Main PRA.ppt

Participatory Rural
Appraisal (PRA)

The objectives
• The ultimate aim :
– To build up a permanent “people first” attitudes in the
minds of the students.
– To establish a notion of “respect” to the people’s
knowledge in the life of professionals
– To provide simple analytical tools to analyze rural
situations.
– To show some of the analytical tools to the
community in the field setting and understand their
suitability to farmer situation.
– To enhance student’s ability to plan with the
community

• The content included in the PRA training
are simple and do not require high calibre
or mathematical thinking.
• But require minds which are prepared to
accept
– a new way of learning,
– a new of doing things and
– that we have limited knowledge of
something.

Why participation?
Participation must . . .
• Contribute to the quality of project
(s)
– Add value
– Have a multiplier effect
– Have a long lasting effect
– Improve the status of participant

Shortcoming (defects) of questionnaire
methods
– Questionnaires
methods-
1. Questionnaires formulated by
researcher
2. Enumerator conduct the
interview-
3. Close ended questions used
4. Fixed sample frame
5. Each informant is asked the
same set of questions-
6. The same question for all
segment of population
7. Researcher does not observe
events
8. Analysis takes time-
9. The process is not influenced
– PRA Methods-
1. Checklist prepared by a team
2. Multidisciplinary team
facilitate and open dialogue
3. Open ended themes +
questions
4. Purposive sampling
5. Guiding to discussion
visualization
6. Triangulation; sources of
information change, men,
women, different questions
7. Observation of even & taking
notes-
8. On the spot analysis-
9. Informant ask questions,
open discussion, two way
communication

WHY PRA?
• PRA provides scope for all involved to learn from
each other and stimulates self-motivated initiatives.
• This methodology permits the application of a set of
tools and techniques that allow for the
transformation of knowledge and shared experiences
into actions that are oriented towards
– economically justifiable,
– socially acceptable and
– environmentally sound production system's).

Why PRA……….
• PRA helps communities to:
– Mobilize their human and natural resources
– Define problems
– Consider previous successes and failures
– Evaluate priorities and opportunities
– Prepare a systematic and site specific plan of
action (CPA)

PRA principles and features
• Respecting people’s knowledge and
learning from them.
• Listening to the disadvantaged: Respect
• Optimal ignorance: Do not collect data,
which you do not need.
• Flexibility: PRA does not stick to fixed
plan of action.

PRA principles and features
• Visualization: All data collected from the
people are visualized by them
• Triangulation
• It involves a team of people working
with a community for several days.
• Analysis is done in the field
• Continuity

Steps in participatory
planning
1. Defining the objective of PRA
2. Site selection and clearance form local
administrative officials. Aimed at program
implantation (or) problem solving
purpose. For site selection, use-ranking
methods with local people and outsiders;
then select the sites for intervention.

Steps---
3 Preliminary visit
– Survey team visit
– Extended discussion with local leaders
– Agreement to do a PRA
– Sharing responsibilities with the people
4. Data collection
– Local people and survey team collect information
– The data includes:
– Spatial data
– Time related information
– Data on institutions and social structures
– Technical information

Steps---
5. Data analysis
– PRA team spends days organizing information
– Make large charts and tables of trends, maps transects
etc
– Compile a list of all the problems mentioned
– Summarized the problems
6. Ranking problems
– Present to the community data collected in a large
meeting
– Include line department staff, DAs etc
– Rank the problems by discussion and voting

Steps---
7. Formulate and rank opportunities
• From discussion groups on the solutions of the problem
• Obtain advise from the technical officers on:
• Feasibility
• Sustainability
• Productivity
• Equity of the solutions
• Rank opportunities
• Set an action plans

Steps---
8. Adoption of action plans
• Look for technical information to develop
a comprehensive plan
• Specific expert join PRA team
• Line ministry departments take part in the
implementation

Steps---
9. Implementation
• All partners in development contributes
to activities as:
– Manpower allocation
– Materials needed
– Time needed
– Funds required
The most important step in the PRA process is
“handing over the stick” to the people.

Considerations in Developing the PRA
Methodology
• PRA is a growing combination of approaches and
methods that facilitate the
– sharing,
– cross-fertilization,
– analysis,
– evaluation and
– enhancement of livelihood experiences and life
conditions among key actors or stakeholders within a
specified setting.

Therefore:
1 In deciding on the tools to be applied and the
intensity of the PRA training, the previous
knowledge of PRA by the field assessors or
facilitators must be assessed.
This evaluation will help determine whether the
introductory segment of the training should be
concerned with defining PRA, or with discussing
why PRA is useful and how the tools could be
applied to yield the desired results of the research.

