Environmental Policy Analysis and Practice M ICHAEL R, GREENBERC @ RUTCERS UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW IERSEY, AND LONDON xlt PR€FACE There have been rnany more bumps and bruises over thc past 40 years, and once in a while I have even earned a gold star. I have worked on loca.lly unwanted land uses such as nuclear power plants, incinerators, and dams; on cleaning up chemical or nuclear lveapons facilities and Superfund and brownfield sites; on sprawl; on environmental asthma and cancer; and on a variety oI other environ- mental policy subjects, These projects have replaced my fantasies about ho\ypol- icy is forrned with the reality of how and why decisions are made. Nowl ca[ laugh at my naivet6, but then I vras horrilied at the idea that good science was nol the dom{nant consideration. I }earned that good science was necessary for good pol- icy but did not guarant€e it; lhat as much as I would like to, I could not start every policy analysis \rith ecological and humsn health as the first consideration; and that I must consider six criteria for each policy option: I The )ikely reaction of elected gover[ment officials alld their slafJs 2. The likely reactions from the public and special interests, including not-for- profit organizatioos, business, and the media 3. Human and ecological health 4, Short- and long-term economic cost€ and benefits 5. The moral imperalive 6 Flexibility and time pressure I have used these slt Iactors as a policy frame\vork to assist governors, sena. tors, and other elected officials; to talk \vith reporters; to lecture in various countries; and to teach at Columbia and Rutgers Universiiies. Whatever Lhe pol- icy is$ue, I write down and assess every argument, pro and con, for every option, For example, suppose the issue involycs rcducing the risk from lcft-over chemicai weapohs: Options include destroying by incineration, destroying by hydrolysis or another similar melhod, packing and shipping to Bnother location, and a Iew others, Each of these options has advalltages Bnd disadvantsges. (no$ring them and evaluating them allows me to compare rvhat \ye already kno\y with what we need to kno$' and to be assured that I have not missed a key poticy driver. That exercise has almostalrvays lcd to a more in{ormed decision for me and sometime$ for dccision makers and their slafl I am nol going to assert that using the six criterja as a framcwork will provide a comprehensive understanding of every policy option, although it \vill certainly lead to a more complete vie\v of the advantages and disadv0ntages of those options. Nor will I claim that policy makers \t'ill be impreosed by all this jnforme- tion. In fact, the amoult of information I haye provided about multiple options 8nd multiple criteria has led some recipients to assert that I am confusing the decision-making process by obfuscatjng the key variables with a barrage of dats. I disagree because I have too often observed that decision mal(ers have ...

1. Environmental Policy
Analysis and Practice
M ICHAEL R, GREENBERC
@
RUTCERS UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW IERSEY, AND LONDON
xlt PR€FACE
There have been rnany more bumps and bruises over thc past 40
years, and
once in a while I have even earned a gold star. I have worked on
loca.lly unwanted
land uses such as nuclear power plants, incinerators, and dams;
on cleaning up
chemical or nuclear lveapons facilities and Superfund and
brownfield sites; on
sprawl; on environmental asthma and cancer; and on a variety oI
other environ-
mental policy subjects, These projects have replaced my
fantasies about hoypol-
icy is forrned with the reality of how and why decisions are
made. Nowl ca[ laugh
at my naivet6, but then I vras horrilied at the idea that good
science was nol the
dom{nant consideration. I }earned that good science was
necessary for good pol-

2. icy but did not guarant€e it; lhat as much as I would like to, I
could not start every
policy analysis rith ecological and humsn health as the first
consideration; and
that I must consider six criteria for each policy option:
I The )ikely reaction of elected gover[ment officials alld their
slafJs
2. The likely reactions from the public and special interests,
including not-for-
profit organizatioos, business, and the media
3. Human and ecological health
4, Short- and long-term economic cost€ and benefits
5. The moral imperalive
6 Flexibility and time pressure
I have used these slt Iactors as a policy framevork to assist
governors, sena.
tors, and other elected officials; to talk vith reporters; to
lecture in various
countries; and to teach at Columbia and Rutgers Universiiies.
Whatever Lhe pol-
icy is$ue, I write down and assess every argument, pro and con,
for every option,
For example, suppose the issue involycs rcducing the risk from
lcft-over chemicai
weapohs: Options include destroying by incineration, destroying
by hydrolysis
or another similar melhod, packing and shipping to Bnother
location, and a Iew
others, Each of these options has advalltages Bnd
disadvantsges. (no$ring them

