Ar6017 urban housing unit 01 no copy

AR6017 |URBAN HOUSING|2013 REG| AR.A.SIVARAMAN, M.ARCH| PRIMECAP 7
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO HOUSING AND HOUSING ISSUES
- INDIAN CONTEXT .
CONTENT:
1.1. Housing and its importance in Architecture and its relationship with neighborhood
and city planning
1.2. Housing demand and supply
1.3. National Housing Policy
1.4. Housing agencies and their role in housing development
1.5. Impact of traditional life style
1.6. Rural Housing, Public, private sector housing.
ASPECT:
1. HOUSING AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN ARCHITECTURE AND ITS
RELATIONSHIP WITH NEIGHBORHOOD AND CITY PLANNING.
1.1. INTRODUCTION:
 Food, clothing and shelter (housing) are the primary requirements of life.
 The availability of these necessities in sufficient quantity and quality increases the
physical efficiency and productivity of the people.
 So housing is an important component of human resource development.
In India, the problem of housing is acute. There is a wide gap between the demand and supply
of houses. This gap is responsible for growth of slums in cities where crores of people live in
most unhygienic and unhealthy conditions.
1.2. MEANING OF HOUSING:
 Generally speaking, housing may be defined as an architectural unit for
accommodation in order to protect the occupants from the forces of nature. But in
wider meaning housing covers all the ancillary services and community facilities which
are essential to human well being.
 In addition to the physical structure, it includes water supply, sanitation, and disposal of
water, recreation and other basic amenities of life.
 Thus housing can be defined as a component architectural structure within a total
system consisting of various settlement variables.

1.3. DISTINCTION BETWEEN HOUSE AND HOME:
Literally speaking house and home seems to be same in sense and meaning but a distinction
between the two is must.
 House being narrower term, may represent only an architectural structure for
accommodation.
 Home being wider term, includes the family relationships and bonds of affection which
are nurtured within this architectural structure.
1.4. DEFINITIONS:
 Housing – It is physical unit which consumes land, provides shelter, demand for
provision of physical Services and social facilities.
 Dwelling unit – living quarters consisting of contiguous rooms intended for convenient,
long term occupancy by one family and providing complete, independent facilities for
living, eating, cooking, sleeping and sanitation.
 No. house hold – individuals in a single dwelling unit
 Housing need – It is the necessity of the society. Every human being has the need to
have a comfortable space for living. But the affordability of a person will vary according
to his economic status. This is called as demand.
 Housing demand – it is the will and affordability of the person in terms of cost.
 Subsidy –a sum of money granted by the government or a public body to assist an
industry or business so that the price of a commodity or service may remain low or
competitive.
 Cross subsidy – the use of profits from on activity to cover losses from another. The
profit from HIG development can be used for LIG housing development.
 Housing resources -Land , Finance ,Labor ,Technology, Materials
 Net housing area/Net area: actual area of the accommodation – the actual living
quarters.
 Net housing density: The average density of population per unit of housing area
including local roads and excluding open spaces
 Gross area: Total area including buildup area and open area
 Gross density: The average density of population per unit area of the whole residential
zone

1.5. ROLE OF HOUSING:
 Housing is closely associated to the process of overall socio-economic development.
 It provides shelter and raises the quality of life.
 It generates conditions which are congenial to the achievement of social objectives such
as health, sanitation and education.
 It provides employment opportunities to the rural and urban people.
 Moreover it helps to improve urban rural equality by narrowing down the difference in
the standard of living. Thus housing performs multiple functions including many social
needs of the household.
1.6. SOCIO-CULTURAL VARIABLES IN HOUSING:
 The socio-cultural factors decide the quality and quantity of housing in India.
 The caste divide in Indian rural society mainly affects the distribution of houses and also
the quality of housing. In Indian villages, the division on caste basis has given rise to
division of housing.
 Generally houses of upper castes are situated in better areas while houses of lower
castes especially scheduled castes and some backward classes are situated in periphery
of the village. These peripheral regions are mostly low lying areas and unhygienic.
 Kinship and family structure are other variables which affect the quality and quantity of
housing. For example, there is shift from joint family system to nuclear families.
 This tendency puts pressure on the available land for housing. In Punjab and Haryana
this pressure is visible.
 In Rajasthan where dispersed settlement pattern exists, this pressure may not be felt so
far.
 The household size is also important variable of housing quality and quantity. Urban
families are small in comparison to rural area. The land is more costly in urban areas. So
urban houses are small in size as compared to village houses.
 The occupational pattern and tradition also affect the housing layout.
 Generally, housing structure in rural areas use locally available building material,
technology and man power except well to do rural families. In urban areas, building
materials used are of industrial origin and durable.
1.7. MAGNITUDE OF THE HOUSING PROBLEM:
The magnitude of the problem of housing in India is quite wide. The problem has both
quantitative and qualitative dimensions. According to 1991 census, the housing shortage was
18.5 million dwelling units, out of which 13.7 million for rural areas and 4.8 million for urban
areas 41.6. % was living in pucca houses, 30.9% was living in semi-pucca houses and 27.5% was
living in kutcha houses.

THE FOLLOWING TABLE SHOWS THE SHORTAGE OF HOUSING IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS:
The table indicates that rural housing shortage increased from 3.4 million in 1961 to 20.6
million in 2001. Urban housing shortage increased from 0.9 million units to 10.4 million units
during the same period. Thus total shortages of housing increased from 4.3 million to 31.0
million dwelling units. The rate of housing construction in the country is around 3 houses per
thousand populations per year as against the required rate of 5 houses per thousand
populations.
According to 2012 housing shortage report was estimated at a whopping 20 million households
in 2012. Out of those living in obsolescence, close to 90 percent belong to the Economically
Weaker Sections (EWS) who were in dire need of a new house, or even a house. The Lower
Income Segments (LIG) and Middle-Income Segments (MIG) constituted the remaining
households who lacked livable ‘affordable’ housing spaces in urban centers.
1.8. QUALITATIVE ASPECT OF HOUSING PROBLEM
Qualitatively speaking the state of housing in India is miserable. About 80% houses in rural
areas do not have basic amenities like safe drinking water, bathroom, toilets etc.

Ninth Five year Plan has recorded the interstate variation in housing shortage. There is a large
concentration in a few States.
For example: Bihar accounted for one third of the housing scarcity followed by Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, U.P. and West Bengal. In 2000, about 48.7 million people were living in urban slums in
unhealthy conditions.
According to Ninth Five-Year Plan, 18.77 million houses are kutcha houses. They are thatched
houses made of mud, straw and bamboos. These are unable to face natural disaster like cyclone
and flood etc.
1.9. QUANTITATIVE ASPECT OF HOUSING PROBLEM:
Quantitatively speaking, there is acute shortage of housing in rural and urban areas in India.
Presently, there is shortage of 310 lakh houses in India. Out of which 206 lakh houses are in
rural area and 104 lakh houses in urban areas.
1.10. IMPORTANCE OF HOUSING:
 Housing, besides being a very basic requirement for the urban people, also holds the
key to accelerate the speed of the development of the nation.
 Investment in housing industry like any other industry has a multiplier effect on income
and employment, which in turn leads to the overall development of the economy.
 It is estimated that overall employment generation in our economy due to the
additional investment in housing as well as construction industry is eight times the
direct employment.
 Housing provides employment to a cross section of people, which importantly includes
the weaker sections of the society.
 Housing also provides opportunities for home based economic activities. At the same
time, adequate housing also decides the health status of the occupants.
 Therefore, on account of health, income and employment considerations, housing is a
very important tool for removing poverty, generation of employment and improving the
health status of people.
 Magnitude of housing requirements is linked to pattern of growth, settlement status
and overall shelter quality.
 Cities and towns, which are growing at faster rate, need to develop and deliver a faster
and greater supply of housing.
 Growth of slums in India has been at least three times higher than the growth of urban
population, leading to sizeable number of urban populations living in the slums.

 Therefore, housing activities are to be planned according to the growth pattern of
different settlement/ cities. The people themselves with their own resources construct
majority of the houses in India.
 Therefore, the main role of the government at all levels is not to seek to build houses
itself but to act as a catalyst and make appropriate investments and create conditions
where the poor people may gain and secure good housing and remove the existing
difficulties in the housing system.
 In order to remove these problems National Housing Policy was framed and it has
certain well-defined aims.
1.11. IMPORTANCE OF ARCHITECTURE IN HOUSING
QUALITY
 Pursuing the longevity, well-being and future health of the individuals and society
 A well-designed space can make the inhabitant enjoy where they live, take pride in their
surroundings, build sense of community and inspire them to strive for more.
 In simple words:
Housing quality refers to the physical condition of a person’s home as well as the quality
of the social and physical environment in which the home is located.
HOUSING QUALITY INDICATORS:
1. Location
2. Infrastructure
3. Design
4. Aesthetics
5. Materials and Construction techniques
6. Sustainability
7. Concept
8. Hyginity
QUANTITY
 House more people but sub-standard life, cheap construction, isolated spaces.

 Promote crime activity, vast empty spaces like no man’s land, no outlet to improve their
living situations.
The role of good architect/ architecture in housing has the capacity to greatly improve or
decline the quality of life for the citizens and reflects on society as a whole. With time architects
involved in housing design began to realize that good buildings can improve the quality of life,
both physical and emotional.
 CURRENT INDIAN HOUSING QUANTITY-STATE WISE LISTED BELOW
Fig: State wise status of housing quantity
1.12. RELATIONSHIP OF HOUSING IN NEIGHBORHOOD AND CITY PLANNING
NEIGHBORHOOD LEVEL
 The housing plays an important role in neighborhood planning. As the household are the
key user the entire setting up of the surrounding should be planned for the ease and
comfortable living of them.
 Location of school, daily market, commercial area etc., will be planned accordingly to
the housing units planning.
 Open spaces, social spaces or community spaces will also be planned/ designed
accordingly to the housing unit/ residential neighborhood.