2 . Essentially, the PRA training should be
focused on the transfer of techniques and
tools that support the realization of the
objectives of the PRA exercise.
• Trainees must become fully engaged in the
practical application of the best suited PRA
tools for the prescribed exercise.

• However, PRA is more than a collection of
techniques.
• It is a general approach, the effectiveness of which
depends heavily on the attitude of practitioners.
• It will only work well if practitioners listen to and
respect the views of the people who live the
particular circumstance(s) being studied.

3.The PRA team must be facilitators of a process wherein
participants are catalysed to become subjects rather than
objects of the process.
Therefore, facilitators of the PRA process need to:
• Accept that there is no monopoly of wisdom and knowledge.
• Listen to farmers and respect their knowledge, experiences,
opinions and perceptions, as well be tolerant of their
attitudes and customs.

• Create the ambience conducive to gaining the trust
of the farmers and their willingness to share their
knowledge and experiences.
• Be flexible in the scheduling of PRA activities and
provide opportunities for problem-solving and
learning, in response to the felt needs of farmers and
their respective households and communities.

4. PRA enables participants to take part in
– presenting their own information,
– drawing their own conclusions and
– offering their own analyses and solutions.
• In the final analysis, PRA facilitators should become
redundant and the participants and their
constituents empowered to manage the change
process effectively.

5 . When defining an appropriate PRA tool kit, each
PRA team should determine the tools appropriate for
use in their respective site(s) or situations; having
taken full consideration of the
– time,
– human,
– technological and
– other resources accessible.
• Visual techniques are part of the suite of techniques
used in PRA.

6. The PRA team(s) must ensure the following in order
to guarantee the successful implementation of the
PRA exercise, namely:
• Effective Communication
• Proper training of participants
• Adequate transportation
• Participant commitment and co-operation

• Time management
• Group effort / Team work
• Proper selection / sampling
• Clear objectives
• Proper planning
• Well defined outputs / key areas for
investigation.

7 . The research area should
• represent a particular agro-ecological zone
or production system and
• must take account of the farming
community’s interest and commitment to
this process.

8. Having determined the set of variables to be
investigated, a major challenge is
• deciding which participatory methodologies and
techniques would facilitate the capture of the
minimum set of data and information required.
• In this regard, there is the need for due diligence in
determining
– the approach to the training and
– the set of tools that are best suited for the prescribed
investigations.

• Each PRA team must
• schedule their respective activities and
• ensure compliance with the overall framework
for the implementation of the PRA exercise, in
order to guarantee achievement of the
required outputs.

PRA Tools
• The following PRA tools are applicable to the process of capturing
information relating to the key areas for investigation
1 . Brainstorming
2 . Focus Groups
3 . Priority Grid
4 . Transects/ Maps
5 . Resource Mapping
6 . Crop Calendar
7 . Constraints Analysis
8 . Opportunity Matrix
9 . Stakeholder Analysis
10 . Venn Diagram
11 . Gender Analysis
12 . Time Budgeting
13 . Access and Control
Profiles / Analysis of the
Relations of (Re)production
14 . Genderised Logical
Frame (Logframe)
15 . Trend Analysis
16 . Role Play
17 . Case Studies
18 . Resource Flows
19 . Wealth Ranking

1. Brainstorming
• The main purpose of brainstorming sessions
is
– to enhance the creativity of a group, using their
collective insight to derive timely solutions to a
problem.

It is important to comply with the following four (4) basic ground
rules of brainstorming in order to minimize participants’
inhibitions and enrich the content of the group:
1 . Focus on quantity
• The greater the number of ideas generated, the
greater the chance of producing a radical and
effective solution.
2 . Withhold criticism
• Rather than criticize or judge ideas, participants
should focus on
– strengthening the validity of ideas generated by others.
– In so doing, all participants will feel free to share their
ideas. All ideas should be given equal credence
(weight).

3 . Include unusual ideas
• No idea (no matter how unclear it sounds)
should be rejected.
– This will help generate a healthy variety of
varying perspectives, as what may sound
ridiculous at first, could prove to be an
innovation.
• New ways of thinking may provide better
solutions. 0918773244

4 . Consolidate/ build on ideas
• By a process of association, ideas may be
combined to form a single better idea, as
suggested by the slogan “1+1=3”.
• This can help with team building and
reserved members of the group may feel
encouraged to contribute

• Brainstorming can fully exhaust an idea by
focusing specifically on that idea.
• quickly generated ideas usually lead to a very
animated and energizing session.

disadvantages
Some of the disadvantages of brainstorming relate to
• the difficulty of accurately recording the points
generated and
• if some members of the group are not familiar with
the topic of discussion, it becomes difficult to
brainstorm and stimulate a free flow of ideas.
It is therefore critical to define the problem clearly,
concisely and unambiguously before a brainstorming
session.

