with a healthy behav-
ior once you have adopted it. It is some-
times hard not to relapse to an unhealthy
lifestyle. There are skills such as avoiding
high risk situations and learning how to
say no that can help avoid relapse.
A person stops smoking. To stay at
maintenance, the person can learn to
avoid situations where there is pressure
to smoke. The person can learn meth-
ods of saying “no” to those who offer
tobacco.
• Builds self-confidence
• Alters environment
• Promotes success
• Builds knowledge
Adopting Coping Skills
This involves developing a new way of
thinking about things. People with this
skill can see situations in more than one
way and learn to think more positively
about life situations.
A person avoids physical activity
because he/she does not have the physi-
cal skills equal to peers. Coping skills
allows this person to tell him or herself
that self-comparisons are not important
and then choose to be active anyway.
• Improves enjoyment
• Enhances attitudes
• Improves self-confidence
• Promotes success
Managing Time
This involves keeping records similar to
self-monitoring. It relates to total time use
rather than monitoring specific behaviors.
Skillful monitoring of time can help you in
planning and adhering to healthy lifestyles.
A person wants more quality time with
family and friends. Monitoring time can
help a person reallocate time to spend it
in ways that are more consistent with
personal priorities.
• Provides options
• Helps overcome barriers
• Provides for skill learning
• Aids planning
food quickly, and thousands of fast-food restaurants provide it.
The expectation that we should have what we want when we
want it has led us to expect instantaneous changes in health,
wellness, and fitness. Unfortunately, there is no quick way to
health. There is no pill that can reverse the affects of a lifetime
of sedentary living, poor eating, or abuse of tobacco. Changing
your lifestyle is the key. But lifestyles that have been practiced
for years are not easy to change. As you progress through this
book, you will have the opportunity to learn how to implement
self-management skills. Learning these skills is the surest way
to make permanent lifestyle changes.
Strategies for Action: The Facts
Many people feel that factors influencing
health and wellness are out of their control.
www.mhhe.com/hper/physed/clw/student/
A recent poll indicates that 91 percent of adults
would like to change their lifestyles to make their
lives more enjoyable and to change factors associatedWEB

8. with wellness, such as reducing stress and tension. Unfortu-
nately, many people feel that they do not have personal con-
trol over good health and wellness. For example, one survey
suggests that most of the lifestyle changes deemed important
by millions in our society will remain in the realm of fan-
tasies, just beyond realization. Experts have shown that peo-
ple who feel that health is beyond personal control express
such ideas as “Bad things [illness] can’t happen to me and
good things [wellness] are beyond my reach.”
Many people can benefit from a new way of
thinking about health, wellness, and fitness.
Many people have unrealistic expectations about health
and fitness. They compare their fitness to athletes and
their appearance to models and movie stars, often setting
standards for themselves that are impossible to achieve.
Some say “I could never do that” when considering
becoming physically active, altering eating patterns, or
learning to manage stress. Many lack information about
what is really possible concerning healthy lifestyles.
Those who feel a lack of control, set unrealistic standards
for themselves, and lack confidence in their own abilities
to change.
Adopting a new way of thinking can have dramatic
implications. A major purpose of this text is to help you
adopt a new way of thinking toward health behaviors. This
new way of thinking acknowledges that many of the factors
that influence health, fitness, and wellness are largely within
your control. Learning and practicing self-management
skills can help you develop this new way of thinking.
Assessing factors that influence healthy
lifestyles provides a basis for changing
those factors that can contribute to health,
wellness, or fitness.
Lab 2A allows you to assess predisposing, enabling, and
reinforcing factors associated with one healthy lifestyle—
regular physical activity. Similar assessments are possible
for other healthy lifestyles. Self-assessments allow you to
determine the factors that you can alter to make changes in
any or all healthy lifestyles.
Assessing your current self-management
skills provides a basis for future skill
development.
Lab 2B provides you with an opportunity to assess your cur-
rent self-management skills for one healthy lifestyle—regular
physical activity. In subsequent concepts, you will practice
the self-management skills relating to a variety of different
healthy lifestyles. As you learn more about self-management
skills, especially those that relate to physical activity, you can
refer to Lab 2B to see if your assessments of your self-man-
agement skills were accurate.
You can benefit from a critical analysis of
the theories and models that help us under-
stand the factors that lead to healthy living.
www.mhhe.com/hper/physed/clw/student/
Table 2 describes some of the best-known theo-
ries and models used by researchers to study the
factors associated with healthy living. Much of
the information presented in this concept was derived from
research using these theories and models. The suggested
readings provide more information about the theories and
models for those interested for studying them further.
Web Review
Web Review materials for Concept 2 are available at
www.mhhe.com/hper/physed/clw/student/.
American Journal of Health Promotion
www.ajhp.com
ACSM’s Health and Fitness Journal
www.wwilkins.com/FIT
Section 1 Lifestyles for Health, Fitness, and Wellness28
A new way of thinking can help you adopt healthy
lifestyles.
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WEB