CITY PLANNING LEVEL
Generally, city planning mostly concentration on transportation networking and development
guidelines.
 The relationship of residential neighborhood with the surrounding land use proposed
plays an major role.
 One can’t propose a huge highway or industrial area next to tan residential area.
 The connectivity between the residential area and CBD, Commercial hubs will be
considered.
 Proposal of availability of other services and amenities for the well being of the
community/ society is taken care.
 Whenever the master plan is done for any city, more care and importance will be given
for residential areas. It can be of any type of residential settlement.


2. HOUSING DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Supply and demand is a framework we use to explain and predict the equilibrium cost and
quantity of housing.
 Housing demand: Refers to Required housing unit based on populations
 Housing Supply: Refers to Possible number of houses to provide the needy.
Notable key drivers which affect demand and supply:
1. Rapid urbanization 2.Growth in population 3.Rise in the number of nuclear families
4. Easy availability of finance 5.Repatriation of NRIs and HNIs 6.Rise in disposable income

The effect of demand and supply-side subsidies on the housing market can be analysed through
supply and demand graphs.
This analysis illustrates that in the presence of an inelastic supply curve that prevents supply
from responding to price rises, both subsidies are at best ineffective, and at worst a hand-out to
developers.
1. Demand-side subsidies 2. Supply-side subsidies
When housing providers are unable to respond to price rises by supplying more housing (e.g.
due to a limited supply of well-connected land), the supply curve S rises upwards steeply.
This is referred to as an inelastic supply response to price rises. When a demand-side subsidy
acts to shift the demand curve from D1 to D2, the housing market equilibrium moves from
point A to point B.
The main effect of the demand-side subsidy is therefore an increase in price rather than an
increase in the quantity of housing delivered.
The price rise translates into increased profits for housing suppliers.
When a supply-side subsidy acts to reduce the price at which subsidised suppliers are willing to
provide a certain quantity of housing, this shifts the supply curve downwards from S1 to S2.
The housing market equilibrium moves from A to B, resulting in a decrease in price and increase
in quantity delivered.

However, if the supply curve is inelastic as some inputs into housing production are relatively
fixed in quantity (e.g. land) then these subsidies do not increase the total housing stock but
rather serve to crowd out unsubsidised suppliers with subsidised suppliers.
In the extreme case where the supply of land is completely fixed, the supply curve is vertical.
The subsidy therefore has no effect on quantity, and simply serves to displace non-subsidised
housing production.
3. Increasing supply elasticity
When policy acts to increase the elasticity of housing supply (e.g. through reforming land-use
regulation or increasing the effective land supply) this enables the private sector to better
respond to rises in price by supplying more housing in the market.
This makes slope of the supply curve less steep such that the supply curve pivots from S1 to S2.
This movement in the supply curve reduces house prices and increases the quantity of housing
delivered.
It also has the corollary of making both demand and supply-side subsidies more effective if
implemented.

2.1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOUSING NEED AND DEMAND
 Housing demand : refers to the willingness and ability to purchase a house
 Housing need: refers to the number of houses required, given growth in households,
itself derived from household size and population growth.
 Essentially housing need is a number, derived from population and household size
projections, that makes no allowance for affordability.
 If those who need houses are unable to afford houses, they don’t buy or demand them.
VALUE-CHAIN-IN-HOUSING:
Fig: The-value-chain-in-housing-in-Nicaragua-(Source:Affordable-Housing-Institute)
2.2. COMPONENTS OF NEED AND DEMAND STUDY
The typical housing need and demand study has three key components:
(a) Current Need Analysis;
(b) Newly Arising Need (Demand) Analysis; and
(c) Supply Analysis.

The current need analysis seeks to identify households in the community that currently lack
their own housing or live in inadequate housing for a variety of reasons, and cannot afford
the housing they need in the local housing market without some assistance. In simple
terms, the current need analysis seeks to answer the question of who in the community
needs affordable housing immediately.
The newly arising need (demand) analysis is a forward-looking view of the need question.
Specifically, it relies on the projected or potential short to medium term household
composition of the community to estimate the future need for affordable housing in the
community. Together, the current and newly arising need analyses allow the proponent to
put forward a project that is better able to accommodate the present and future affordable
housing needs of the community.
The Supply analysis is to identify or study about the product (housing) given to the
community against the demand. This supply should nullify the demand. The common
situation prolonging in our country is that the supply is always lesser than the actual
demand. Drastic imbalance between supply and demand is seen.
2.3. FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF HOUSING:

2.4. ISSUES OF HOUSING IN INDIA:
 unplanned urbanization,
 increasing population,
 increasing pollution
 Non-availability of developed land and ineffective and unfavorable land management
 increasing land cost
 income disparity(difference),
 Lack of Financial Resources
 Inadequate Fiscal(taxes) Incentives (a payment or concession)
 Poverty, illiteracy, and Unemployment.
 Sanitation
 Manpower Shortage
 high demand of houses
 Technology & Materials – Urgent Need for Improvement
These issues extenuated the housing problem, causing a housing shortage of 51 million in 2011.
Though India has a long history of establishing policies, programs, and institutions to cater to
housing, without allocating adequate resources, their impact in ameliorating the shortage has
been marginal.
3. NATIONAL HOUSING POLICY
Indian government came out with housing policies to declare its political will to intensify the
housing activity in the country.
3.1. HOUSING POLICIES OVER THE YEARS:
A. POLICIES FOR RURAL AND URBAN AREA-1988-2000
1. First National Housing Policy in India formulated in 1988.
2. With change of Government in 1990, a new National Housing Policy announced in
August, 1994.
3. Further, new National Housing & Habitat Policy announced in July, 1998 with some
landmark initiatives like
 involvement of multi-stakeholders,
 repeal of Urban Land Ceiling Act,
 Permitting Foreign Direct Investment in housing and real estate sector, etc.

4. However, all these policies were generic and applicable to both rural and urban areas.
B. POLICIES FOR URBAN AREA-2001
1. Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY-2001) For urban slum dwellers living below
the poverty line without adequate shelter.
2. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission-(JNNURM-2005).
3. Taking into account emerging challenges of required shelter and growth of slums, the
first ever urban areas specific National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy, (NUHHP-
2007) was announced in December 2007.
4. Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor (ISHUP-2008).
5. Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY-2011).
6. Affordable Housing in Partnership (AHP or AHIP-2013)-as part of Rajiv Awas Yojana
central government introduced AHP in 2013 November.
7. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana- Housing for All (Urban) PMAY(Urban) – 2015
C. POLICIES FOR RURAL AREA-1985
Government of India has organized a few major housing schemes for the rural poor. They
include
1. Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY-1985).
2. Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana (PMGAY-2015),
previously Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY),
3. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sabha Yojana or Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY-2000)
4. Two Million Housing Programme (1998),.
5. Credit cum Subsidy for Rural Housing (1999),
6. Samagra Awaas Yojana(SAY-1999),
7. Rural Ashraya for Rural Housing and Habitat Development (1999),
8. Setting up of Rural Building Centre (RBCs-2004),
9. National Mission for Rural Housing and Habitat (NMRHH-2007),
10. Dr. Ambedkar Housing Scheme (2009).
3.2. NATIONAL HOUSING POLICY (NHP)-1988
In the year of following IYSH (International Year of Shelter for the Homeless), the Indian
government came out with a national housing policy (NHP) to declare its political will to
intensify the housing activity in the country. The preliminary draft was presented in Aug 1986
and final policy was announced on 12-5-1988.

Thus the IYSH provided the necessary push for NHP. So that the engineers architects,
town planners and housing finance can evolve viable strategies issues relating to the housing.
THE NEED FOR POLICY
 Shelter is one of the basic human needs just next to food and clothing.
 Need for a National Housing and Habitat Policy emerges from the growing requirements
of shelter and related infrastructure.
 These requirements are growing in the context of rapid pace of urbanization, increasing
migration from rural to urban centers in search of livelihood, mis-match between
demand and supply of sites & services at affordable cost and inability of most new and
poorer urban settlers to access formal land markets in urban areas due to high costs and
their own lower incomes, leading to a non-sustainable situation.
 This policy intends to promote sustainable development of habitat in the country, with a
view to ensure equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices.
OBJECTIVES OF NHP
Housing Policy Objectives would focus to evolve an enabling strategy aiming at:
 To create the environment for achieving the maximum housing, efforts.
 To encourage investment in housing.
 To motivate and help houseless and inadequately housed people to secure for
themselves affordable shelter.
 To promote vernacular architecture.
 Encouraging indigenous approaches in Research and Development to support housing
activity particularly for low income groups.
 Developing indigenous and cost effective approaches particularly for Low income group.
 Provision of institutional incentives for improved housing delivery for the rural areas
and preparation of Rural Housing Plans and schemes.
 Realizing the importance of role of Private Sector, introduce incentives to encourage
their full participation in National Building initiatives.
 Promote women participations in this important national building actively.
STRATEGY OF NHP
The high population growth, combined with difficulties in governance and inadequate
investment in urban development has resulted in uncontrolled and unplanned growth of cities
and towns, deterioration in urban environment and deficiency in all forms of services.

