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1. PLUTUS IAS
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OPTIONAL
UNIT 10:Public Policy
TOPIC :Public policy models
DATE :21 /10 /2022
BY SHEKHAR CHOUDHARY
UPPSC 2015
UGC NET -PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION(JULY 2019 ALL INDIA RANK 4)

2. DROR’S NORMATIVE OPTIMUM
MODEL

3. DROR’S NORMATIVE OPTIMUM MODEL
• DROR criticized Lindblom's approach as he felt that partial change as a solution
to a problem is not possible as the inertia of the previous problem or the bigger
problem will still persist and eat up these small and insignificant changes.
• He suggested a combination of rational factors as well as extra-rational factors
linked with the decision and situation.
• He has argued that policy analysis must acknowledge that there is a realm of
world, which involves values and personal experiences.

4. • He suggested a qualitative approach through a feed back
mechanism.
• He was also in support of studying decision making as a subject of
social science and making it inter disciplinary where knowledge and
techniques from other social science subjects can be mixed and
applied to decision making to broaden its scope and achieve
maximum results.

5. • In place of Incremental and Rational models, Dror has offered an alternative. His model in
seeks to accept:
• Need for rationality;
• Need for introduction of management techniques for enhancing rationality of decision-
making at lower levels;
• Policy Sciences approach for dealing with complex problems requiring decisions at the
higher levels; and
• Need to take account of values and irrational elements in decision-making.
• Dror has called it ‘Normative Optimalism’, which combines core elements of the ‘Rational’
model (such as the measurement of costs and benefits) with ‘extra-rational’ factors, which
are excluded from the ‘pure rationality’ model.
• He has argued that the aim of analysis is to induce decision-makers to expand their
frameworks to deal better with a complex world

6. Thus, in place of a purely Rational model, Dror
(1968) has offered a more complex model consisting
of some 18 stages:
• Meta-policymaking Stage:
• i) Processing values;
• ii) Processing reality;
• iii) Processing problems;
• iv) Surveying, processing
and developing resources;
• v) Designing, evaluating
and redesigning the
policymaking system;
• vi) Allocating problems,
values and resources;
• vii) Determining
policymaking strategy.
II. POLICYMAKING STAGE:
viii) Sub-allocating resources;
ix) Establishing operational goals, with some order of priority;
x) Establishing a set of their significant values, with some order
or priority;
xi) Preparing a set of major alternative policies, including some
‘good ones’;
xii) Preparing reliable predictions of the significant benefits and
costs of the various alternatives;
xiii) Comparing the predicted benefits and costs of the various
alternatives and identifying the ‘best’ ones;
xiv) Evaluating the benefits and costs of the ‘best alternatives’
and deciding whether they are ‘good’ or not.

7. • III. POST-POLICYMAKING STAGE:
• xv) Motivating the execution of policy;
• xvi) Executing the policy;
• xvii) Evaluating policymaking after executing the
policy;
• xviii) Communication and feedback channels
interconnecting all phases
• The 18- stages outlined must be seen as a cycle,
which has its rational and extra-rational aspects
• His model operates at two interacting phases.
• In Phase 1, ‘the processing of values’, decision-
making would involve ‘specifying and ordering
values to be a general guide for identifying
problems and for policymaking’
• In Phase 2, the ‘rational sub-phase’, involves
‘gathering information on feasibility and
opportunity costs’, and at the ‘extra-rational sub-
phase’, decision-making will involve ‘value
judgement, tacit bargaining and coalition formation

8. • A CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF DROR’S MODEL
• DROR HAS VIEWED POLICYMAKING AS A CONSCIOUS AWARENESS OF CHOICE BETWEEN TWO MAIN
ALTERNATIVES FOR STEERING SOCIETIES
• HE IS OF THE CONCERTED VIEW THAT A LONG-TERM STRATEGY TO IMPROVE PUBLIC
POLICYMAKING IS NECESSARY FOR HUMAN PROGRESS
• DROR COULD BE EQUATED WITH LASSWELL.
• WHEREAS, LASSWELL SAW POLICY SCIENCES AS HAVING A ‘ROLE IN ENLIGHTENMENT,
EMANCIPATION AND DEMOCRATISATION’,
• DROR SEEMS TO HAVE VERY LITTLE REGARD FOR THE PEOPLE IN POLICYMAKING
• ALTHOUGH AGREEING WITH LINDBLOM THAT POLICYMAKING WAS A COMPLEX EXERCISE, DROR
WAS OPPOSED TO LINDBLOM’S INCREMENTALISM POSITION AND ADVOCATED ALTERNATIVE
PARADIGM OF RATIONAL ANALYSIS

10. POLICY CYCLE
• Policy -making is a continuing process.
• It does not come to an end once a policy is set out or approved.
• As James E. Anderson expresses it, "Policy is being made as it is being
administered and administered as it is being made".
• Thus the policy cycle or stagist approach continues to be the basis for both the
analysis of the policy process and of analysis for the policy process