9. Concept 2 Using Self-Management Skills to Adhere to Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors 29
Table 2 Theories and Models Associated with Healthy Lifestyle Adoption
Theory Brief Description
Transtheoretical model This model is also referred to as the stages of change model. As described ear-
lier in this concept, this model suggests five stages of change that characterize
various health behaviors. The model suggests that doing the correct things
(processes) at the right time (stage of change) is important to self-change in
health behaviors.
Healthbeliefsmodel Thismodelsuggeststhataperson’shealthbehaviorisrelatedtothefollowingfivefactors:the
beliefthatahealthproblemwillhaveharmfuleffects,thebeliefthatapersonissusceptibleto
theproblem,theperceivedbenefitsofchangingalifestyletopreventtheproblem,the
perceivedbarrierstoovercomingtheproblem,and theconfidencethathe/shecandowhatis
necessarytopreventit.
Social cognitive theory Social cognitive theory is also referred to as social learning theory. Central to this
theory are self-efficacy and positive expectations about behavior change. Also, the
theory suggests that a person must value the outcomes of a behavior if he or she is
likely to do that behavior.
Theory of reasoned action This theory suggests that a person’s behavior is most associated with the person’s
intention to do the behavior. The two factors most likely to influence a person’s
intentions are attitudes (beliefs) and the social environment (opinions of others).
Theory of planned behavior This theory is often combined with the theory for reasoned action. It has the same
basic tenets but adds the concept of “perceived control” over the environment. The
person must believe that he or she has some control over the factors that allow
performance of that behavior. Perceived control is in many ways similar to self-
efficacy in social cognitive theory.
Self-determination theory Central to self-determination theory is the importance of choice in a person’s life
(autonomy). Perceptions of competence at mastering life’s tasks are also critical to
the theory. Making personal choices in attempt to master the tasks of daily living
are emphasized rather than making choices based on external pressures to
comply. Self-determination theory, and its subtheory cognitive evaluation theory,
emphasize intrinsic motivation. The intrinsic motivation inherent in behaviors that
are exciting and/or fulfilling to do, is very important in making activity choices.
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
www.humankinetics.com/infok/
journal/jsep/intor.html
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
www.wwilkins.com/FIT
Suggested Readings
Bandura, A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive
Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986.
Duda, J. L. (ed.) Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology Measurement.
Morgantown, WV:Fitness Information Technology Inc., 1998.
Haussenblas, H. A. et al. “Applications of the Theories of Reasoned Action
and Planned Behaviors: A Meta Analysis.” The Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 19 (1997):36.
Prochaska, J. O. “Strong and Weak Principles for Progressing From Pre-
contemplation to Action on the Basis of Twelve Problem Behaviors.”
Health Psychology, 13 (1994):47–51.
Prochaska, J. O. and Markus, B. H. “The transtheoretical model:Applications
to exercise.” In Advances in Exercise Adherence, Dishman, R. K. (ed.).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Marcus, B. H. et al. Longitudinal shifts in employee’s stages and processes of
exercise behavior change. American Journal of Health Promotion, 10
(1997):1105.
Reibe, R., and Nigg, C. “Setting the Stage for Healthy Living.” ACSM’s
Health and Fitness Journal, 2(3) (1998):11–15.
Rosenstock, I. M. The Health Belief Model: Explaining Health Behavior
Through Expectancies. In Glantz, K., Lewis, F. M. and Riner, B. K.
Health Behavior and Education. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass, 1990.

10. Sallis, J. F. “Influences of Physical Activity on Children, Adolescents, and
Adults or Determinants of Physical Activity.” In Corbin, C. B. & Pan-
grazi, R. P. (eds.), Towards a Better Understanding of Physical Fitness
and Activity. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb-Hathaway, 1999, Chapter 4.
Surgeon General’s Office. Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and
Health. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996;
Chapter 6.
Welk, G. J. “The Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model: A Conceptual
Bridge Between Theory and Practice.” Quest 51 (1999):5–23.
Whitehead, J. R. “Physical Activity and Intrinsic Motivation.” In Corbin,
C. B. & Pangrazi, R. P. (eds.), Towards a Better Understanding of
Physical Fitness and Activity. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb-Hathaway,
1999, Chapter 5.
Section 1 Lifestyles for Health, Fitness, and Wellness30

