22276455 wireless-geophones

DATA MINING AND WIRELESS SENSORS FOR AGRICULTURE
Introduction
1.1. Definition of wireless geophones:
- Wireless: no lines (network or power).
- Wireless Sensor Network: network of individual sensors connected to transmit data.
through nodes, or motes, which function as tiny radio transmission devices.
- Practical application, however requires a low power, low complexity, low data rate
compliant RF device.
1.2. What is a Wireless Sensor Network?
- Wireless communication is becoming a very important aspect of modern day
networking and in deploying practical solutions for the real world.
- A wireless sensor network consists of a base station and numerous wireless sensors
(motes) that can transmit and receive data. The wireless sensors establish a
connection via an ad-hoc infrastructure to the base station, which serves as the
gateway for outputting the data from the network.
- This type of infrastructure allows for an extended coverage range.
1.3. Wireless Sensor Networks:
- Consist of a set of small devices with sensing and wireless communication
capabilities.
- Those small devices are named sensor nodes, and are deployed within a special
area to monitor a physical phenomenon.
1.4. Wireless seismic system:
Wireless Seismic is pleased to introduce an exploration seismograph that operates
without cables. Small modules operate as independent seismic data acquisition units.
The seismic data is sent by radio to your computer in real time for instant display and
storage, just as in a conventional wired seismograph.
Working with seismic cables is painful. Now you can eliminate them by replacing
these cables with a wireless mesh network. This seismic system will cost less to buy,
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but more important, it will greatly reduce the logistics effort, and manpower required to
conduct a seismic survey. Lowering the environmental impact will open new areas to
exploration.
The RF transceivers are low power, so the range is limited, but each unit acts as
a radio relay so that data from distant modules is handed across the network until it
reaches the base station. Normal geophone spacings are well within the range of
transmission, but the total areal extent of the array can be theoretically unlimited.
Since the data is digital, there is no degradation in data quality as the information is
passed from station to station.
Of course the system meets the requirements of an exploration seismograph: 24-
bit data conversion, stacking, fast and slow sample rates, synchronized timing,
correlation for swept sources, true amplitude recovery, and self-test functions. Data
may be displayed and stored on industry-standard notebook computers or tape drives
in SEG standard formats.
Control and display software for Windows-compatible computers is provided with
the system. An interface unit, called a base station, acts as the radio communication
link between the computer and the individual modules. TTie base station has an
Ethernet interface which connects to the computer. A built-in Ethernet hub allows
additional base stations to be connected for system expansion. Each base station can
accommodate multiple remote units for system expansion where the base stations are
arranged in a line and the remote units in cross lines to make large arrays of sensor
stations.
Because of the short cables, electrical interference is kept to a minimum.
Different surveys call for different geometries. A wireless system frees you to locate
your geophones where they ought to be instead of being constrained by your spread
cables.
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Fig1.1: Distribution of wireless geophones
Fig1.2: Wireless geophone
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Chapter 2
Wireless procedures
2.1. Networked Sensing Enabler
• Small (coin, matchbox sized) nodes with
- Processor
8-bit processors to x86 class processors
• Memory
Kbytes – Mbytes range
- Radio
20-100 Kbps initially
- Battery powered
- Built-in sensors!
Fig2.1: Sensing components
2.2.Sensor Nodes
Fig2.2:
Types
of
Sens
or
Nodes
2.3.
Motes:
- Motes are used as the building blocks of wireless sensor networks:
- Small
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- Low Cost
- Monitor Sensor Data
- Components on the MICAz mote: Fig2.3: Motes figure
- In Crossbow’s MICAz, it uses ATmel ATmega 128L processor running at
4MHZ
- Communicates using a MIB510 at its base node to link with a computer
- Has 10-bit A/D Converter so sensor data can be digitized
- Limited Range (10 to 200 feet) due to power consumption
Istrumentation: 2.4.
2.4.1.Existing Instrumentation:
- Sensors connected by cables to data logger
- Data logger wirelessly transmits sensor
readings to base station
Fig2.4: Wired geophones array
2.4.2.Our Experiment:
- Sensor nodes with
- On-board computation
- Wireless communication
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Senso
r
Data
Logger
Senso
Data
Logger