3. and evaluating them allows me to compare rvhat ye already
knoy with what we
need to kno$' and to be assured that I have not missed a key
poticy driver. That
exercise has almostalrvays lcd to a more in{ormed decision for
me and sometime$
for dccision makers and their slafl
I am nol going to assert that using the six criterja as a
framcwork will provide
a comprehensive understanding of every policy option, although
it vill certainly
lead to a more complete viev of the advantages and
disadv0ntages of those
options. Nor will I claim that policy makers t'ill be impreosed
by all this jnforme-
tion. In fact, the amoult of information I haye provided about
multiple options
8nd multiple criteria has led some recipients to assert that I am
confusing the
decision-making process by obfuscatjng the key variables with a
barrage of dats.
I disagree because I have too often observed that decision
mal(ers have a tendency
to jump on one or hvo ddyers betore due diligence has been
give[ to all the poten-
Lial key factors. I am convinced that too oftenwhat decision
mal<ers consider to be
the critical cfiteda are noti their perceptions are too sltort-
sighled, and they
ignore impor
the credible i

4. When yo
standing o{ rt
in the United
decadg, s61116
nuclear an<l r
lot age mnch
bul rather to
and tools will
emerge. I YOU
of the most (
asked some v,
Ihave bet
some new ins
colleagues, I h
college studer
policy procesr
people to env
environmenlF
PREFACE
the past 40 years, 8nd
rd on locally unwanted
dams; on cleaning up

5. d brownfreld siles; on
riety of other environ-
.rtasies about horv pol-
made. Now I can laugh
)d science was not the
lecessary lor good pol-
I could not starl every
rst consideration; and
iheir staffs
rsls, including not-for'
rssist governors, sena-
to lecture in va ous
ies. Whatever the pol-
con, for every option,
-om left-oYer chemical
slroying by hydrolysis
Ler location, qnd a few
rtages. I(nowing them
ly knov vith whai ve
(ey policy driver. That
Ior me and sometimes

6. ramework vill provjde
hough it will certuinly
issdvanfages of those
ed by ali this lnforma-
bout multiple options
al I am confusing the
,vith a barrage of data.
Lalers have a tendency
glven lo ail the poten-
makers consider to be
rort-sigbted, and they
ignore important elfects that they should have considered, So I
try to provide all
the credible information possible, even if it is resisted,
when you have nnjshed this book, I hope that you will have a
better under-
standing ofthe lactors lhat have driven some key environmental
health decjsions
in tbe United states, Horvever, it is important fo rern€mber that
issues age, Irr a
decade, some of these issues rill no Ionger be considered impo
ant, although
nuclear and chemical rveapons, nuclear power, and

7. envirollmenlal cancer wi]l
not age much. I would like you nol to dwell too much on the
policies [hemselves,
but rather to recognizc that odopting lhe framework and
learnlDg key theories
and tools will place you in a good position to respond to the
new policy issues that
emerge, I would also iike to share the excitement of this field
by describing some
of the most challenging environmental policy decisions we have
faced l have
asked some very k-nowledgeable people to help me talk about
these subjecls.
I have been writing articles for my peers lor decades, and I hope
theyvill find
some new insights jn this book. But olthough it profiles the
work of some great
colleagues, I have not w;itten this book for my peers, lt is
intended for upper-level
college students and griduate students lvho are interesLed jn
Lhe environrnental
policy process. I yant ihis book to hclp ettract ambitious and
telent€d young
people lo environmental policy as a career. Bumps and bruises
aside, Horking on

8. environn]enlal policy is challenging and rewarding.
Introduction
A Qujck Walk through a Framework
of Six Environmental Policy Critelia
II usually begin my senior-level course on protecting public
health and the envi-
roDrnent with the following stetementi 'Think of an
environmeittal policy prob-
lem that you are really worried aboul, Lhat distracts you (maybe
keeps you up
at nighl), that you talk about with your family and friends, and
that probably
broughtyou to thjs course." After a minute, they tell me what
these problems are,
and I w te th€m on the board, Then I ask, "tvhy havet]'t we
fixed these prob-
lerns?" Some students seem surprised by the queslion, and they
aim quizzical
looks at me, I can feel them asking themselves, "lf he's the
expert, why is he ask-
ing us?"
I start the course this way because even the youngest students
}uve already
learned a lot aboutwhywe have not fixed the environmental
health problemE that
they fear the most, Most of thcm have leamed ftom tales, but
some have ground-
ing in theories and lools too, 'lhis introduction describes the
Hay themes, tales,
theories, tools, and taslcs (the five T's) are used in this book to