11. Concept 2 Using Self-Management Skills to Adhere to Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors 31
Lab2AThePhysicalActivityAdherenceQuestionnaire
Purpose: To help you understand the factors that influence physical activity adherence and to see which factors you might
change to improve your chances of achieving the action or maintenance level for physical activity.
Procedures:
1. The factors that predispose, enable, and reinforce adherence to physically active living are listed below. Read each state-
ment. Place an X in the circle under the most appropriate response for you: very true, somewhat true, or not true.
2. When you have answered all of the items, determine a score by summing the four numbers for each type of factor. Then
sum the three scores (predisposing, enabling, reinforcing) to get your total score.
3. Record your scores in the Results section and answer the questions in the Conclusions and Implications section.
Very Somewhat Not
True True True
Predisposing Factors
1. I am very knowledgeable about physical activity. 3 2 1
2. I have a strong belief that physical activity is good for me. 3 2 1
3. I enjoy doing regular exercise and physical activity. 3 2 1
4. I am confident of my abilities in sports, exercise, and
other physical activities. 3 2 1
Predisposing Score =
Enabling Factors
5. I possess good sport skills. 3 2 1
6. I know how to plan my own physical activity program. 3 2 1
7. I have a place to do physical activity near my home or work. 3 2 1
8. I have the equipment I need to do physical activities I enjoy. 3 2 1
Enabling Score =
Reinforcing Factors
9. I have the support of my family for doing my regular
physical activity. 3 2 1
10. I have many friends who enjoy the same kinds of physical
activities that I do. 3 2 1
11. I have the support of my boss and my colleagues for
participation in activity. 3 2 1
12. I have a doctor and/or employer who encourages
me to exercise. 3 2 1
Reinforcing Score =
Total Score (Sum 3 Scores) =
Lab 2A: The Physical Activity Adherence
Questionnaire
Name Section Date
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1

12. Section 1 Lifestyles for Health, Fitness, and Wellness32
Conclusions and Implications:
In several sentences, discuss your ratings from this questionnaire. Also discuss the predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing
factors that you may need to alter to increase your prospects for lifetime activity.
In several sentences, speculate about adherence factors for other healthy lifestyles such as eating well and managing stress.
Do you think you need more or less work in these areas as compared to physically active living?
Predisposing Enabling Reinforcing Total
Classification Score Score Score Score
Adherence likely 11–12 11–12 11–12 33–36
Good 9–10 9–10 9–10 25–32
Adherence unlikely <8 <8 <8 <24
Adherence Category Score Rating
Predisposing
Enabling
Reinforcing
Total
Results: Record your scores and ratings in the spaces below.

13. Concept 2 Using Self-Management Skills to Adhere to Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors 33
Lab2BTheSelf-ManagementSkillsQuestionnaire
Purpose: To help you assess your self-management skills that are important to adhering to physically active lifestyles.
Procedures:
1. Each question reflects one of the self-management skills described earlier. Read each statement. After each statement,
place an X over the circle indicating whether you think the item is very true, somewhat true, or not true.
2. When you have answered all of the items, score the questionnaire using the information in the Results section.
Determine your ratings and answer the questions in the Conclusions and Implications section.
Very Somewhat Not
True True True Score
1. I regularly assess my health-related fitness and rate my fitness
test results using health-fitness standards. 3 2 1
2. I keep regular physical activity logs to monitor current
physical activity levels. 3 2 1
3. I set realistic and attainable fitness and activity goals and
monitor progress in meeting these goals. 3 2 1
4. I have planned a personal program that includes activities
for all parts of fitness and for optimal health benefits. 3 2 1
5. I have the motor skills necessary to perform several
physical activities on a regular basis. 3 2 1
6. I have more positive than negative attitudes about
physical activity. 3 2 1
7. I find a way to do my activity even when the weather is bad
or my time is limited. 3 2 1
8. I know how to identify fitness misinformation
and quackery. 3 2 1
9. I know how to get others to do exercise with me and to get
the support of others for doing my own activity program. 3 2 1
10. I know and use strategies to stick with it especially when
I have not been active for a while. 3 2 1
11. I participate in activities that I am not very good at because
I am able to enjoy them even if I don’t excel. 3 2 1
12. I manage my time to allow regular performance of my
physical activity program. 3 2 1
Total Score (Sum 12 Scores)
Lab 2B: The Self-Management Skills Questionnaire
Name Section Date
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
Rating Individual Scores Total Score
Good 3 30–36
Marginal 2 24–29
May need improvement 1 less than 24

14. Section 1 Lifestyles for Health, Fitness, and Wellness34
Results: Record your score for each skill as well as the rating in the chart below. There is one question for each self-manage-
ment skill.Your score for each self-management skill is the number inside the circle for that question. The number of the ques-
tion for each skill is noted in the chart below. To get your total score, sum the scores for all of the self-management skills.
Self-Management Skill Item Score Rating
Self-assessment 1
Self-monitoring 2
Goal setting 3
Self-planning 4
Performance skills 5
Balancing attitudes 6
Overcoming barriers 7
Learning consumer skills 8
Finding social support 9
Preventing relapse 10
Adopting coping strategies 11
Managing time 12
Total
Conclusions and Implications:
In several sentences, discuss your ratings regarding self-management skills. In which areas do you think you
need to learn more to be able to be a better self-manager?
In several sentences, speculate about your self-management skills for other healthy lifestyles such as eating well
and managing stress. Do you think you need more or less work in these areas as compared to managing for physi-
cally active living?