- Can we build a (possibly multi-hop)
wireless seismic sensor array?
- Can greatly simplify deployment
Fig2.5: Wireless geophones array
2.4.3.Experiment Design:
- Deploy wireless array beside wired array
- Goals
- Understand systems design issues
- Validate by comparing data
obtained using wired
infrastructure
Fig2.6: Wireless beside wired array
2.5.The Technology:
- Mica-2 motes from Crossbow
- Atmel processor
- Chipcon CC1000 transceiver
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Senso
r
Data
Logger

- Vibration daughter card (under development)
-16-bit, up to 100 Ksps, on board processor and sample memory
Fig2.7: The technology in motes
2.6.Rockwell WINS & Hidra Nodes:
- Consists of 2”x2” boards in a 3.5”x3.5”x3”
enclosure
- StrongARM 1100 processor @ 133 MHz
- 4MB Flash, 1MB SRAM
- Various sensors
- Seismic (geophone)
- Acoustic
- magnetometer
- accelerometer, temperature, pressure
- RF communications
- Connexant’s RDSSS9M Radio
@ 100 kbps, 1-100 --mW, 40 channels
- eCos RTOS
- Commercial version: Hidra
- µC/OS-II
- TDMA MACwith multihop routing
Fig2.8: Rockwell WINS &Hidra Nodes
2.7.Sensoria WINS NG 2.0, sGate, and WINS Tactical Sensor:
- WINS NG 2.0
- Development platform used in
DARPA SensIT
- SH-4 processor @ 167 MHz
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- DSP with 4-channel 16-bit ADC
- GPS
- Imaging
- Dual 2.4 GHz FH radios
- Linux 2.4 + Sensoria APIs
- Commercial version: sGate
- WINS Tactical Sensor Node
- Geo-location by acoustic ranging and angle
- Time synchronization to 5 µs
- Cooperative distributed event processing
Fig2.9: Types of Wins & its configuration
Fig2.10: The diameter & height of Wins
2.8. Sensoria Node Hardware Architecture:
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Fig2.11: Sensoria Nodes Hardware
Geophone Operating Conditions: .2.9
- Wide temperature range (-40 to +85°C)
Humidity 0 – 100%-
- Robust
- 2000g shock survivability Fig2.12: Geophones in water
- Altitude: -100 to +5500m
- Exposure to water, dirt, sand, animal attacks
- Transportation by truck, helicopter, boats, divers, etc.
Fig2.14: Geophone connected
Fig2.13: Transportation by truck
2.11.Seismic Imaging: Analog to Digital Transitions:
DEPT EEE SICETPage9
ProcessorRAMFlash
GPS
Address/Data Bus
DSP
Preprocessor
Multi-
Channel
Sensor
Interface
Analog
Front
End
Preprocessor
Interface
Imager
Interface
Imager
Module
Modular
Wireless and Digital Interfaces
RF
Modem
1
RF
Modem
2
Digital
I/O
10/100
Ethern
et

?
Tx Rx
?
Fig2.16: Analog to digital transitions
Energy Management .2.12
Radio Energy Management 2.12.1.
Fig2.17: Radio energy management
- During operation, the required performance is often less than the peak performance
the radio is designed for.
- How do we take advantage of this observation, in both the sender and the receiver?
2.12.2.Energy in Radio: the Deeper Story.…
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time

Fig2.18: Energy in radio
- Wireless communication subsystem consists of three components with substantially
different characteristics.
- Their relative importance depends on the transmission range of the radio.
Applications of wireless geophones
Tx: Sender
Rx: Receiver
Channel
Incoming
information
Outgoing
information
Tx
elecE Rx
elecERFE
Transmit
electronics
Receive
electronics
Power
amplifier

3.1.Environmental Potential of ENS Technology (Applications being
pursued at CENS:(
Fig3.1: Ecosystems, Biocomplexity Fig3.2: Seismic Structure Response
Fig3.4:Marine MicroorganismsFig3.3: Contaminant Transport
- Micro-sensors, on-board processing, wireless interfaces feasible at very small scale
can monitor phenomena “up close”.
- Enables spatially and temporally dense environmental monitoring.