9. iiluminate the six
policy criteria, the organization of the volume, and the
objectives of each chapter,
as yell as somc of the methods I have used to teach
environmental policy,
Themes, Tales, Theories, 'Iools, and Taslc
These are my equivalent of the three R's, Themes are the policy
sulljects, such as
indoor air quality, the use of pesticides on crops, cltildren's
exposure to lead, the
stockpile of chemical ysrfare agentr, and nuclear power. My
teaching of these
subjects has led me to use several out-of-the-ordinary teaching
devices, First, I do
not provide an absolute anslver to policy questioDs. 'Ihat js, I
do not say thsi gov-
ernment should do this or that. Instead, I provide clues, and,
more specifically,
i steer studenls into weig}ing the advantages and disadvattages
of different
decjsions. There are tables in chapters r through 6 thatpull
together these advan-
tages and disadvantages, Then I organize tasks that require
students to debate
ENVTRONMENTAL pOLtCy ANAtystS AND pRACItCE
policy options. I also quote aIId paraphrase the yiews of people
with whom maDy
scientists, myseu included, disegree, I do this because elected
officials and their

10. staffs do not readily dismiss the odd, unconventional opinion;
they may cling to
it because it fits their predilections, Like it or not, the policy
process makes room
lor the unconventional.
Tales are stories told about policies orally and in articles, boolc,
newspapers,
magszines, governmenl documents, and the so-called gray
literature. Like almost
everyone else, I derived my first lessons about the environment
from listening to
tales. lt is not by chance thal a lot of my work is directly reiated
to vivid memo-
ries, Although this book is not a walking tour of my life and
feelings, a personal
example Isill mske the point about the importance of tales.
When I ,as a chjld
living in Netv York City, my father impressed me as a
fastidious person. It seemed
fo me that he rvas allays ciean shaven and well dressed, and he
smelled of
cologne. So I was shocked when my father and my grandlather
told me about a
drought $o severe that New York City had shaveless and
bath)e6s day6. I could not
imagine my {ather smelly and unshaven, I went to tlle library
and found the
actual New York TiDres stories of the drought, includjng photos
oJ men rr'ho had
noL shaved. The point js that the tale my father and grandfather
told me made
such an impression that I lvas primed to try to do something
about our poor po!
icy response to drought when the opportunity arose, In class, I
go through the

11. exercise ol aslting mystudents to share vivid environmental
health tales with me,
lveryone, I'm cerlain, has some to share,
My students' interest ysnes lvhen I get stingy and do not tell
elough tales to
prime theme discussions. For example, I remember trying to
describe the laws
and treaties dgreed to by the U.S. governmen[ on the
destruction of its chemical
$'eapons stockpile. The sludents were some'hat interested - but
only some-
what, Their curiosity increased exponentially when I described
how I.,as
required to demonstrate that I could u6e a gas mask and then
hqd to take the gas
mask and three syringes cith me before I .!vas allowed to walk
into a shed thal
held chemical rvcapons.
Using tales requires being personal, sometimes using colloquial
language, or
as one colleague said, being 'folksy," This book contains a lot
of personal sto es
told by my colleaglres and me, Because I alrl from lhe
Nol.theast, the tales are dis-
proportionately ftom the Northeast. But the themes, such as
brorvnflelds, nuclear
polver, automobile udditives, pesticidcs, genetically modified
organisms, and
others are national jn scope, and all of them have international
equivalenLs.
Tales prime students'interest and are great teaching tools.
Moreover, they
give rise to nuanced insjghts. But tales typically lack

12. generalizability. Theodes are
Iormed vhen a person takes disconnected tales, readings,
nreetings, and conver-
sations and ultirnately shapes what he or she has learned from
them into gener-
alizable expectations. I cannot describe all of the fascinating
theories I bave read
or heard about environmental policy, but chapters r to 6 include
discusslons oJ
key theories. Each chapter locuses on one theory lvhose
standing is assessed by
2
me and also by ote
their work. Ther€ at
on eneironmentol l
theories as well.
My ovn theory
have more in comlr
al issues over time t
rclcvant to today,s -
An Unnatural Metrol
The Brrll(lozer ih 1
Eneironmentqlisn (2
Rdce, dnd Indxslriol l
the impact of Hurri(
tal justice, respectil
United States: An En
Path: The Automobj

13. Smokestacfts ondJ)rog
1B8J-i95r (r999), arc
All of t)rese boc
vhere and when the
Envirorotlelntal Histol
Efruent Anerica: Ciri
say a good deal abc
spec[ives and capjt
elected o{flcials and
The literature also t:
inlormation gatekoe
times influence poli(
periodically been !m
lrom these histories
thc six policy criterir
The proto,cols, I
test the generalizabi
tion of policy option
ment, environmente
economic impact m(
aDalyses.
Lastly, Iam a fir
nlertal policy tequitt

14. understanding is io e
never grasp a theory
always created tasks
eith some suggested
) PRACTICE
TN IRODUCTTON l
pcop.lc lYith whom many
lected officiels and their
)inion; they may cling to
rlicy process makes room
.cles, bools, newspapers,
ay literature, Like almost
)nment from listening to
'/ related to vivid memo-
alld feelings, q personal
ales, When I was a child
idious person. It seemed
rsed, aad he smelled of
Clather told me about a
)athless days. I could not
: library and Jound the
photos oI men who bad
rndlather told me made
ring about our poor pol-
i class, I go through the
tal health tales with me.