The absence of large scale flexible institutional financing over all phases of housing
development, land development, construction, bridge and mortgage financing is both cause
and effect of the under-developed housing delivery system.
The Policy has been prepared with a practical approach to achieve the following aims and
objectives:
 To provide enabling strategy, capacity-building and institutional development aiming at
empowering all stake holders, particularly local authorities, the private sector, non-
Governmental organizations and community-based organizations, to play an effective
role in shelter and human settlements planning and management.
 To introduce a strategy that would combine community participation and institutional
strengthening in support of the development of a commercially based system of housing
finance for land and house purchase; house construction improvement and upgrading.
 In addition, innovative approaches to collateral and screening of eligible households for
incremental housing finance and home improvement credits which are compatible with
the affordability limits of moderate and low income households would be introduced.
 To improve the housing conditions of the low-income population, through development
capacity building and institution of new ideas, such as reduced housing standards,
appropriate technology, incremental housing development, community participation
and squatter-settlement regulation.
 To upgrade existing towns and cities with better city planning through improvement of
infrastructure, creation of employment opportunities and affordable housing under a
phased programme, giving higher attention to those cities and towns which are
comparatively more productive and efficient and require lower investments.
 Long term solution for housing lies in this sector, which should be a High Priority for
economic development.
PRINCIPLE / ACTION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE HOUSING
 Documenting environmental resources.
 Assessing their value in their long range economic.
 Pegging needs at reasonable levels.
 Minimize the wastage.
 Optimization of existing facilities.
 Ensuring equity.
 Working for bottom up decision.
 Full stakeholder involvement.
 Be a watching dog for monitoring purpose.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF NHP
1. DESIGN ASPECTS
 It focuses on design aspects of the houses with regard to their location and type
region, whether it be hilly, desert land or coastal.
2. FISCAL INCENTIVES
 The fiscal incentives under the law relating to taxation of income.
 Wealth and gifts will be rationalized by proper savings into housing finance
institutions.
 The co-operative and group of housing society is to be treated on priority basis.
3. HOUSING SCHEMES
 Consideration of physically mentally and disabled, the aged, widows and
incorporate dwelling units of appropriate design.
4. NATIONAL HOUSING BANK
 National housing bank has been set up; it will lead to easy accessibility of
institutional finance at affordable rates of interest to the houseless peoples.
5. RATIONALIZED LAW
 The entire gamut of legal provisions contained in different act is to be reviewed.
 Wherever necessary the laws relating to land tenure, acquisition and ceiling are
to be made.
 The municipal regulations relating to the house building, apartments ownership
and other will also be initiated wherever necessary.
6. ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
 Role of government will be that of a promoter and enabler rather than that of a
builder.
 The govt. people build houses for themselves at the same time; it has to
discharge the vital role of sustaining a regular supply of service land, steady flow
of finance of easy availability of building materials.
 It has also to provide essential service like portable water, sanitation, drainage,
street lighting, and paved pathways.
CRITICISM OF NHP
The presentation of NHP document has generated some lively Criticism on various grounds,
the important ones being followed;
1. Ambitious goal
 The task cannot be accomplished in matter of few years in a country where
people do not have even enough eat and survive.
2. Course of action

 The NHP set out, commendable goals, but it fails to outline the action
plan required to achieve them.
3. Housing finance
 The authorized capital of the national housing bank is too small to meet the huge
investments of 145000 crore which is estimated to be required till the turn off
the century.
4. Pro-urban attitude
 The NHP seems to be pro-urban. It is mainly oriented towards rich developers
and private contractors.
3.3. THE NATIONAL HOUSING POLICY 1994
 The National Housing Policy 1994 recognizes the importance of both rural and urban
housing in the overall development of rural people and urban poor.
 The existing central sector housing schemes aimed at benefiting the urban poor are
proposed to be continued.
 A National Network of Nirman or Nirmithi Kendras (Building Centers) has been
established with central assistance through the Housing and Urban Development
Corporation (HUDCO). As on 31.12.97, 500 centers have been given administrative
approval out of which 270 centers had become functional.
 The ongoing social housing schemes viz. Housing scheme for Economically Weaker
Sections (EWS), Lower Income Groups (LIG), Middle Income Groups/Higher Income
Groups (MIG/HIG) and rental housing scheme for State Government employees
continue to be implemented by State Governments.
3.4. NATIONAL URBAN HOUSING & HABITAT POLICY 2007
ABOUT POLICY
 The National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy 2007 seeks to promote various types of public-
private partnerships for realizing the goal of “Affordable Housing For All’ with special
emphasis on the urban poor.
 The Policy intends to promote sustainable development of habitat in the country with a view to
ensuring equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices to all sections of
society. Given the magnitude of the housing shortage and budgetary constraints of both the
Central and State Governments, the National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy, 2007 focuses
the spotlight on multiple stake-holders namely, the Private Sector, the Cooperative Sector,
the Industrial Sector for labour housing and the Services/ Institutional Sector for employee
housing. In this manner, the Policy will seek to promote various types of public-private
partnerships for realizing the goal of "Affordable Housing for All".

 The formulation of the National Housing Policy is an ongoing process which started in 1986.
Last time policy was revised in 1998. Since then there have been major changes in Habitat and
Human Settlement issues. Particularly, the urban housing sector has been facing emerging
challenges with regard to availability of affordable shelter, growth of slums, and gaps in
provision of basic services to the urban poor.
SALIENT FEATURES
The salient features of the National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy are:
 Focus of the Policy is on affordable urban housing with special emphasis on the urban
poor.
 Role of Housing and provision of basic services to the urban poor has been integrated
into the objectives of the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
 Special emphasis has been laid on Scheduled Castes / Tribes / Backward Classes /
Minorities, empowerment of Women within the ambit of the urban poor.
 The Policy focuses on a symbiotic development of rural and urban areas in line with
the objectives of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act.
 Within the overarching goal of "Affordable Housing for All," emphasis has been laid on
urban planning, increase supply of land, use of spatial incentives like additional Floor
Area Ratio (FAR), Transferable Development Rights, etc., increased flow of funds,
healthy environment, effective solid waste management and use of renewal sources
of energy.
 Encouraging integrated townships and Special Economic Zones.
 10-15% of land in every new public/private housing projects or or 20-25% FAR
whichever is greater to be reserved for EWS/LIG Housing through appropriate spatial
incentives.
 Private Sector to be permitted land assembly within the purview of Master Plans.
Action Plans for urban slum dwellers and special package for cooperative housing,
labour housing and employees housing is to be prepared.
 States to be advised to develop 10 years perspective plan for housing of EWS/LIG.
 Policy gives primacy to provision of shelter to urban poor at their present location or
near their work place.
 Approach will be in-situ slum rehabilitation. Relocation will be considered only in
specific cases.
 Micro finance institutions to be promoted at state level to expedite flow of finances to
urban poor.
 Model municipal laws to be prepared by the Central Government.
 Detailed city maps to be prepared based on GIS, aerial survey and ground verification.
 Use of proven cost effective technology and building materials to be encouraged.

 Development of mass rapid transit system at sub-regional level envisaged.
 Green cover for cities to be encouraged for balanced ecological development.
 All States to be encouraged to develop a "Habitat Infrastructure Action Plan" for all
cities with a population of over one lakh.
ACTION PLAN
The Action Plan stated in the Policy is as follows:
 Encouragement and support to be provided to State Governments by the Central
Government for preparation of State Urban Housing and Habitat Policy and Action Plan.
 State/UT Action plans to focus on accelerated flow of funds.
 State / UT level policy to provide road map for institutional, legal and financial
incentives.
 State / UT plans to indicate concrete steps for encouraging a participatory approach.
 Periodic review of implementation of Policy and Action Plan at State level to be carried
out.
 Preparation of 15-20 years perspective plans in the form of City Development Plans
(CDPs) based on spatial planning at the city level.
 Setting up of a High Level Monitoring Committee for periodic review and
implementation of the Policy and for making amendments, modifications wherever
considered necessary.
Source: PIB
REVISED NATIONAL POLICY FOR URBAN STREET VENDORS-2009
PURPOSES OF THIS POLICY
 For the purposes of this Policy, a 'Street Vendor' is defined as 'a person who offers goods or
services for sale to the public in a street without having a permanent built-up structure.' There
are three basic categories of street vendors: (a) stationary; (b) peripatetic and (c) mobile.
Stationary vendors are those who carry out vending on a regular basis at a specific location, e.g.
those occupying space on the pavements or other public places and/or private areas either
open/covered (with implicit or explicit consent) of the authorities. Peripatetic vendors are
those who carry out vending on foot and sell their goods and services and include those who
carry baskets on their head/slung on their shoulders and those who sell their goods on
pushcarts. Mobile street vendors are those who move from place to place vending their goods
or services on bicycle or mobile units on wheels, whether motorized or not. They also include
vendors selling their wares in moving buses, local trains etc.
 In this Policy, the term 'Urban Street Vendor' incorporates all other local/regional specific terms
used to describe them, such as hawkers, pheriwallas, rehri-patri wallas, footpath dukandars,