2. Focus Group
• A Focus Group is a relatively low cost and quick
qualitative research method to gain an
understanding of local
– perceptions,
– opinions,
– beliefs and
– attitudes to the issue(s) being studied.
• One can get a great deal of information during a
focus group session.

• Focus groups are dialogue sessions with less
than 20 persons (preferably 6 – 10 persons)
participating in the group and is quite similar
to a brainstorming session.

• Focus groups can also be viewed as
multiple interviews where questions are asked
in an interactive group setting and where
participants are free to talk with other group
members.

Preparing for the Session
• Define the principal objective (s) of the session.
• Carefully develop three to five questions that will
serve to stimulate the required dialogue and extract
the required information from the group discourse.
• Ensure that persons targeted are informed of the
date, time, venue and purpose of the focus group.

• Touch base with them to ensure their participation
and assist, where necessary, to guarantee their
participation.
• Choose a venue that is easily accessible to all
participants and comfortable for the session that
should last no more than two (2) hours.
• Ensure adequate air flow and configure sitting so
that all participants can see each other.

• Make provisions for name tags (first name
basis) as well refreshments.
• Plan to record the session with either an audio
or audio-video recorder.
• If this isn’t practical, involve a co-facilitator
who is there to take notes.

Ground Rules
• Always reference the key issues to be
investigated, to determine what problem or need
is being addressed by the information exchanges
during the session.
• All participants should be encouraged to speak.
However, it is very important to keep the
discussions focused on the issue(s) to be
researched; while maintaining the momentum of
the discourse and ensuring closure on questions
raised.

Facilitating the Session
• The major goal of facilitation is collecting useful
information to meet the objective(s) of meeting.
• Introduce yourself and the co- facilitator, if
applicable.
• Get the permission of the participants to record
the proceedings.
• Ensure even participation. If one or two people
are dominating the meeting, seek the indulgence
of the other participants.
• Consider using a round-table approach, by going
from one person to the next soliciting responses
to the question(s).

• If domination by a few persons continues, seek
the guidance of the group on how to ensure
equity re: participation.
• In closing the session, outline the main thrust of
the discussion and highlight the key issues raised
and the recommendation that could be
immediately pursued at the
– individual,
– household or
– community level.
• Thank participants for coming and adjourn the
session.

Immediately After Session
• Ensure that all key issues for investigation
were covered.
• Make proper notes and write down all
salient observations made during the
session.
For example,
– where did the session occur and when, what
was the nature of participation in the group?
– Were there any unexpected occurrences or
revelations during the session?

3. Priority Grid
• The Priority Grid provides a rational and
structured approach to derive the group’s
priorities, whilst facilitating much negotiation
and consensus building by the group.

• It is eminently suitable to conflict management.
• The challenge of merging individual perspectives
is achieved through reflexivity, which is about
critical self- awareness and an appreciation of
power dynamics that define not only what is
thought to be important but also interactions
between people.
• During the PRA training, the priority grid was used
as a preference ranking tool. The illustration
opposite gives a picture of the training session
with the priority grid, using the flooring of the
packing shed.

Steps to Developing a Priority Grid
1. Brainstorm issues that require
prioritization / ranking.
2. Consolidate into concise themes/ issues
for ranking.
3. Avoid ambiguity and safeguard the
integrity of all themes/ issues
4. Employ a pairwise ranking scheme.

• How to do pairwise ranking:
i . Construct a pairwise matrix.
– Each box in the matrix represents the intersection (or
pairing) of two items.
ii . Arrange each in the same order along the X and
Y axes of the grid.
– If your list has six (6) themes / issues, the pairwise
matrix would look like this template.
iii . Rank each pair.
– For each pair, have the group (using a consensus-
oriented discussion) determine which of the two
themes/issues is preferred (the higher priority).
iv . Write the preferred priority in the appropriate
box for each pair.
v . Repeat this process until the matrix is filled.

• On completion of the pairwise matrix, the
individual segments of the grid should contain the
negotiated consensus in respect of a one-on-one
comparison of each theme / issue listed.
• It should be noted that at the end of the exercise,
one half of the grid is a mirror of the other half;
provided that there was consistency in the one-
on-one priority setting.
• The theme / issue with the highest frequency will
be the number 1 priority or preference and the
one with the second highest will be number 2 and
so on.