15. r not tell enough tales to
ng to describe lhe laws
itruction ol its chemical
rsted - but only some-
described how I was
;hen had to take the gas
o wa)k into a shed lhat
I colloqujal language, or
a lot of personal stories
rheast, Lhe tales are dis-
as brownfields, nuclear
rdif,ed organlsms, and
)lionai equivalents,
g tools. I{oreover, thcy
alizability. Theories are
, meetings, and conver-
i from them into gener-
rng theories I have read
; include discussions oi
standing is assessed by
me and also by one or more experts lvho have been involved
with the theory in
theirwork, There are msny more than six important theories that
have a bearing
on environmental health poiicy, so the chqpters briefly discuss
some olher key
theories as well.
My or'n theory-bujlding journey and view of environmental

16. policy probably
have more in comrno[ vith historiaDs or other socia] scientists
who have lookeci
al issues over time than with any other discipline. Some h istory
books are dlrecfly
relevalt to today'6 - as well asyesterday's - environmental
issues. craig colten's
An Unnatural Metropolis: Wrestitg Nev Orleqns Jrom Natute
(2oo5). Adam Rome's
The Eulldozq in the Countrside: Suburban sprarel and the Rise
of Americat
Envirotlmentalisnt (roor), and Andrew Hurley's EnyirollJnentql
Inequalities: class,
Rqce, and Industr[el Pollution in Garg, Irtdiana, n4|-1ggo
(1995) speak diTectly to
the impact of Hurricane IGtrina, sprawl as a national concern,
and enyironmen-
tal ju6tice, respectively. Others, such as John cumbler's No
heast and Midwest
United Stotesi Ari Environmetiol Historll (2oo5), Clay
lvlcshone,$ Doten the Aslholt
Path: The Autonlobile and the American Citg G994), and David
Stradling'$
Smolestacks an I Progressiyes: ,Enyironm sn lciis ts, Engileerc,
and Air eualitlj in Alnerica,
r88r-i9s1 (r999), qre more expansive in space or time.
All of these bool(s are full of tales and theories about why
policies emerged
vhere and when they did, My favoritcs are Joel Tarr's Devastd
tion a d Renewal: An
Envlrontnental Flistory oJ pittsbutgll and lts Region (2oo3) and
Martin Melosi's
EffIuent Anrctica: Cities, Industrl, hrcrl, a]l.d the Envfto nlent
(2oor), These books
say a good deal about l.he struggle betlveelr public

17. health/environmentql per-
spectives and capitai's relentless need to grow, and the
inconsistent role oi
electeA oflicials and their staffs in protecting public health and
the environment,
The literature also provides an idea of the complicated role of
the media as an
irrformation gatekeeper, a discussion oI ethical imperahycs 8nd
holy they 6ome-
times influence policy, and an idea of how time and the desire
to be flexible have
periodically been important policy drivers. There are many
lessons to be learned
from thc6c histories, Ilistorians may not come out snd state the
importance of
the si policy criteria, buL they are embedded in these books.
The protocols, processes, and quantitaiive and qualitative
methods used to
lest the generalizability of proposed theories are the tools that
allow t)re evalue-
tion of policy options. Tbis book wil) present a 6et oJ tools,
such as risk as6ess"
ment, environmental impact an€lysis, illtewiewing, content
onalysis, regional
economic impact modeling, optimization modeling, checldists,
and cost/benefit
analyses.
Lastly, I am a firm believer in doing. A deep understanding of
an environ-
mental policy requires a knowledge of the five T's. The best
way to achievc a dcep
understanding ls to en6age in a taskthat causes you to
interactvith them. I could

18. never grasp a tlteory or tool or recommend a pojicy unless
Iworked with lt, I have
always created tasks for myself and for my students, Hence,
each chapter ends
'qith 6ome suggested tasks,
4 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ANALYSIS AND PRACTlCE
The Organization of the Book
The book js divid€d into hvo parfs. Psrt r ha6 six chapt€rsi each
is devoted to one
oI the six policy criterie that together consiitute the {rameeork,
Every chapter in
part r has four sections. The first section begins $'ith a theme
that illusuates the
particular criterion, For example, chapter r uses brownlield
redevelopment policy
to illustrate the critical role of local elected olncials and their
staffs in the devel-
opment srrd implementation of environmeDtal policy. Each
theme section has
heo features, One highlights hov that particular theme is
interconnected with
other policy themes. So, for examp.le, chapter I highlights the
relationship
belween the broenflelds program, smalt growth, and Superfund
The theme sec-
lions conclude vith synopses of key pro and con attributcs
organized according
to the six policy criteria.
for instance, a positive human and ecological health attribute of
the brown-