sidewalk traders, etc. The land, premises, trains owned by Indian Railways, its subsidiaries
including Public Sector Undertakings, Corporations or other undertakings where Indian
Railways holds share, are exempted from the ambit of this Policy.
 The term ‘Town Vending Committee’ means the body constituted by an appropriate
Government for protecting the livelihoods of street vendors while at the same time imposing
reasonable restrictions, if necessary, for ensuring flow of traffic and for addressing concerns
relating to public health and hygiene in the public interest. The TVC may constitute, in such
manner and for such purposes as it deems fit, Ward Vending Committees, if required.
 The term 'Local Authority' (referred to as Municipal Authority in this Policy) in this Policy means
a Municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayat, Cantonment Board, Civil Area
Committee appointed under Section 47 of the Cantonment Act, 2006 or such other body legally
entitled to function as a local authority in any city or town to provide civic services and regulate
street vending, and includes the "planning authority" which regulates the land use in that city
or town at the city/locality level.
 The term "Natural Market" means a market where sellers and buyers have traditionally
congregated for more than a specified period for the sale and purchase of a given set of
products or services as assessed by the local authority.
OVERARCHING OBJECTIVE
To provide for and promote a supportive environment for the vast mass of urban street
vendors to carry out their vocation while at the same time ensuring that their vending activities
do not lead to overcrowding and unsanitary conditions in public spaces and streets.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Specific Objectives This Policy aims to develop a legal framework through a model law on street
vending which can be adopted by States/Union Territories with suitable modifications to take
into account their geographical/local conditions. The specific objectives of this Policy are
elaborated as follows:
A) LEGAL STATUS:
To give street vendors a legal status by formulating an appropriate law and thereby providing
for legitimate vending/hawking zones in city/town master or development plans including
zonal, local and layout plans and ensuring their enforcement;
B) CIVIC FACILITIES:
To provide civic facilities for appropriate use of Identified spaces as vending/hawking zones,
vendors’ markets or vending areas in accordance with city/town master plans including zonal,
local and layout plans;

C) TRANSPARENT REGULATION:
To eschew imposing numerical limits on access to public spaces by discretionary licenses, and
instead moving to nominal fee-based regulation of access, where previous occupancy of space
by the street vendors determines the allocation of space or creating new informal sector
markets where space access is on a temporary turn-by-turn basis. All allotments of space,
whether permanent or temporary should be based on payment of a prescribed fee fixed by the
local authority on the recommendations of the Town Vending Committee to be constituted
under this Policy ;
D) ORGANIZATION OF VENDORS:
To promote, where necessary, organizations of street vendors e.g. unions / co-operatives
/associations and other forms of organizations to facilitate their collective empowerment;
E) PARTICIPATIVE PROCESSES:
To set up participatory processes that involve firstly, local authority, planning authority and
police; secondly, associations of street vendors; thirdly, resident welfare associations and
fourthly, other civil society organizations such as NGOs, representatives of professional groups
(such as lawyers,doctors, town planners, architects etc.), representatives of trade and
commerce, representatives of scheduled banks and eminent citizens;
F) SELF-REGULATION:
To promote norms of civic discipline by institutionalizing mechanisms of self-management and
self-regulation in matters relating to hygiene, including waste disposal etc. amongst street
vendors both in the individually allotted areas as well as vending zones/clusters with collective
responsibility for the entire vending zone/cluster; and
G) PROMOTIONAL MEASURES:
To promote access of street vendors to such services as credit, skill development, housing,
social security and capacity building. For such promotion, the services of Self Help Groups
(SHGs)/Co-operatives/ Federations/Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs), Training Institutes etc.
should be encouraged.
PROVISION OF CIVIC FACILITIES
Municipal Authorities need to provide basic civic facilities in Vending Zones / Vendors’ Markets
which would include:
 Provisions for solid waste disposal
 Public toilets to maintain cleanliness
 Aesthetic design of mobile stalls/ push carts
 Provision for electricity
 Provision for drinking water
 Provision for protective covers to protect wares of street vendors as well as themselves
from heat, rain, dust etc

 Storage facilities including cold storage for specific goods like fish, meat and poultry;
and
 Parking areas.
The Vendors’ Markets should, to the extent possible, also provide for crèches, toilets and
restrooms for female and male members.
For More Information: Revised National Policy for Urban Street Vendors-2009 (160KB)
STREET VENDORS
(PROTECTION OF LIVELIHOOD AND REGULATION OF STREET VENDING) ACT, 2014
 “Street vendors constitute an integral part of our urban economy. Street vending is not only a
source of self-employment to the poor in cities and towns but also a means to provide
‘affordable’ as well as ‘convenient’ services to a majority of the urban population, especially the
common man. Street vendors are often those who are unable to get regular jobs in the
remunerative formal sector on account of their low level of education and skills. They try to
solve their livelihoods issues through their own meagre financial resources and sweat equity.
 Given the pace of urbanization and the opportunities presented through the development of
urban areas, the growth of street vendors’ population is likely to have an upward trend. It is
vital that these vendors are enabled to pursue their livelihoods in a congenial and harassment
free atmosphere.
3.5. URBAN AND RURAL HOUSING SCENARIO IN INDIA
The estimates of housing shortage reveal that in the urban sector, according to the NBO, on the
basis of 1991 Census, there was a shortage of 8.23 million housing units in urban sector.
It is hoped that the shortage would decline to 7.57 million units in 1997 and 6.64 million units in
2001. Some other estimate indicates that housing shortage will increase to 9.4 million units in
2001.
Available data on housing stock in urban and rural lndia (Table No. 3.1) suggest that between
1951 and 1991, population had increased about 235 per cent, however the increase in the
number of households was about 206 per cent .
This indicates that the government, in spite of its several housing programmes, was not able to
achieve the demands created by the population explosion and for that matter no Government
would be able to meet such huge demands.

Fig: Details Regarding the Population, households And Housing Stocks In India
(In Lakhs)
URBAN HOUSING SCENARIO
In the urban housing scenario there are innumerable agencies, both public as well as private, in
operation. Among the public housing Central Governments and State Governments and
between these State PWDs, State Public undertakings, Housing Boards and City Improvement
Trusts are involved.
In the Central Sector, Central Construction Agencies such as Central PWDs, Central Public
Undertakings, Military Engineering Services, Post and Telegraphs and Railways are involved.
In addition to these massive housing schemes are implemented by the Housing and Urban
Development Corporation (HUDCO) under the Ministry of Urban Affair and Employment,
National Cooperative.
Housing Federation, etc., and public intuitions, such as LIC, GIC (General insurance corporation -
India) and Banking sector are also contributing to their might through promotion of loans and
advances to the employees and the promotion of the Co-operative Sector on a big scale.
In the private sector the promotion of housing schemes and construction of massive scale
housing are being encouraged by the provision of adequate finances by National Housing Bank.
RBI, Commercial Banks in the private sector, corporations like HDFC and specialized institutions
set up by Nationalized Banks; also provide adequate finances in this area.
In spite of the entire tremendous boost provided to the housing sector in recent times, the
housing shortage continues to be alarming. State Governments have encouraged specific
programmes and policies in the public and private sectors in construction activities and the new

Housing Policy indicates the promotion of housing by way of providing adequate finances in the
housing activity.
The magnitude of housing shortage in urban and rural areas is evident from the following Table
“Households. Usable housing stocks and housing shortages in 1991” (In Lakhs)
Figures in brackets recomputed on the basis of 1991 Census / Projected population. Table
shows the number of households and estimates of housing shortage in India 1991 and 2001.
As per the NBO estimates there was a shortage of 104 lakh houses in urban area and this
figure was projected to rise to 155 lakhs in 2001.
Figures recomputed on the basis of 1991 Census show that in 2001 urban areas will have a
shortage of 143 lakhs houses, while there had a shortage of 96 lakhs houses in 1991. Thus
during the decade, housing shortage in urban areas will increase by 47 lakhs.
It may be noted that the extent of shortage has been worked out considering certain minimum
standards. It does not imply that an equivalent number of families are entirely shelter less.
The problem of urban housing is felt much more acutely with the immigration of population
from the neighboring areas. All sorts of working population, literate, semi-literate, etc., flow to
the urban centers in search of employment.
This undue concentration in urban areas has to be tackled through proper and effective urban
housing policies and with the adoption of proper programmes and policies by way of providing
basic civic amenities and environmental improvement programmes in semi - urban and rural
areas.

The future of the urban centers leads only in the liquidation's of housing shortage as well as
eliminating all urban slums and provision of adequate amenities and facilities in the region.
3.6. RURAL HOUSING SCENARIO
Rural housing is qualitatively different from urban housing in the sense that the housing activity
is not very much based on the cash economy but depends to a considerable extend on land
rights and access to resources. In rural housing also there is need to provide house - sites to the
poor so that they are able to erect housing units over them .
India is primarily rural in character where about 74 per cent of the population lives in villages
(1991 Census). Though there is no unanimous view about the magnitude of poverty, it is fact
that vast majority lives below the poverty line.
A vast majority of the poor either do not have a house or live in an unserviceable Kutcha house.
According to 1991 Census there are 341 million households who are absolutely houseless and
about 10.31 million households live in unserviceable Kutcha house. The total housing shortage
in the country is thus about 13.72 million. To meet this housing shortage the Government of
lndia has given special attention to the programmes for the rural housing and expectation are
that by 2002 all rural houseless people will be provided shelter.
Rural housing should not be confined to mere provision of a roof over one's head in the
changing socioeconomic-politico system in India in particular and in the developing economies
of the world in general.
RURAL HOUSING SHOULD CONTRIBUTE TO THE FOLLOWING:
1) Substantial improvements in the quail of life of the rural households and reflect their
aspirations.
2) The total development of the personality of the rural family.
3) Facilitate provision of all basic amenities, which have a direct impact on the family's
health vigor and efficiency.
4) Internal and external environment of the house should have aesthetic value and
should be eco friendly from the health point of view and
5) Women and children in particular should be able to maintain their health well and be
inspired to pursue economic and social activities.