4. Transects / Maps
• Visual PRA tools such as transects and maps provide a sound
qualitative picture of the situation relatively quickly.
• Other conventional methods of compiling similar sets of
information are generally more time-consuming and costly.
• Often, their cost far outweighs the gains from many of these
other types of research methods.
• Even when conventional approaches are necessary, it is often
useful to begin with PRA methods in order to provide a “blue
print” for general understanding of the situation.

• Transect diagrams record information that has
been collected on a transect walk.
• The purpose is to focus on the different zones or
micro-environments of the research site; which
may be a watershed, a farm or a community.
• Local knowledge is also key to the preparation of
a historical transect to obtain some historical
information and establish some trends.
– For example, an historical transect diagram of a forest,
showing the different tree and animal species found in
different parts of the forest, can be compared with a
current one to see what changes have taken place.

• Before beginning the walk, the team should draw up a
matrix.
• The number of vertical columns should correspond with
points of significant variation in the landscape. A
topographical outline would aid this process.
• Then the vertical columns are divided horizontally into
categories that deal with noteworthy features or
landmarks such as
– soil type,
– vegetation,
– food and cash crops,
– socio-economic indicators,
– achievements,
– livestock,
– forestry and
– natural resources amongothers.

• The following diagram is an example of a transect
diagram prepared during the PRA exercise in St.
Lucia in June 2009.

The transect walk is:
1. Traversing in basically a straight line, where
feasible, through the study site, starting from
the highest point.
2. A form of direct observation of salient features
(e.g. Topography, water sources, vegetation,
cropping systems, grazing areas and livestock,
forest cover etc.).
3. A mobile interview allows extension officers,
using visual clues and personal observations, to
enhance the level of conversation with farmers
or farm holders along the route; and to also gain
a clear understanding of the prevailing agro-
ecosystems.

Specifically, transect walks help to achieve the
following:
1. An appreciation of the biodiversity and
the resource endowments of the specific
farming community.
2. An understanding of the challenges and
opportunities for sustainable agricultural
development in that area.
3. The establishment of rapport with
farmers and other key actors in that area.

1 Maps and Models – Diagrams
• Spatial data is analyzed through diagrams, maps and
models. The techniques are pictorial or symbolic
representation of information.
• The purposes of diagrams are:
– attract and focus attention of discussion group
– represent objects on processes
– stimulate an open discussion
– provoke an effective group work
– facilitates education and information exchange
– assist in decision making
– help remember important points
– help in monitoring and evaluation

2 Community Sketch Maps
• The purposes of community sketch map or a model: is a visual
representation of what the community pearceives as their
community space.
• This include showing the shape (appearance) of the community,
boundary and all the major features as understood and known
by the community.
• The map shows where resources, activities, problems and
opportunities are located, as well as the dimension and scope
of issues to be investigated.
• It is critical to understanding the boundaries and characteristics
of the community involved.

• Topographical data (elevation, slope,
drainage etc.) Topographical data are basic
when drawing a map of community, so are
information on soils, vegetation, water
availability, road, schools, health facilities etc.
• There are different sketch maps known for
different purposes. Some of them include:

• A. Social maps: Specific type of topical map
representing households according to certain
indicators.
• Indicates where people live and how many people live in
an area
• Social and residential differences in status and wealth
• Buildings where people live or work, uses of space in a
house

• B. Physical and resource maps: drawn by
the people to show natural resource of an
area, location and use of natural resources.
• fields and land uses
• physical land features
• water location, quality and use
• soil types, uses, location

• C. Topical maps: specific topic maps are drawn
to draw attention to a particular type of
information of the area, example:-
• location of forest resources
• soil types
• different crops grown
• houses and the number of people live in
• Social & economic infrastructures etc.

• D. Farm sketch: Making a farm or compound sketch
highlight details that would otherwise be lost in a
smaller scale maps.
• Procedures for collecting spatial data
– Who draws the maps?
• The community members or their representatives
together with the PRA team and the local extension
field staff undertake this exercise. The various parties
having different but complementary ideas to the
process.

HOW?
• The community members are the best experts of their area.
While it is tempting for a team member to take charge and save
time by drawing the map, it is advisable to let ordinary villagers
draw the map on the ground.
• Literacy is not necessary in order to draw a map of one’s place.
• The PRA team should explain the process clearly.
• The sketch map is drawn using their fingers, sticks and other
locally available materials such as pebbles, leaves, and flowers.
• The community should be guided through questions to draw
the map of their community territory of application.

Use!
• Community sketch map helps
– in defining micro-zones,
– knowing about disparities in wealth, differences in land use.
– This exercise helps to locate areas where particular
problems are thought to be prevalent.
– The map is also used to lay the transect route. While the
map is still on the ground the community members mark
the most representative cross section of the community.