19. fields program i$ thal remediation and redevelopmenl rcduce
the potential expo-
sure to residual conlaminsnls. A possible disadvantage js that
the policy could
engender a backlash from pubiic health practitioners and the
public itself if
remediation is not done properly, or is not maintajned, and
people are exposed,
In other yords, these synopses represent ny back-and-forlh
srestling rith all six
sets of criteria tirat could substantially influence the policy. I
have written com-
plete - but tedious - policy analyses. Rather than presenting
them in fu)1, I dis-
play them in tables as bulleted points. Typically, these points
are rhat dccision
makers read, and sometimes they then ask questions and demand
more details.
In other words, before focusing on one policy criterion (the
reaction of elected
olhcials and their staffs in chapter r), these synopses summarize
all six hey policy
criteria operatjng on the theme,
The framewotk presented here and expressed most clearly by
the tables of
bulleted points in chapters r through 6 is summarizcd by table r.
A policy issue is
identifled along }vith optjons for addressing it. The slx policy
cliteria are used to
evaluate the options, In tur[, each of the six criteda is ossessed
using themes,
theories, tales, tools, and tasks, These evaluations are captured
as the advantages
and disadvantage6 ot each policy option Jor each criterion.
Then an overall assess-

20. ment is made and used to inform tlle policy decision,
Somelimes lt is possible to
irltegrate across ihe six criteria and arrivc at a ranking or
general ordering ol poli-
ci€s lnto excellent, good, fair, or poor options, Holvever, tlte
policy makers I have
dealt vith rarely want me to assign wejghts to each of the slx
poliry criteria.
Chapter 8 describes how we could aggregate and weigb
different crite a.
The second part oI each oJ the ffrst six chapters de$cribes a key
theoreticai
question that links the theme oI the chapter and the policy
criterlon. For instance,
chapter r focuses onregime, regulation, and sustainability
Ureories as lrameworks
to undcrstand mayors' implementatioD ofbrown_deld policies,
In the third section
of chapters r througll 6, I u6e a tale to illustrate the application
oi the policy crite-
ria, In chapterr, for example, three mayors rvho are considered
national leaders in
developing and implementjng brownfield policies talk about
corditions in thejr
Fr
IdertifginE thc polic!
Step r: Assess the ol
r The reaction of
r The reaction ol
the media, and I

21. r Health atrd ecol,
r Economic consii
r Moral imperati!
I Time and flexibi
Step 2r Moke sure tl
criterion for each c
r Themes
! Theories
! Tales
r lbols
r Tasks
Step 3i Summarize t
r Prepare a list of
each option.
r Prepare a longer
I ll appropriate aI
step 4r Reconsider t
tovns, The goal is lo r
officials and staffs) !

22. each chapter brieflY )
have used to help un
Part 2 of the boo
icy anolysis. The two
qualitative and qlar
illustrates them vith
senied in chapters I i
The tools chapte
becarEe some tools
PRACTICE
i; each is devoted to one
ework Every chapter in
.eme that illustrates the
d redevelopment policy
:heir sfafls in the devel
:ach theme sectioq has
is intetconnected with
tights the relationship
,erfund. The theme sec-
.es organized accordirg
aftribute of the brown-
uce the potential expo-

23. s that the policy could
ud the public itsell iI
rld people are exposed.
lh rwestling ,lth all six
cy. I have written com-
ting them in tull, I dis-
)ints are what declsion
dcmand more details.
the reaction oI elected
narize all six key policy
rlearly by the tables ol
ablc r, A policy is$ue js
icy criteria are used to
ssessed using themes,
rred as lhe advantages
Ihen an overail ossess-
-.times it is possible to
:neral ordering of poli-
e policy makers I have
he si policy cdteria.
irent criteriq,
-ibes a key theoretical
rriterion. For instance,
heories as frametvorks
.$, In the third section
ion of the policy crite-
ed national leaders in