The rural housing problem has arisen because of certain socioeconomic factors of the rural
society. The growing population pressures the emerging social requirements and the improving
quality of life need newer, better and a large number of houses for the rural teeming millions.
On the basis of the review of the progress of rural housing, it can be seen that the housing
shortage had marginally defined in the Sixties but the trend witnessed a reversal in Seventies.
As regards the growth rate in rural households, it was 7.83 between 1971 and 1981. The usable
housing stock increased at a rate of 1.54 in rural areas. So far as the housing shortage is
concerned it is estimated to have increased from 6.5 million dwelling units in the year 1951 to
over 16 million in 1981 and 18.8 million in 1985.
According to the estimate of the NBO 1991 March, out of the total housing shortage of 310
lakhs units in the country, 206 lakhs units are in rural areas .
The estimated housing shortage at the beginning of 1997 -1998 was estimated at 140 lakhs
dwelling units in the rural areas.
To cope with the problem as many as 20 lakhs new units are needed every year for the
increasing population.
As housing encourages, economic activities, generates employment opportunities and create
solid base for healthy and hygienic living, the magnitude of the problem and its inherent
difficulties, the task of improving the housing conditions in rural areas should be viewed as an
integral part of a programme for overall development of the villages of the country.
Housing problem is essentially the problem of the poor and low - income groups. During the
Eighth Five Year Plan a target of 7.80 million new housing stock was set, out of which 6.29
million units were for economically weaker sections and low-income groups.
However, since the housing demand has to be looked after by the state administration each
state is trying to achieve its target every year and in this process some of the states appear to
be establishing progress over others.
This is what is indicated in Table No. 3.3. Consolidated figures at the all lndia level indicate that
within a decade, the proportion of houseless I households in rural lndia have declined from 0.47
per cent to 0.28 per cent. This is an appreciable achievement in terms of statistical data.

DIMENSIONS OF THE PROBLEM
There are many reasons behind houseless and low quality of houses in rural areas. The major
factors are:-
1. Poverty / Low income
2. Population growth
3. Westernization Value changes and
4. Environmental factors
The poor lack in all basic facilities. For them food is the most important need.

The rural poor pay greatest attention to satisfying hunger and then clothing needs. Unable to
bear the cost of building materials they remain houseless or live in adequate and congested
house. The poor people also lack in other facilities such as drinking water. They are the people
who need special assistance for house construction. They can certainly provide labour but left
to themselves they cannot arrange for construction materials. They also need to be informed
about alternative construction technologies that can be low and effective.It is doubtless the
urban- rural divide in housing will continue to prevail for a long but the degree of differences
certainly calls for intervention in rural area.
The shelters should be provided with basic amenities such as access to drinking water, toilets,
electrification and general sanitation. The National Sample Survey (1974-1975) reveals that
about 97 per cent of the households have no toilets and 93 per cent of the households do not
have any bathrooms.
Only 0.35 per cent of them were having water supply and 45 per cent of the households' living
room was being used as kitchen and the remaining households were cooking their food in the
open area in front of their houses.
INDIAN HOUSING GRADES AND ITS CLASSIFICATION
1. EWS-Economically Weaker Section
 Households having an annual income up to Rs 3 lakh.
 An EWS house means a single unit or a unit in a multi- storeyed super structure having a
carpet area of up to 30 sq. m., with adequate basic civic services and infrastructure
services like toilet, water, electricity, etc.
2. LIG-Low income group
 Households having an annual income between Rs 3 lakh and Rs 6 lakh.
 An LIG house means a single unit or a unit in a multi-storeyed super structure having
3. MIG-Middle income group
 Classified in to two categories
MIG, category-1

 An MIG house means a single unit or a unit in a multi-storeyed super structure having
MIG, category-2
 An MIG house means a single unit or a unit in a multi-storeyed super structure having
4. HIG-High income group
 Households having an annual income more than Rs 18 lakh
 An HIG house means a single unit or a unit in a multi-storeyed super structure having
carpet area MORE THAN 200 SQ. M., with adequate basic civic services and
infrastructure services like toilet, water, electricity, etc.
 Note: However, the states/Union Territories have been given the flexibility to redefine
the annual income criteria as per local conditions, in consultation with the Centre.
4. HOUSING AGENCIES AND THEIR ROLE IN HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
A. MINISTRY OF HOUSING AND URBAN AFFAIRS- (MOHUA) 1952
Role:
I. Apex body for formulation and administration of the rules and regulations and
laws relating to the housing and urban development in India.
II. Also publishing- the National City Rating, which ranked the cleanest cities in
India, under which Indore was rated as the cleanest.
III. schemes:
- Smart Cities Mission-2016
Aim: to develop 100 smart cities across the country making them citizen
friendly and sustainable
- HRIDAY-Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana 2015
Aim: bringing together urban planning, economic growth and heritage
conservation in an inclusive manner to preserve the heritage character of
each Heritage City.
- AMRUT-Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation 2015
Aim: establish infrastructure that could ensure adequate robust sewage
networks and water supply for urban transformation by implementing urban
revival

- Urban Transport
Aim: establish infrastructure upgrade and development on Urban rail
transit (suburban rail, rapid transit, monorail, light rail, and tram systems.)
- Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA) or Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)
Aim: to clean up the streets, roads and infrastructure of India's cities, towns,
urban and rural areas
- Cleanest cities in India
Aim: National City Rating
B. MINISTRY OF HOUSING AND URBAN POVERTY ALLEVIATION -2004
Role:
I. responsible for urban poverty, housing, and employment programs
II. It control
- National Buildings Organization (NBO) attached office and
- Hindustan Prefab Limited (HPL) and
- Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) public sector
undertakings.
- Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC)
- Central Government Employees Welfare Housing Organization (CGEWHO)
- National Cooperative Housing Federation of India (NCHFI)
- Principal Account Office (PAO)
III. Now it merged with Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)
C. MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT-2016
Role:
I. Accelerating the socio-economic development of rural India.
II. Its focus is on health, education, drinking water, housing and roads.
III. It has two departments: Department of Rural Development and Department of
Land Resources.
IV. Department of Rural Development handling:
- Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) for rural roads development
- Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) rural employment and for rural
housing,
- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana It handles the administration of District Rural
Development Agency (DRDA), and has three autonomous organisations under it:
a. Council of Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology
(CAPART)
b. National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD)

c. National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA)
V. Department of Land Resources runs three national-level programs
a. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojna (Watershed Development
Component)
b. Digital India Land Record Modernization Programme
c. Neeranchal National Watershed Project
d. Other Programmes
- GIZ led pilot Land Use Planning and Management Project
- Ease of Doing Business – Initiatives
D. NATIONAL BUILDINGS ORGANISATION (NBO) 1954.
Role:
I. An autonomous organisation
II. Responsible for collecting, collating, validating, analyzing, disseminating and
publishing housing and building construction statistics.
III. Responsible for organising training programmes for staff of Indian state
governments working in similar fields.
IV. Involved in a documentation centre for statistics relating to housing, poverty and
slums.
E. CENTRAL GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES WELFARE HOUSING ORGANISATION -1995
Role:
I. autonomous organisation
II. To construct and manage non-profit housing for serving and retired employees
of the Union Government of India and their families.
III. Since 1995 the organisation has constructed two houses every day.
F. DELHI DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (DDA 1957)
Role:
I. to promote and secure the development of Delhi
II. responsible for planning, development and construction of Housing Projects,
Commercial Lands, Land Management
III. Providing public facilities like roads, bridges, drains, Underground water
reservoir, Community Centers, Sports Centers, Green Belts etc. within the area
of National Capital Territory of New Delhi, India.
G. MAHARASHTRA HOUSING AND AREA DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY-1948
Role:
I. Undertook construction of residential buildings under various housing schemes
for different sections of the society.

II. Allotment and maintenance of these buildings was being looked after by it.
H. HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION (HUDCO) - 1970
Role:
I. To provide long term finance for construction of houses for residential purposes
or finance or undertake housing and urban development programmes in the
country.
II. To finance or undertake, wholly or partly, the setting up of new or satellite town.
III. Help State Housing (and or Urban Development) Boards, Improvement Trusts,
Development Authorities etc., specifically for the purpose of financing housing
and urban development programmes.
IV. To finance or undertake the setting up of industrial enterprises of building
material.
V. To promote, establish, assist, collaborate and provide consultancy services for
the projects of designing and planning of works relating to Housing and Urban
Development programmes in India and abroad.
I. TAMILNADU HOUSING BOARD (TNHB) - 1961
Role:
I. developing very large neighbourhood schemes
II. fulfilling shelter needs of various income groups of the society
III. created self-sustaining townships for example: Anna Nagar, Besant Nagar, KK
Nagar, Ashok Nagar, Korattur and Shastri Nagar
J. TAMIL NADU SLUM CLEARANCE BOARD (TNSCB)-1970
Role:
I. eradicate the slum and
II. provide hygienic tenements in Tamil Nadu
III. schemes: In-situ tenemental schemes,
In-situ plotted and infrastructure development and
Rehabilitation and Resettlement schemes.
K. CHENNAI METROPOLITAN DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (CMDA)-1974
Role:
I. nodal planning agency of Chennai, Thiruvallur and Kancheepuram
II. planning, co-ordination, supervising, promoting and securing the planned
development of the Chennai Metropolitan Area

III. coordinates the development activities of the municipal corporations,
municipalities and other local authorities
L. PRIVATE HOUSING FINANCE AGENCIES IN INDIA:
 Housing Development Finance Corporation Limited (HDFC)
 State Bank of India Home Finance (SBI)
 ICICI Home Finance Company Limited
 IDBI Home finance Limited (IHFL)
 PNB Housing Finance Limited
 Dewan Housing Finance Corporation Limited (DHFL)
 GIC Housing Finance Limited
 Can Fin Homes Limited (CFHL)
Role:
I. To provide long term finance to individuals for purchase or construction of house
or flat for residential purpose / repair and renovation of existing flat / houses.
II. To provide finance on existing property for business / personal needs and also
gives loans to professionals for purchase / construction of Clinics / Nursing
Homes / Diagnostic Centres / Office Space and also for purchase of equipments.
III. To provide long term finance to persons engaged in the business of construction
of houses or flats for residential purpose and to be sold by them.
M. INDIAN GOVT. HOUSING (PUBLIC) FINANCE AGENCIES IN INDIA:
 Housing Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO)
 LIC Housing Finance Limited (LIC HFL)
 National housing bank(NHB)
Role:
I. To provide long term finance to individuals for purchase or construction of house
or flat for residential purpose / repair and renovation of existing flat / houses.
II. To provide finance on existing property for business / personal needs and also
gives loans to professionals for purchase / construction of Clinics / Nursing
Homes / Diagnostic Centres / Office Space and also for purchase of equipments.
III. To provide long term finance to persons engaged in the business of construction
of houses or flats for residential purpose and to be sold by them.