3.1.1.Example Application: Seismic:
- Interaction between ground motions and structure/foundation response not well
understood.
- Current seismic networks not spatially dense enough
to monitor structure deformation in response to
ground motion, to sample wavefield without spatial
aliasing.
- Science
- Understand response of buildings and
underlying soil to ground shaking.
- Develop models to predict structure response
for earthquake scenarios.
- Technology/Applications
Fig3.5: Building damage
- Identification of seismic events that cause significant structure shaking.
- local, at-node processing of waveforms.
- Dense structure monitoring systems.
Fig3.6: Bridge
damage
Fig3.7:
Building
damage

3.1.3.Contaminant Transport:
-Science
- Understand intermedia contaminant transport and fate in real systems.
- Identify risky situations before they become exposures , Subterranean
deployment.
- Multiple modalities (e.g., pH, redox
conditions, etc.).
- Micro sizes for some applications (e.g.,
pesticide transport in plant roots).
- Tracking contaminant “fronts”.
- At-node interpretation of potential for risk
(in field deployment).
- marine contaminants.
- Dispersal enormously can be damage to
the environment.
- Groundwater contaminants. Fig3.10: Subsurface contamination
- Study of contaminant transport involves.
- Understanding the physical (soil structure), chemical (interaction with and impact on
nutrients), and biological (effect on plants and marine life) aspects of contaminants.
- Modeling their transports.
- Mature field!
- Fine-grain sensing can help.

3.1.4. Field-Level Experiments:
- Nitrates in groundwater.
- Application
- Wastewater used for irrigating alfalfa.
- Wastewater has nitrates, nutrients for alfalfa.
- Over-irrigation can lead to nitrates in ground-water.
- Need monitoring system, wells can be expensive.
- Pilot study of sensor network to monitoring nitrate levels.
Fig3.11: Wastewater detection
Fig3.12: Sensor network

3.2.Ecosystem Monitoring:
Science
- Remote sensing can enable global assessment of ecosystem.
- Understand response of wild populations (plants and animals) to habitats over time.
- Develop in situ observation of species and ecosystem dynamics.
Techniques
- Data acquisition of physical and chemical properties, at various spatial and temporal
scales, appropriate to the ecosystem, species and habitat.
- Automatic identification of organisms (current techniques involve close-range human
observation).
- Measurements over long period of time, taken in-situ.
- Harsh environments with extremes in temperature, moisture, obstructions, ...
Fig3.20: Ecosystemmonitoring
3.2.1. Monitoring ecosystem processe:

- Imaging, ecophysiology, and environmental sensors.
- Study vegetation response to climatic trends and diseases.
Fig3.21: Stress physiology
:
3.4.2.System Architecture:
Fig3.31: System architecture
– Sensor columns detect movements.
– Determine columns that moved.
– Estimate new locations of dislocated columns.
– Estimate location of slip surface.

– Transfer selected measurements to analysis station.
3.4.3. Detection of slip surface:
- Uses strain gages on each sensor column.
- Can measure changes in their length due to
deformation.
- Conserves power.
- Two-tier detection algorithm.
1. Detect statistically significant
changes in length of individual columns.
2. Check that number of false positives
along potential slip plane is below
threshold.
Fig3.32: Detection of slip surface
3.9.Wireless underground sensor networks (WUSN:(
Sensor networks are currently a very active area of research. The richness of
existing and potential applications from commercial agriculture and geology to
security and navigation has stimulated significant attention to their capabilities for
monitoring various underground conditions. In particular, agriculture uses
underground sensors to monitor soil conditions such as water and mineral content
Sensors are also successfully used to monitor the integrity of belowground
infrastructures such as plumbing and landslide and earthquake monitoring are
accomplished using buried seismometers.
3.9.1.Environmental monitoring:
Sensor is being used in agriculture to monitor underground soil conditions,
such as water and mineral content, and to provide data for appropriate irrigation