11. POLICY CYCLE
• W. Jenkins (Policy Analysis, 1978) sets out seven stages for the policy process,
such as, initiation, information, consideration, decision, implementation,
evaluation, and termination
• Hogwood and Gunn (Policy Analysis for the Real World, 1984) have identified
nine important stages in the policy process:
• Deciding to decide (agenda setting),
• Deciding how to decide (issue filtration),
• Issue definition, forecasting, setting objectives and priorities,
• Options analysis, policy implementation,
• Monitoring and control, evaluation and review and
• Policy maintenance, succession and termination

12. • The basis to the framework is information for policy analysis,
which is derived from system or Programme performance in
terms of interaction among:
• Inputs, which indicate needs and demands processes
concerning the provision of services for long-term care
• Outputs in terms of the use of services and costs of care
• Outcomes, which identify the end results of certain courses
of action

13. • Identifying the Underlying Problem
• Is there any problem
• Describing problem from mundane to abstract and
conceptual
• Determining Alternatives for Policy Choice
• The next step is to determine alternative courses of action
• Government intervention can take any form
• As difficulties are identified and additional information
becomes available, refinement of alternative courses of
action will continue throughout the analysis
• Determining alternatives for policy choice generally offers
a chance for creative thought as hard work

14. Forecasting and Evaluating the Alternatives
• Policy analyst evaluates the consequences of each of the alternatives
• Policy analyst will turn to a relevant model for forecasting consequences
• Evaluation of the outcomes is of great importance as it reminds us to look
carefully at the cost-benefit analysis of a particular policy choice.
• Too often, policy choices + have been sabotaged by bureaucrats and
interested politicians

15. Making a Choice
• Last step in policy analysis
• Relates to making the preferred choice (course of action)
• It has been observed that countless policy studies have led nowhere
• Sometimes the fault is attributed to the public decision-makers who do not
take advantage of readily accessible data
• Too often, it is the producers of the analysis who are to blame
• Most policy analyses are gathering dust because they have not been properly
understood
• The analysis should be brought out in such a way that the essential points can
be easily grasped and communicated
• The choice among competing policy alternatives is complex, for the future is
always uncertain

16. Policy Implementation
• The success of public administration can be measured only in relation to the
implementation of policies
• Policy implementation is of critical importance to the success of government
• No policies can succeed if the implementation does not bear relationship to
the intentions of policy makers
• Implementation is a phase between a policy statement and operation
• Exercise involves developing and pursuing a strategy of organization and
management to ensure that the policy process is completed with the
minimum of delays, costs and problems
• Involves the creation of a policy delivery system in which specific mechanisms
are designed and pursued in the hope of reaching particular ends

17. Constraints in Policy Implementation
• Lack of sufficient autonomy and flexibility in carrying out their tasks should
• To ward off political pressures and adhere to the goals of a policy, the implemknters need adequate
powers
• Very often, the government itself modifies or abandons its policy in the face of strong opposition
from interest groups
• Bureaucracy does not have the necessary professional skills needed for the implementation of the
policies
• Bureaucracy should be strengthened to enable it to become an effective instrument of policy
implementation
• Lack of resources, personnel, financial and technical,
• Inadequate staff, lack of expertise and skills, shortage of funds etc. frustrate proper policy
implementation
• lack of response from the target groups
• Lack of people's participation often leads to upsets in implementation
• Setting of goals and objectives, allocation of resources, minimizing political influences and the choice
of implementation strategies influence the extent to which policy aims can be achieved

18. • Policy Monitoring
• It is an activity which occurs in the
course of implementing a policy or
Programme
• The objective of policy monitoring is to
ensure through the policy
implementation process that resource
inputs are used as efficiently as possible
to yield intended results
• Significance of the monitoring of public
policy lies in seeing that intended results
are achieved through the efficient use of
resources
• Monitoring helps in designing and
implementing systems for the processes,
which provide just the sight amount of
detail for adequate control of policy
execution
• Aids in cost reduction, time saving and
effective resource utilisation
• Key issue in monitoring is to create an
information system that gives policy
makers and policy implementers the
information they need to make timely
decisions and policies that will keep
policy Programme performance as close
as possible to the objectives of the
policy

19. • One of the serious problem in
monitoring relates to poor design of
the implementing system for the
processes,
• Second, time is a constraint for
policy monitoring
• Third, a common constraint for the
policy implementation manager is
the shortage of corrective actions,
which would be applied when the
Programme is found to be deviating
in some respect from projected
performance
• Fourth, a pervasive obstacle to
policy monitoring is ignorance about
its role and methods
• It is often observed that the
monitoring staff and key personnel
associated with implementing
policies lack the requisite stills to
monitor and control
policy/Programme performance