A DETAIL STUDY of PUBLIC HOUSING AGENCIES:
HUDCO - Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited
The Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited (HUDCO) is a government-owned
corporation in India. One of the public sector undertakings, it is wholly owned by the Union
Government and is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Housing and Urban
Poverty Alleviation. It is mandated with building affordable housing and carrying out urban
development.
- HUDCO was incorporated on April 25, 1970.
- HUDCO has worked with architects such as B. V. Doshi, Charles Correa, Christopher
Charles Benninger and Sheila Sri Prakash.
- Housing and Urban Development programme in India with special emphasis on low cost
housing.
- Development of new townships and their infrastructural needs.
- Development of buildings material technology and industries.
- Consultancy services with India and abroad.
VISION
- "To Be Among The World's Leading Knowledge Hubs And Techno-Financial
Organizations for Clean, Green and Sustainable Habitat Development."
MISSION
"To Promote Sustainable Habitat Development to Enhance the Quality Of Life"
OBJECTIVES
- Providing long term finance for construction of houses and urban development
programs in the country.
- Finance or undertake, wholly or partly, the setting up of the new or satellite towns.
- Subscribe to the debentures and bonds to be issued by the State Housing Urban
Development Boards, Improvement Trusts, Development Authorities etc. specifically for
the purpose of financing housing and urban development programs.
- Finance or undertake the setting up of industrial enterprises of building material.
- Administers the money received, from time to time, from the Government of India and
other sources as grant or otherwise for the purposes of financing or undertaking
housing and urban development programs in the country, and promote, establish,
assist, collaborate and provide consultancy services for the projects of designing and
planning of works relating to Housing and Urban Development programs in India and
abroad.

- Undertakes business of Venture Capital Fund in Housing and Urban Development
Sectors facilitating Innovations in these sectors and invest in and/or subscribe to the
units/shares etc. of Venture Capital Funds promoted by Government/Government
Agencies in the above areas.
- Set up HUDCO's own Mutual Fund for the purpose of Housing and Urban Development
programs and/or invest in Mutual Funds, promoted by the Government/Government
Agencies for the above purpose.
HOUSING
i. 44.33% of housing loan of HUDCO has been allocated for (EWS) and (LIG) which carries a
concessional rate of interest of 8.5%(floating) to 9.75%(floating), over 93% of the
dwelling units sanctioned by HUDCO benefit these sections of society.
ii. In the last 44 years, HUDCO has reached people in over 1877 towns and hundreds of
villages.
iii. Entrusted with the implementation of the priority programmes of the Ministry like Low
Cost Sanitation, Night Shelter for Footpath Dwellers, Shelter Upgradation under Nehru
Rozgar Yojana, Rural housing under Minimum Needs Programme.
iv. In times of crisis like Earthquakes, Cyclone, Floods, tsunami etc., HUDCO has extensively
contributed in the rehabilitation of the calamity affected households, through its
technical and financial help for housing reconstruction.
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
- HUDCO has sanctioned 655 (577 urban & 78 rural) building centres all over the country
to introduce alternative and cost effective building technology to people. Premier
research and development institutes in the country need these building centres with
innovative options, which are cost saving, durable, functional and aesthetic.
- Financial assistance is extended to the building materials industry to encourage
innovative and alternative methods employing agricultural and industrial waste.
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
- HUDCO gives specialized attention to the critical segments of infrastructure
development in cities and towns.
- Priority is given to water supply, sewerage and drainage schemes especially in small and
medium towns.
- HUDCO has so far sanctioned 1851 urban infrastructure schemes.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
MUD BLOCK STRUCTURES
- Unburned sun-dried bricks for walls.
- Economical
- One side of wall is terracotta tile to make exterior wall water resistant
- Fly ash bricks for columns and bars

- Bamboo paneled doors and window shutters
- IPS flooring with colored oxide
- Foundation- un-coursed rubble masonry with boulder murrum filling is laid to prepare a
flat ground.
- Mud block wall is rain proof and rodent proof. No need for any other bindingmaterial
- No steel and wood is used for roofing. The roof consists of a series of arches to be
placed as a formwork from the conical tiles made out of burnt clay inserted into one
another.
-
WATTLE AND DUAB UNIT
- Cement is used as stabilizer.
- Foundation based on stilts and random rubble masonry.
- Flooring of verandah made from locally available wood.
- Columns constructed using stabilized rammed earth block technique employing ‘ram
rod’ technique.
- Walls made of bamboo mats plastered with mud or lime mortar.
- CGI sheet roofing over space frame truss instead of wood. Bamboo CGS can be used.
- Roof water harvesting shows syntax water tank connected to a cost effective sanitation
model.
- The structure is totally earthquake resistant as vertical and horizontal bands are
provided.
- Assembling The Steel Or Wooden Frame Work Fixing Bamboo Net On Wall
BRICK PANEL HOUSE
- Use of brick panels for roofing.
- Prefabricated brick panel and partially pre-cast joists require burnt clay bricks, cement,
sand, coarse aggregate and reinforcing steel as major raw materials.
- No major plant, equipment and machinery is required.

- The brick panels are durable, leak-proof, fire-resistant, thermal-resistant, less noisy in
rains and provide vertical expansion.
- They are very cost-effective and generate employment opportunities in rural areas for
masons/labour.
RAT TRAP BOND CONSTRUCTION
- Random rubble arch foundation
- Rat trap bond wall that saves 25% bricks and cement.
- Brick window jallies
- Filler slab roof
- Non-erodable mud plaster upto sill level.
- Use fair face of the bricks in patterns to avoid plastering
- Mud and brick bats flooring in different rooms
- Kadapa slabs for shelves
-

-
laying of brick arch foundation Laying Of Rat Trap Walls
BRICK ARCH BRICK JALLIE WINDOW
BAMBOO HOUSE
- Bamboo is a versatile construction material which is affordable, durable and very
suitable for earthquake prone regions. It is a light weight, long lasting and renewable
building material
- In case of earthquakes, bamboo house won’t cause any death if it collapses and is easy
to mend and repair.
- The use of these boards and other bamboo products makes the house construction not
only cost effective but also offers exotic designs.

TONE PATTI CONSTRUCTION
- Climate control only influenced the design adopted-a central courtyard surrounded by
construction of high walls with a balcony and small wind apertures to allow air
circulation as well as preventing dust blow-ins during sandstorms.
-
-

DESIGN AND CONSULTANCY
- HUDCO’s is offering technical consultancy in the areas of Architecture, Urban Planning,
Urban Design, Landscape Planning including Heritage Planning, Management &
Conservation.
- HUDCO is actively involved with various Ministries in the development of Rich Cultural
Heritage and provision of regional infrastructure for overall growth and development.
- HUDCO has also done considerable work on weaker section housing as well as cost
effective housing and has achieved wide acclaim with regard to planning, design and
delivery of mass housing.
-
SOME OF THE PRESTIGIOUS AND PROJECTS INCLUDE:
• Leh Rehabilitation Project for Victims of Cloud Burst as CSR Initiative.
• Gas Victim Housing project at Bhopal (I.I.A’s Award)
• New Town development at Pimpri-Chinchwad (I.I.A’s Award)
• New Jammu Township (PM’s National Award)
• Latur Earthquake Rehabilitation Project (World Habitat Award)
• Rehabilitation project for Basket Weavers at Coimbatore (UNCHS’s Best Practices
Award)
• National Games Village
• Earthquake rehabilitation in the Hill Districts of Uttar Pradesh.
• HUDCO's Assistance for Earthquake rehabilitation in Jabalpur.
• HUDCO's Assistance for Rehabilitation of the Super-cyclone affected in Orissa.
• Rehabilitation of Earthquake Affected Regions of Gujarat.
5. IMPACT OF TRADITIONAL LIFE STYLE
5.1. INDIAN SOCIETY AND WAYS OF LIVING
India offers astounding variety in virtually every aspect of social life. Diversities of ethnic,
linguistic, regional, economic, religious, class, and caste groups crosscut Indian society, which is
also permeated with immense urban-rural differences and gender distinctions. Differences
between north India and south India are particularly significant, especially in systems of kinship
and marriage. Indian society is multifaceted to an extent perhaps unknown in any other of the
world’s great civilizations—it is more like an area as varied as Europe than any other single