and fertilization. A wireless underground system, however, can provide a
significant refinement to the current approach for more targeted and efficient soil
care. For example, since installation of WUSNs is easier than existing wired
solutions, sensors can be more densely deployed to provide local detailed data.
Rather than irrigating an entire field in response to broad sensor data, individual
sprinklers could be activated based on local sensors. In a greenhouse setting,
sensors could even be deployed within the pot of each individual plant.
The concealment offered by a WUSN also makes it a more attractive and
broadly viable solution than the current terrestrial agricultural WSNs. Visible and
physically prominent equipment such as surface WSN devices or dataloggers
would most likely be unacceptable for applications such as lawn and garden or
sports field monitoring. WUSNs are particularly applicable to sports field
monitoring, where they can be used to monitor soil conditions at golf courses,
soccer fields, baseball fields, and grass tennis courts. For all of these sports, poor
turf conditions generally create an unfavorable playing experience, so soil
maintenance is especially important to ensure healthy grass. An additional
practical feature of underground sensors is that they are protected from equipment
such as tractors and lawnmowers.
Monitoring the presence and concentration of various toxic substances is
another important application. This is especially important for soil near rivers and
aquifers, where chemical runoff could contaminate drinking water supplies. In
these cases, it may be desirable to utilize a hybrid network of underground and
underwater sensors.
In addition to monitoring soil properties, WUSNs can be used for landslide
prediction by monitoring soil movement.
Current methods of predicting landslides are costly and time-consuming to
deploy, preventing their use in the poorer regions that stand to benefit the most
from such technology. Like terrestrial WSN devices, WUSN devices should be
inexpensive, and deployment is as simple as burying each device. WUSN
technology will allow for a much denser deployment of sensors so that landslides
can be better predicted and residents of affected areas can be warned sufficiently
early to evacuate.

Another possible application is monitoring air quality in underground coal
mines. Buildup of methane and carbon monoxide is a dangerous problem that can
lead to explosions or signify a fire in the mine, and the presence of these gasses
must be continually monitored. This application would necessitate a hybrid
architecture of underground open-air sensors and underground embedded sensors
deployed between the surface of the ground and the roof of the mine tunnel. This
would allow data from sensors in the mine to be quickly routed to surface stations
vertically, rather than through the long distances of the mine tunnels.
Another mining application would include an audio sensor (i.e., a powerful,
high-sensitivity and low-power microphone suitable to underground environments)
attached to the distributed underground sensor nodes to assist in location and
rescue of trapped miners. WUSN devices with microphones would also be useful
for other applications, such as studying the noises of underground animals in their
natural habitats.
Fig3.49: A WUSN deployed for monitoring a golf
course. Underground sensors can be used to
monitor soil salinity, water content, and
temperature. Surface relays and sinks, which can
be placed away from playing areas, are used to
forward WUSN sensor data to a central receiving
point (in this case, the golf course maintenance
building).

Fig3.50: Underground topology
Fig3.51: Hybrid topology
Advantages & disadvantages of wireless geophones
4.1 Advantages:
4.1.1Going wireless
One of the biggest technological shifts is moving to high-channel count wireless
platforms that eliminate cables and hardwired connectors while significantly in-
creasing data density and resolution.
Wireless will be in high demand, because both operators and contractors will see
the benefits,” he predicts.
Wireless systems dramatically decrease the amount of people and equipment
on location, environmental impact, system weight, exposure to accidents, etc. In fact,