24. ut condllions in their
INTROD{.]CTION
towns, The goal is to shorv horv the specific policy criterion
(the reaction ofel€cted
ofiicials and staffs) rvas critical in the decision-making process,
The last parl of
each chapter bliefly poinfs to tools in chapters Z and B and
descdbes a task that I
have used to help ullderstand the policy criterion and bheme.
Part z oJ the book describes a set oJ over 20 tools that ere
widely used irl pol-
icy analysis. The fieo tools chepters blend together protocols
and processes and
qualitative and quantitative tools, Each chapter describes the
tools and then
illustrates them with examples drarvn fron the themes, tales,
and theories pre-
sented in chapters r through 6 as well as se.lected other$,
The tools chapters sre separated from the themes, tales, qnd
theory chapters
because some tools are used in many stages oJ policy analysi$.
For example,
TABLE ]
Framework Jor policy analysis and prtrctice
Ide tiflingthe policlJ issue dndpiaxsibie oltiorrs
Sfep I: Assess the options using the $ix criteria,
r The reaction ofelected officials and their staff

25. : The reaction of nongovernment interests, such ss not-Iot-
profits, businesses,
the media, and the public
t Health and ecological implications
r Economicconsiderations
r Moral imperatives
r time and flexibility consideraliolls
Step 2: Moke sure lhat you b ng the five T's to bear to examine
each policy
cdte on for each option.
1'hemes
Theorie6
Tales
Tools
Tasks
Step,3r Summarize the rcsults of steps r and 2.
I Prepare a lisl. of the key advantages a[d disadvantages and
unccrtainties of
each optlon.
r Prepare a longer report providing $upport tor the list,
r If oppropriate and possible, prepare a summary integratibg lhe

26. assessment
Stcp 4: Reconslder the policy issue DDd options jn llght of the
analysis
6 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ANALYSIS AND PRACTICE
content analysis is widely used not only to study the actions of
elected oJficjals,
but slso to examine media reporling and the minutes ol public
meetings,
Assignirg content analysis to the elected official/sta{f chapler
rather than the
public/special jnterest or ethics chapter would have been
arbitrary. Hence, it js
descdbed in a chapter that focuses on understanding individuals
and groups.
The intelt is to intrcduce the tools so that reade$ Nill
understaad why they are
used; jt is not to provide advanced training. ln other words, you
vill not bccome
en expert after reading chapters 7 and 8, although I hope that
they whet your
appetite to learn more. References to papers and books with
advanced examples

27. are provided, Most oI these tools are more quicKy and
effectively learned in thc
classroorr context, however,
Illany of the analyses presented in this book involved advanced
multivariate
statistics. Those analyses are sumtnarized in rvords, not
equations. I assumc that
readers are familiar rvith measures of central tendency
dispersion and the ideas
oI association (correlation) among characteristics.
Chapter contents
The nrst chapter is abouL fhe ceDtral role played by elected
otficials and their
staffs. The illustralion is the brorvnfleld remediatjon program in
the United
states, Born out of lhe superfulrd cleanup, the progmm has been
a major priority
for urban mayors and many other local elected officials. The
theoretical focus of
the cbapter is on sharply dilferenl views oI urban
redeveloprnent. Historically,
the economic nceds of capital were emphasized, vhich meant
that entire areas
rvere bulldozed and rebuilt. More recently, theories of

28. environmentally, econom-
ically, and socially sustainable developmenl have cballenged
this perspective,
adding the needs of public health, environmental protcction, snd
community
needs to pccuniary interests. J, christian Eolhvage, Dougl06
Palmer, and Joseph
Vas, the mayors of three rnedium-sized cjties, explain how
political coalitions in
support of brownfie)d redevelopment have come together during
a period lvhen
the nalion was hemorrhaging rnanufacturing jobs, vhen other
federal programs
to support urban areas were reduccd, and rvhen suburban
mayors wantcd to
reduce the pressure to develop their green space,
chapter 2 examlues the role ofnongovernment stakeholders,
including busi'
nesse$, nol-for-profit organizations, the media, universities, the
National
Academies, labor, and lhe public. I u$e environmental cancer as
a case study to
illustrate how journolists use their 6ources to directlyor
indirectb jnfluence envi-

29. ronmental policy, I ask, What is cancer? lnvironmental cancer?
A cancer cluster?
How big is the environmental cancer problem? After enswering
thesc questions,
I reviee the critical role of iournalists as gatekeepers for
inlormation about
cancer and every other health and ecological problem. The
theory section
exarhines what a nervsworthy story is, Is itpublic health
importance or is it some'
thing else?
I enlisted th
mental cancer in
Johnson Medical
vierved by journa
the detection ol
Dr. Arthur Uptor
(Nct), yas inrerv
,ork with goverr
ers during an exc
on thc media as
These are review
media coverage c
focusing on

30. icy conundrum t
What gasoline ar
decades, there ha
ether), methanol
these policy chat
nel public heald
tory of this polic)
sdditive to the f(
retical focus is tl
pcople and the r
obtained, weighe
compare the scie)
Helping me expla
has been involve
abroad, Dr. Goids
the lJ.S. Enviror
addilive issues rv,
Robert wood Jo
school of Public I
2oo6.