nation-state. Adding further variety to contemporary Indian culture are rapidly occurring
changes affecting various regions and socioeconomic groups in disparate ways. Yet, amid the
complexities of Indian life, widely accepted cultural themes enhance social harmony and order.
THEMES IN INDIAN SOCIETY
HIERARCHY
India is a hierarchical society. Whether in north India or south India, Hindu or Muslim, urban or
village, virtually all things, people, and social groups are ranked according to various essential
qualities. Although India is a political democracy, notions of complete equality are seldom
evident in daily life.
Societal hierarchy is evident in caste groups, amongst individuals, and in family and kinship
groups. Castes are primarily associated with Hinduism, but caste-like groups also exist among
Muslims, Indian, Christians, and other religious communities. Within most villages or towns,
everyone knows the relative rankings of each locally represented caste, and behavior is
constantly shaped by this knowledge.
Individuals are also ranked according to their wealth and power. For example, some powerful
people, or “big men,” sit confidently on chairs, while “little men” come before them to make
requests, either standing or squatting not presuming to sit beside a man of high status as an
equal.
Hierarchy plays an important role within families and kinship groupings also, where men
outrank women of similar age, and senior relatives outrank junior relatives. Formal respect is
accorded family members—for example, in northern India, a daughter-in-law shows deference
to her husband, to all senior in-laws, and to all daughters of the household. Siblings, too,
recognize age differences, with younger siblings addressing older siblings by respectful terms
rather than by name.
PURITY AND POLLUTION
Many status differences in Indian society are expressed in terms of ritual purity and pollution,
complex notions that vary greatly among different castes, religious groups, and regions.
Generally, high status is associated with purity and low status with pollution. Some kinds of
purity are inherent; for example, a member of a high-ranking Brahmin, or priestly, caste is born
with more inherent purity than someone born into a low-ranking sweeper, or scavenger, caste.
Other kinds of purity are more transitory—for example, a Brahmin who has just taken a bath is
more ritually pure than a Brahmin who has not bathed for a day.

Purity is associated with ritual cleanliness—daily bathing in flowing water, dressing in freshly
laundered clothes, eating only the foods appropriate for one’s caste, and avoiding physical
contact with people of significantly lower rank or with impure substances, such as the bodily
wastes of another adult. Involvement with the products of death or violence is usually ritually
polluting.
SOCIAL INTERDEPENDENCE
One of the great themes pervading Indian life is social interdependence. People are born into
groups—families, clans, subcastes, castes, and religious communities—and feel a deep sense of
inseparability from these groups. People are deeply involved with others, and for many, the
greatest fear is the possibility of being left alone, without social support. Psychologically, family
members typically experience intense emotional interdependence. Economic activities, too, are
deeply imbedded in a social nexus. Through a multitude of kinship ties, each person is linked
with kin in villages and towns near and far. Almost everywhere a person goes, he can find a
relative from whom he can expect moral and practical support.
In every activity, social ties can help a person and the absence of them can bring failure. Seldom
do people carry out even the simplest tasks on their own. When a small child eats, his mother
puts the food into his mouth with her own hand. When a girl brings water home from the well
in pots on her head, someone helps her unload the pots. A student hopes that an influential
relative or friend can facilitate his college admission. A young person anticipates that parents
will arrange his or her marriage. Finally, a person facing death expects that relatives will
conduct the proper funeral rites ensuring his own smooth passage to the next stage of
existence and reaffirming social ties among mourners.
This sense of interdependence extends into the theological realm. From birth onward, a child
learns that his “fate” has been “written” by divine forces and that his life is shaped by powerful
deities with whom an ongoing relationship must be maintained.
FAMILY AND KINSHIP
Family Ideals
The essential themes of Indian cultural life are learned within the bosom of a family. The joint
family is highly valued, ideally consisting of several generations residing, working, eating, and
worshiping together. Such families include men related through the male line, along with their
wives, children, and unmarried daughters. A wife usually lives with her husband’s relatives,
although she retains important bonds with her natal family. Even in rapidly modernizing India,

the traditional joint household remains for most Indians the primary social force, in both ideal
and practice.
Large families tend to be flexible and well suited to modern Indian life, especially for the more
than two-thirds of Indians who are involved in agriculture. As in most primarily agricultural
societies, cooperating kin help provide mutual economic security. The joint family is also
common in cities, where kinship ties are often crucial to obtaining employment or financial
assistance. Many prominent families, such as the Tatas, Birlas, and Sarabhais, retain joint family
arrangements as they cooperate in controlling major financial empires.
The ancient ideal of the joint family retains its power, but today actual living arrangements vary
widely. Many Indians live in nuclear families—-a couple with their unmarried children—-but
belong to strong networks of beneficial kinship ties. Often, clusters of relatives live as
neighbors, responding readily to their kinship obligations.
As they expand, joint families typically divide into smaller units, which gradually grow into new
joint families, continuing a perpetual cycle. Today, some family members may move about to
take advantage of job opportunities, typically sending money home to the larger family.
FAMILY AUTHORITY AND HARMONY
In the Indian household, lines of hierarchy and authority are clearly drawn, and ideals of
conduct help maintain family harmony. [i] All family members are socialized to accept the
authority of those above them in the hierarchy. The eldest male acts as family head, and his
wife supervises her daughters-in-law, among whom the youngest has the least authority.
Reciprocally, those in authority accept responsibility for meeting the needs of other family
members.
Family loyalty is a deeply held ideal, and family unity is emphasized, especially in distinction to
those outside the kinship circle. Inside the household, ties between spouses and between
parents and their own children are de-emphasized to enhance a wider sense of family harmony.
For example, open displays of affection between husbands and wives are considered highly
improper.
Traditionally, males have controlled key family resources, such as land or businesses, especially
in high-status groups. Following traditional Hindu law, women did not inherit real estate and
were thus beholden to their male kin who controlled land and buildings. Under Muslim
customary law, women can—and do—inherit real estate, but their shares have typically been
smaller than those of males. Modern legislation allows all Indian women to inherit real estate.

Traditionally, for those families who could afford it, women have controlled some wealth in the
form of precious jewelry.
VEILING AND THE SECLUSION OF WOMEN
A significant aspect of Indian family life is purdah (from Hindi parda, or “curtain”), or the veiling
and seclusion of women. In much of northern and central India, particularly in rural areas,
Hindu and Muslim women follow complex rules of veiling the body and avoidance of public
appearance, especially before relatives linked by marriage and before strange men. Purdah
practices are linked to patterns of authority and harmony within the family. Hindu and Muslim
purdah observances differ in certain key ways, but female modesty and decorum as well as
concepts of family honor and prestige are essential to the various forms of purdah. Purdah
restrictions are generally stronger for women of conservative high-status families. [ii]
Restriction and restraint for women in virtually every aspect of life are essential to purdah,
limiting women’s access to power and to the control of vital resources in a male-dominated
society. Sequestered women should conceal their bodies and even their faces with modest
clothing and veils before certain categories of people, avoid extramarital relations, and move
about in public only with a male escort. Poor and low-status women often practice attenuated
versions of veiling as they work in the fields and on construction gangs.
Hindu women of conservative families veil their faces and remain silent in the presence of older
male in-laws, both at home and in the community. A young daughter-in-law even veils from her
mother-inlaw. These practices emphasize respect relationships, limit unapproved encounters,
and enhance family lines of authority.
For Muslims, veiling is especially stressed outside the home, where a conservative woman may
wear an all-enveloping black burka. Such purdah shelters women—-and the sexual inviolability
of the family-— from unrelated unknown men.
In south India, purdah has been little practiced, except in certain minority groups. In northern
and central India today, purdah practices are diminishing, and among urbanites and even the
rural elite, they are rapidly vanishing. Chastity and female modesty are still highly valued, but as
education and employment opportunities for women increase, veiling has all but disappeared
in progressive circles.
LIFE PASSAGES
The birth of an infant is celebrated with rites of welcome and blessing, typically much more
elaborate for a boy than for a girl. Although India boasts many eminent women and was once

led by a powerful woman prime minister, Indira Gandhi, and while goddesses are extensively
worshiped in Hindu rituals, statistics reveal that girls are, in fact, disadvantaged in India. The
2001 Census counted only 933 females per 1000 males, reflecting sex-selective abortion,
poorer medical care and nutrition, and occasional infanticide targeting females. [iii] Parents
favor boys because their value in agricultural activities tends to be higher, and after marriage a
boy continues residing with his parents, supporting them as they age. In contrast, a girl drains
family resources, especially when a large dowry goes with her to her husband’s home. In recent
decades, demands for dowries have become quite exorbitant in certain groups.
Marriage is deemed essential for virtually everyone in India, marking the great watershed in life
for the individual. For most of Hindu northern and central India, marriages are arranged within
the caste between unrelated young people who may never have met. Among some south
Indians communities and many Muslims, families seek to strengthen existing kin ties through
marriages with cousins whenever possible. For every parent, finding the perfect partner for
one’s child is a challenging task. People use their existing social networks, and increasingly,
matrimonial newspaper advertisements. The advertisements usually announce religion, caste,
educational qualifications, physical features, and earning capacity, and may hint at dowry size
(even though giving or accepting dowries is actually illegal).
Among the highly educated, brides and grooms sometimes find each other in college or
professional settings. So-called love marriages are becoming less scandalous than in previous
years. Among Indian residents of North America, brides and grooms often meet through South
Asian matrimonial websites. Many self-arranged marriages link couples of different castes but
similar socioeconomic status.
Usually, a bride lives with her husband in his parental home, where she should accept the
authority of his senior relatives, perform household duties, and produce children—especially
sons—to enhance his family line. Ideally, she honors her husband, proudly wears the cosmetic
adornments of a married woman, and cheerfully fulfills her new role. If she is fortunate, her
husband will treat her with consideration, treasure her contributions to his household, and
allow her continuing contact with her natal relatives. For many young wives, this is a difficult
transition. While some negative stigma is still attached to women’s employment in many
circles, an increasing number of women are working in a variety of occupations.
Death causes the restructuring of any family. The demise of a woman’s husband brings the
dreaded status of inauspicious widowhood. Widows of low-status groups have always been
allowed to remarry, but widows of high rank have been expected to remain chaste until death.