there are so many technical, operational and logistical benefits that it is difficult to
see significant adoption barriers to cableless land acquisition systems.
We anticipate high channel count cableless recording systems will enable
dramatic gains in image quality and productivit over traditional systems, Although we
anticipate broad acceptance of these systems, we expect to deploy them in parts of
the world with sensitive acquisition conditions.
A full-wave seismic recording platform that integrates the latest GPS, data
storage and power technologies into a cableless architecture that supports high-station
counts for enhanced spatial sampling.
FireFly will record data using three-component, full-wave VectorSeis® sensors
that are designed to measure true particle motion as a three-dimensional vector
rather than along a single dimension, as a conventional geophone does.
Fig5.1: The FireFly™ from I/O is a full-wave
seismic recording platform that integrates the
latest GPS, WiFi, data storage and power
technologies into a ca-bleless architecture that
supports high-station counts for enhanced
spatial sampling. FireFly records data using
three-component, full-wave VectorSeis®
sensors designed to measure true particle
motion as a three-dimensional vector.
Seismic energy propagates as a
three-dimensional wavefront. In the past, most of the information embedded in the
wave-field was simply ignored, but measuring in three dimensions allows us to
record broadband data that is far richer in its spectral content. Higher-bandwidth data
deliver a higher-resolution image. By utilizing all the data in the wavefield, we can
better characterize the target reservoirs, including mapping lithology, fluid content
and fracture patterns. This is a major step forward.
We believe FireFly is a natural progression to obtaining high-resolution images,
since it supports the cost-effective recording of full-wave data with greater density,
FireFly uses flash memory without the need to move seismic data across cables or a
radio network. Flash memory systems are simple and easily scalable to tens of
thousands of channels without the complexity of keeping a network of tens of

thousands of geophones on a wire up all the time. This is a significant advantage over
cable systems.
The ability to record multicomponent data.
• Fast And Flexible:
The system eases logistical and maintenance requirements, provides fast
deployment, reduces crew size, and lessens environmental and cultural footprints in
plays such as the Barnett Shale in the Fort Worth Basin.
The biggest advantage in the Barnett Shale is flexibility. The ability to move
around quickly and get in among subdivisions is key, that is our forte. We are the
niche specialty 3-D seismic shooter in the Barnett Shale play. The speed of
deployment, flexibility, scalability, fast data transfer and smaller crews add to
incredible flexibility and efficiency. Plus, we have the ability to see the system on
screen in a central control unit(CCU) to make sure everything is working properly and
QC data during acquisition. We can even change design configurations on the fly.
The scalability also allows denser channel configurations for cost-effectively
sampling of greater seismic frequency.
By working with the flexibility the system offers, we hope contractors and
operators can start thinking about data quality rather than survey logistics,” he
remarks. “It is ideal for high-channel count recording.
• Increased Productivity:
Ultra™ is a distributed cableless platform developed by Ascend Geo that uses
1.5-pound/channel continuous recording units equipped with GPS timing and pro-
grammable radio frequency receivers that plug into a dedicated offloading and
recharging rack.
It is about performance efficiencies, designed to increase crew productivity
and profitability through dramatically reduced weight and equipment requirements,
simplified operations, and fast and flexible deployment.
The reduced size and weight make the self-contained field units easy to
deploy in difficult environments. “The Ultra G4 system will record three channels
continuously for up to 80 hours, making it ideal for multicomponent reservoir mon-

itoring and well fracturing applications using both active and passive seismic ac-
quisition.
Fig5.2: Its IT 3-D recording
system in 2002, followed up by
the UnITe Cellular Seismic™
system this year based on the
same wireless platform. IT is
configured with a four-channel
remote acquisition unit and
hybrid radio/cable telemetry to
create a data structure using
miniature cell phone tower-like
repeaters to transmit to a central
control unit within the shot cycle,
while UnITe uses a GPS-enabled
single-channel base unit and real-
time radio telemetry to eliminate cables.
Fig5.3: The Ultra™
distributed cableless
platform developed
by Ascend Geo uses
this 1.5-pound/chan-
nel continuous
recording unit that is
equipped with GPS
timing and
programmable radio
frequency receivers
that plug into a
dedicated offloading and recharging rack.
• Cost-Effective Option:
The system uses analog geophones, with the data signal digitized at the box
the recording truck. “For our customers’ bread and butter land geophysical appli-
cations, the newest and most advanced analog-to-digital ARIES system is the most
cost-effective option.