31. chapter 4 us
and belent critel
making, at least jr
ing importance o:
nuciear rveapon r
thc Yorld. It vill I
spent $7o billior
theoretical secti
rcsponsible for lh
impacts of a lega(
,ND PRACTICE INTRODUCTION
I enljsted the help ol trvo experts to help me tell tales and place
envjron-
mental cancer in perspective. Dr. Da iel WarteAberg oI New
Jcrsey's Robert Wood
lohnson Medical school is an authority on cancer clusters and is
ftcqueltly inter"
vierved by iournalists. I irltewiewed him on November 6, 2o06,
and he describes
the detection of cBncer clusters from the perspective of a
leading scientist.
Dr. Arthur Upton, a Iihysician who was director of the Natiolal
Cancer hstitute

32. (NCI), vss interviewed on February 9,2006, and he talks about
Ncl's ef{orts fo
vork with goverrment agencies, not for-proflts, the media, and
other stakehold-
ers du ng an cxciting period in thc institute's history. while the
chapter focuses
ori the media as a stakeholder, cancer has other powerful
stakeholder groups.
These are reviewed as a force in policy development and as an
influence on the
m€dia coverage of envirolmental callcer,
Focusing on human trnd ecological health criterja, chapter 3
examines I pol-
icy conundrum that the Un.ited States and other natioru cannot
seem to solve.
what gasoiine edditives should be allowed in automobile
engines? For three
d€cades, there have been heated debates abouL lead, MTtsE
(methyl tertiary buLyl
ether), methanol, and others, Protecting public health should be
a key driver oI
these policy cbanges. Yet every change or argument for change
has corre rvith
new public health complications. ChapLer 3 de$cribes the )ong
and complex his-
tory of this policy issue, Irom the human and ecological health
concerns of each
additive to the Jormidable economic, political, and echical

33. concems, The theo-
retical focus is the principles lve use to evaluate scientific
evidence to proteci
people alrd the environrnent, I discuss thc ldca ot safery and
ho]v evidcnce js
obfaincd, rveighed, and critiqued, as tvell as hoh, sc,entists
evaluqte it, Then t
compare the scientis l's perspective yith [hat of the generol
public and the courls.
Helping me explairI lhe complicated role of science is Dr,
Bernard coldstein, vho
has been involved in many risk-based policy issues in the
United States and
abroad, Dr, Coldstein was director of the Oflice of Research and
Development st
the U,S, llnyiro[nental Protection Agency when some of lhe
automobile
addilive issues were deba[ed and also spent many years at New
York University,
Robert wood Jobnson Medical School, and the University of
Pittsburgh's
School of Public Health, lvhere he rvas dean. I inlerviewed him
on December 26,
2oo6.
Chapter 4 uses the remediation oJ nuclear weapon wastes to
illustrate cost
and beneflt criteria. Public health has surely been the key
criterion for decision
making, at leastin the past. But an in-depth analysis of decisions
$hows the grolv-

34. ing importalce of costs and benefits, The cleanup and
management program for
nuclear weapon !a$tes is the single most expensjve locus€d
effort of its kind jn
the world, Itvill go on in perpetuity at some sitcs, Thc United
States ha$ already
spent $Zo billion. will it spend another $I5o to $4oo billion in
the future? The
theoretical section focuses on stewardship, What does it mean
to be
responsible for the healbh, safety, cos1s, social justice, local
economics, and other
impacts of a legacy that vill last many generalions beyond the
life ofthe steward
actions ot elected officials,
nutes of public meetings.
rff chapter rather than the
been arbitrary, Hence, it is
ng individuals and groups,
ill understand rvhy they are
words, you !'ill not become
. hope that they rvhet your
ks 1/ ith advanced examples
rd effectively learned in thc
.lved advanced multivariate
ot equations, I assume that

35. ry dispersion and the ideas
elected ofncials and their
)n program in the United
fl has been a major priority
rls. The theoretical focus of
:development. His torically,
ch meant that entire areas
environmentally, econom-
rallenged this perspective,
,rolection, and community
)ouglas Palmer, and Joseph
how political coalitions ir
:ther during a period when
1en olher federal prcgmms
:burban rnayors wsnted to
akeholders, includiIg busi-
rniversities, [he National
]] calcer as a case study to
)r indirectly influence envi-
il cancer? A cancer cluster?
answe ng these queslions,
ers for information about
blem. The theory section
h importance or js it some-
I ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ANALYSIS AND PRACTICE