CASTE AND CLASS
VARNA, CASTE, AND OTHER DIVISIONS
Social inequality exists throughout the world, but perhaps nowhere has inequality been so
elaborately constructed as in the Indian institution of caste. Caste has existed for many
centuries, but in the modern period it has been severely criticized and is undergoing significant
change.
Castes are ranked, named, endogamous (in-marrying) groups, membership in which is achieved
by birth. There are thousands of castes and subcastes in India, involving hundreds of millions of
people. These large kinship-based groups are fundamental to South Asian social structure.
Caste membership provides a sense of belonging to a recognized group from whom support can
be expected in a variety of situations.
The word caste derives from the Portuguese casta, meaning species, race, or kind. Among
Indian terms sometimes translated as caste are varna, jati, jat, biradri, and samaj. Varna, or
color, actually refers to four large categories that include numerous castes. The other terms
refer to castes and subdivisions of castes often called subcastes.
Many castes are associated with traditional occupations, such as priests, potters, barbers,
carpenters, leatherworkers, butchers, and launderers. Members of higher-ranking castes tend
to be more prosperous than members of lower-ranking castes, who often endure poverty and
social disadvantage. The so-called “Untouchables” were traditionally relegated to polluting
tasks. Since 1935, “Untouchables” have been known as “Scheduled Castes,” and Mahatma
Gandhi called them Harijans, or “Children of God.” Today, the politically correct term for these
groups, who make up some 16% of the population, is Dalit, or “Oppressed.” Other groups,
usually called tribes (often referred to as “Scheduled Tribes”) are also integrated into the caste
system to varying degrees.
In past decades, Dalits in certain areas had to display extreme deference to high-status people
and were barred from most temples and wells. Such degrading discrimination was outlawed
under legislation passed during British rule and was repudiated by preindependence reform
movements led by Mahatma Gandhi and Bhimrao Ramji (B.R.) Ambedkar, a Dalit leader. After
independence in 1947, Dr. Ambedkar almost single-handedly wrote India’s constitution,
including provisions barring caste-based discrimination. However, Dalits as a group still suffer
significant disadvantages, especially in rural areas.
Within castes, explicit standards are maintained. Rules of marriage, diet, dress, occupation, and
other behaviors are enforced, often by a caste council (panchayat). Infringements can be

punished by fines and temporary or permanent outcasting. Individuals and caste groups can
hope to rise slowly on the hierarchy through economic success and adoption of high-caste
behaviors. However, it is virtually impossible for an individual to raise his own status by falsely
claiming to belong to a higher caste; a deception of this kind is easily discovered.
In rural areas, many low-caste people still suffer from landlessness, unemployment, and
discriminatory practices. In the growing cities, however, caste affiliations are often unknown to
casual associates, and traditional restrictions on intercaste interactions are fading fast. In some
urbane circles, intercaste marriages linking mates of similar class status have become
acceptable. Correlations between caste and occupations are declining rapidly.
In recent years, key changes have occurred in caste observances. It is now legally and socially
unacceptable to openly advocate any caste’s superiority or inferiority, and lower caste groups
are flexing their political muscle. Even as traditional hierarchies weaken, caste identities are
being reinforced, especially among disadvantaged groups with rights to special educational
benefits and substantial quotas reserved for them of electoral offices and government jobs. In
protest against Hinduism’s rigid rankings, thousands of Dalits have embraced Buddhism,
following the example of the revered B.R. Ambedkar.
CLASSES
Most Indians reside in villages, where caste and class affiliations overlap. Large landholders are
overwhelmingly upper caste, and smallscale farmers middle caste, while landless laborers
typically belong to the lowest-ranking castes. These groups tend to form a three-level class
system of stratification in rural areas, and members of the groups are drawing together within
regions across caste lines in order to enhance their economic and political power. For example,
since the late 1960s, some of the middle-ranking cultivating castes of northern India, spurred by
competition with higher-caste landed elites, have cooperated politically in order to advance
their common economic interests.v In cities, class lines adhere less obviously to caste
affiliations, as vested interests strongly crosscut caste boundaries.
When looking at India as a whole, defining classes is a difficult task, rife with vague standards.
According to various estimates, the upper classes include about one percent of the population,
or some ten million people, encompassing wealthy property owners, industrialists, former
royalty, top executives, and prosperous entrepreneurs. Slightly below them are the many
millions of the upper middle class. At the other end of the scale is approximately half of India’s
population, including low-level workers of many kinds, as well as hundreds of millions of
extremely poor people, who endure grossly inadequate housing and education and many other
economic hardships.

But the big development in India is the rapid expansion of a prosperous middle class
increasingly dictating the country’s political and economic direction. [vi] Estimated at perhaps
300 million people—-more than the entire population of the United States-—this new
vanguard, straddling town and countryside and all religious communities, is mobile, driven,
consumer-oriented, and, to some extent, forward-looking. This group includes prosperous
farmers, white-collar workers, business and professional people, military personnel, and a
multitude of others, all enjoying decent homes, reasonable incomes, and educated and healthy
children. Most own televisions and telephones, and many possess cars and computers. Large
numbers have close ties with prosperous relatives living abroad.
VILLAGE STRUCTURE AND UNITY
About three-fourths of India’s people live in some 500,000 villages, where India’s most basic
business—agriculture takes place. Most villages have fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, but some
have as many as 5,000 people. Indian villages are often quite complex and are not isolated
socially or economically. Most villages include a multiplicity of economic, caste, kinship,
occupational, and even religious groups linked vertically within each settlement. Residents
typically range from priests and cultivators to merchants, artisans, and laborers. Various crucial
horizontal linkages connect each village with many others and with urban areas both near and
far. In daily life and at colorful festivals and rituals, members of various groups provide essential
goods and services for one another.
Traditionally, villages often recognized a headman and a panchayat, a council composed of
important local men. Usually, disputes were adjudicated within the village, with infrequent
recourse to the police or courts. Today, the government supports an elective panchayat and
headman system, which is distinct from the traditional system, and, in many cases, mandates
the inclusion of members who are women or very low caste. According to a schedule rotating
every few years, the head of the council of a certain percentage of villages must be a woman or
a Dalit. State and federal government regulations increasingly intrude into village life,
diminishing traditional systems of authority. Further, dissent and competitiveness seem to have
increased in many parts of rural India as a result of the expanding involvement of villagers with
the wider world via travel, work, education, and television, and increased pressure on land and
resources as village populations grow.
URBAN LIFE
The acceleration of urbanization is profoundly affecting the transformation of Indian society.
Slightly more than one-quarter of the country’s population is urban. Mumbai (Bombay) is
currently the sixth largest urban area in the world at 18 million, and Kolkata (Calcutta) ranks

fourteenth at 13 million. In recent years, India’s largest cities have grown at twice the rate of its
small towns and villages, with many of the increases due to rural-urban migration.
The largest cities are densely populated, congested, noisy, polluted, and deficient in clean
water, electricity, sanitation, and decent housing. Slums abound, often cheek-by-jowl with
luxury apartment buildings, with the roads overrun with pedestrians, cattle, refuse, and
vehicles spewing diesel fumes.
Traditional caste hierarchies are weak in cities, but caste ties remain important, as scarce jobs
are often obtained through caste fellows, relatives, and friends. Ingenuity and tenacity
characterize poor urban workers supporting themselves through a multitude of tasks as
entrepreneurs, petty traders, and menial laborers.
The ranks of the growing middle class are increasingly evident in cities, where educational and
employment opportunities benefit them. For them, as for all in the city, linkages are affirmed
through neighborhood solidarity, voluntary associations, and festival celebrations.
Cities, of course, are the great hubs of commerce, education, science, politics, and government,
upon which the functioning of the nation depends. India’s movie industry is the world’s largest,
centered in Mumbai and Chennai, and popular television stations are proliferating. These bring
vivid depictions of urban lifestyles to small-town dwellers and villagers all over the country,
affecting the aspirations of millions.
Social revolutions, too, receive the support of urban visionaries, such as those shaping the
growing women’s movement. Largely led by educated urban women, the movement seeks
gender justice on a wide variety of issues, focusing particularly on the escalating issue of dowry-
related murders of young wives, which number in the thousands annually. The overwhelming
economic needs of poor female workers are being addressed by organizations such as the Self-
Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) of Ahmedabad, led by Ela Bhatt.
FUTURE TRENDS
Now numbering over one billion, India’s population grew by more than 18 million—the
equivalent of an Australia—every year over the past decade. In ten years, the most populous
state, Uttar Pradesh, expanded more than 25 percent to some 166 million, equal to 60 percent
of the population of the United States. India supports a population more than three and a half
times the size of the American population in an area about one-third the size. Family planning is
gaining in popularity, so the rate of population increase is gradually declining, but it is

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