In fact, we can acquire 3-D today using ARIES at a lower delivered price than in
the past because the system is so user friendly and so much faster, especially in
shallower gas plays.
Improved cost efficiencies and operational productivity give the contractor
better margins and the operator lower costs. “The operator gets higher productivity
with ARIES, which translates into less cost per square mile of data acquired.
We are simply able to get more shots in a day using this system.
4.1.2.Embedded Wireless Networked Sensing &Actuation:
– “Communication” between people and their physical environment.
– Allow users to query, sense, and manipulate the state of the physical world.
4.1.3Technology enabler
– Cheap, ubiquitous, high-performance, low-power embedded processing.
e.g. Low-power processor cores.
– Cheap, ubiquitous (wireless) networking.
e.g. Single-chip CMOS radios.
– Cheap, ubiquitous, high-performance sensors and actuators.
e.g. MEMS device.

Fig5.4: “The Network is the Sensor”
-Distributed and large-scale, connected to other networks such as like the Internet,But
different from previous networks.
– Physical instead of virtual.
– Resource constrained.
– Real-time control loops instead of interactive human loop.
4.1.4. State-of-the-art Wireless System and Sensors:
- Licence exempt RF transmission frequency.
- Low noise and high sensitivity.
- Small size and light weight for excellent portability.
- Low temperature rated sensor cable.
- Durable construction.
- Optional high-power licence band available.
- Signal-to-noise ratio equivalent to digital radio system without the cost.
4.1.5Challenges
- Detection of damage (cracks) in structures.
- Analysis of stress histories for damage prediction.
- Applicable not just to buildings but else to Bridges, aircraft.
4.1.6Future technology trends:
• Power reduction
- State-of-the art electronics
• Lower costs
- Wireless communication & data storage
- System in Package
• Integrated GPS

• Increased sensitivity
- Deeper, higher fidelity data
• Smaller size
- Multilayer packaging
- Embedded electronics
Fig5.5: Wireless technology
4.1.8. Overview of Seismic geophones:
• ‘Moving coil’ inductive geophones are a mature year old technology.
• Geophones must be small, rugged, cost-effective, and high performance.
• MEMS-based solution offers:
– Full wave: 3D imaging + 3 vector
- Pressure (z) + 2 shear waves
– Low-frequency response (<6Hz)
- Higher fidelity image
– Direct digital output
- Better signal integrity
– Auto tilt correction
- Easy deployment especially underwater
Conclusion
The flexibility now offered by cable free systems offers explo-rationists
unlimited scope to deploy sensors in an unrestrained manner, without the
need to consider the constraints of the traditional seismic grid. These
systems completely eliminate cables without compromising the real-time

recording of the data. This also brings a real advance in the logistics of land
and transition zone surveys, allowing system users to concentrate on data
quality, not logistics, whilst enjoying enormous HSE benefits, thus
improving the future prospects of our industry.
REFERENCE
A. Sheth, K. Tejaswi, P. Mehta, C. Parekh, R. Bansal, S. Merchant, T.
Singh, U.B. Desai, C.A. Thekkath, K. Toyama, Senslide, 2005, a
sensor network based landslide prediction system, in:

SenSys’05: Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on
embedded networked sensor systems, pp. 280–281.
B. Chouet et al.,2003, “Source mechanisms of explosions at Strom-boli
Volcano, Italy, determined from moment-tensor inversions of very-
long-period data,” J. Geophys. Res., vol. 108, no. B7, p. 2331.
C. Dietel et al.,1989, “Data summary for dense GEOS array observations of
seismic activity associated with magma transport at Kilauea Volcano,
Hawaii,” U.S. Geological Survey, Tech. Rep. 89-113.
Chung, H-C, Enomoto, T. and Shinozuka, M., 2003, “MEMS-type
accelerometers and wireless communication for structural
monitoring”, the 2nd MIT Conferences on Fluid and Solid
Mechanics, Cambridge, MA, June 17-20,
http://shino8.eng.uci.edu/MEMS_ppt Feng, M. Q., and Bahng, E. Y.
(1999).
G. Werner-Allen, K. Lorincz, M. Welsh, O. Marcillo, J. Johnson, M. Ruiz,
J. Lees,2006, Deploying a wireless sensor network on an active
volcano.
Henry david Thoreau, , (1817-1862)."Leak Finder RT (PC Based Leak Noise
Correlator)", www.echologics.com

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