36. and cost billions of dollars? How does a steward balarce
engineered, legsl, atd
human controls to build a sustainable plan? What are th€
practical options?
An exped perspective is provided by Dr. Henry Mayer, .tvho
was vice presidenl
and treasurer of NIer ll Lynch and CFO of American Anglican,
a multinational
company thal purchased municipel water and se$,age treatment
companies,
During the past frve years, he has been rvorking on the
Departmeni of Energy's
(DOD's) infrastructure and weapons residuals programs. I
lnterviewed Dr. Mayer
on January 30, 2ooZ, and he explained bor'DOn's stewardship
role, jnc)uding its
responsibility lor sound flscal management, is chalienged by
projects with an
unprecedeuted degree of complexity,
Xthical conccrns often fall by the wayside when policy js
formulated. Thaf is
noi to say that decision makers are not aware of or do not care
about ethics. The
probiem is that the first four policy criteria seem more
immediate. Using the ban
on pesticides in the United States and its suspension Rs an
jllustration oI the
complex interactions among laws, environmental justice,
culturul norms, and
concerns about subsequent generations, chapter b highlights
how moral impera-
tives change. The theoretical framework is dra,n from
elrvironmental ethics and

37. environmental jusLice. The lundamental issue is the sale of
banned pesticides in
deyeloping nations by U,S, companics and the development oI
genetically modi-
fred orgqnisms, Vandcrb t University and lormer Yale ethics
professor Charles
Powers, interviewed on July rr, 2oo6, helps put this complex
issue in context.
Chapter 6 is sbout the importance of tjming and flexibility as
policy consid-
erations. The United states clearly has an energy problem that
appears to be
rvorsening and a greenhouse gas issue tllat is being widely
discussed. Shoukl
the goyernment advocate for nuclear pover? Il it does, it rvill
need to solve the
cbronic problem of nuclear waste management, find locations,
and confront 1he
relatiolship behyeen the pro]iferation of nuclear weapons and
nuclear potver,
Holv much support should the federal governmenl provide? I
inlervicwcd Connie
Hughes on December u,2006. An experl in energy policy and a
member of the
NewJersey Board ot Public Utilities, she describes the roie of
state government in
choosing fuels, siting facilities, and protecting the state
economy and lhe public
interest vith regard to energy and other inlrastruciure,
Chapter Z dcscribes the tools used to assess the fisk to human
and ecolog-

38. ical systems, including risk a$sessment and environmental
impact snalysis.
Embedded within these processes arc such diverse methods as
toxicology, epi-
deniology, snd geospatiat mapping and sitlng, among others,
Chapter Z desc bes
tools [or understanding individual and group actions, including
the use of con-
tent aDaly6is to study laws, media coverage, and the policy
statements of elected
o{flcials, The chapter also reviervs jntervierving, polling, and
innovation diffusion
tools. The third part of chapler Z focuscs on economic tools
such as discounting,
life-cycle cost analysis, assessment of the damage to natural
resources, and
regional economic impact assessment. The objective is to
descrlbe hov these
approaches have been applied to a ra[ge o{ critical policy
decisions,
Chapter g cons
policy crite a, incl,
cost-beneflt, and nr
with a review of e
changes in leadersh
the United states,
on risk.
c-r tc E INTRODUC TION 9
chapter 8 con.siders methods for sggrcgaling tlle informalion

39. ftom the six
policy criteria, including $.ri11en checklists, optimizing single-
criterion models,
cost-beneftt, and multi-attribute intenctive decision models The
chapter ends
with a review of environmental laws, regulations, rules,
executive decisions,
changes in leadership, and budgets, which hsve becn the
ultimate policy tools in
the United States, and the djfficult challcngc of communicating
information
on ris L(,
ineered, legal, and
ltical options?
'1vos vice Presidenl
n, a multinational
tment companies,
rtment of Energy's
:rviewed Dr. Mayer
) role, including it,s
v projects with an
lormulated, That is
e about clhics. The

40. .iate. Using the ban
illustration oI fhe
litural norms, and
,1ow moral impera-
nmentBl etbics and
rDned pesticides in
)f genetically modi-
; professor Charles
rsue in context,
ty as policy consid-
rhat appears to be
discussed, should
1l need to solve the
s, and confront the
lnd nuclear PoYer.
lntervieved Connie
rd a member ol the
,tate government in
,lmy and th€ public
human and ecolog-

41. rl impact analysis,
, as toxicology, epi-
chapter 7 describes
ijng the use of con-
c-tements of elected
:Irovation diffusion
uch as discounting,
iral resources, and
le$cribe how these
'isions.