How should one proceed to sketch maps or models?
Before: Decide what type of map you want
• Bring people together who will have some knowledge about
the area and can contribute
• Choose suitable time and place
• Bring materials with you on which you can copy a map drawn
on the ground.
• During: Try to minimize your own participation be
an observer?
• Encourage by asking open questions
• Encourage the use of different materials, i.e. flowers, twigs,
sticks etc
• Be patient!

After:
• Maker a copy of the map or model, including
mapper’s names
• Try drawing the same type of map with different
groups of people.
– i.e. one group of women, a group of old men and the young
• Keep it simple
• Orient it appropriately
• Cross-check the map, compare with what you see
• Draw it in the area of study with the local people.

• Visual techniques such as diagrams and maps
encourage participation and the incorporation of
local ideas, perceptions and experiences which
also provides scope for triangulation.
• The diagram or map provides a useful basis for
questions and discussion.
• In addition, where there are high illiteracy levels,
for example among predominantly Creole
speaking groups, the use of symbols, mapping
and diagramming mitigates the literacy barrier
and facilitates equal participation by all involved
in the process.

5. Crop Calendar
• Crop Calendars present the pattern of activities
related to the production,
• harvesting and marketing of specified
• crops. This participatory tool provides scope to
explore changes with respect to gender- specific
workloads, as well as the constraints and
opportunities for increased productivity.

Steps in preparing a Crop Calendar
1 . Draw a calendar which indicates the month of the years
on the ground (in a large open space) or on a large sheet
of paper.
• 2 . Begin by indicating the rainfall pattern in each month
of the year.
If in an open space, the group can use stones under each
month of the calendar to denote the relative intensity of
rainfall (more stones meaning more rainfall).
3 . List the crop in an additional column to the left and
indicate (with lines) when the various farm management
activities are carried out, e.g. land preparation, pest
management, fertilizing, planting, staking, weeding,
mulching, harvesting and marketing.

4 . Activities may be denoted by the intensity of the task by
varying the type of line. In the illustrated example of a
crop calendar below, continuous activity is illustrated by a
solid line, intermittent activities are indicated by broken
lines and a heavy black line may be used to show intense
activity.
5 . Indicate which are joint activities, i.e. performed by both
women and men, which are male or female tasks. The
symbols used are indicated in the legend for the crop
calendar below.
6 . After completing one crop, develop another calendar for
another crop and repeat the steps.
– If there is any livestock, use the calendar in a similar manner for
each type of livestock e.g. poultry, pigs, goats, sheep, cattle etc.

• While the calendar is being created, encourage participants to probe
and check information and encourage debate.
• On completion of the calendar, the group should further discuss what
the calendar reveals to them.
• The group discussion can be facilitated through brainstorming and
collective decision-making to identify and prioritize issues.
Some of these include
1. Who is doing what type work?
2. Are women working harder than the men or vice versa?
3. Is pest and weed control, fertilizing, being done at the right time?
4. Was the harvesting period too short?
5. Is there scope to do other activities or can some activities be done
differently?
6. Are the resources available being used properly?
7. Can improved technology be adopted?

• An album of calendars addressing the range of
commodities in a particular context,
– e.g. an agricultural region, will provide diagrammatic
representations and a “temporal dimension” of the
various activities, constraints and opportunities that
influence the livelihoods of farm households.
– The categorization of production and marketing
activities by season, month, frequency and gender also
provides a useful reference guide for a gender- aware
approach to project planning and output evaluation, as
well as agricultural policy analysis and formulation.

5. Venn diagram (Institutional analysis)
• Venn diagramming is a method to find out who,
what person or organizations are important in
and for a community.
Purpose
• To identify groups and institutions operating in
the community and to show how they interact
with each other
• To show the degree of their cooperation and
involvement in development programs.
• To discover their importance or influence on
decision making in the community.

What?
• Venn diagrams have been used with in PRA in institutional context to
discuss:
– The role and significance of various institutions
– Levels of communication between organizations
– The role of project bodies and their intervention
– Improving missing links between existing organizations,
– Potential for working through existing organizations, which ones and
with which links.
– Potential roles for new organization
– Formal and non-formal groups and their levels of cooperation
– Communities perceptions of the institutions

Who?
• The PRA team, key informants as elders, religious
leaders, extension staff and other knowledgeable
person take the responsibility of listing and
evaluation of individuals and institutions
influencing decision making of the community.

How?
• List institutions in the community and discuss
importance of each institution and what they do.
• Make different sized circles and note which circle
represents each institution i.e. big circle very important
and decision maker, small circle with less importance.
• During overlapping the circles,
– the size of the circle indicates the importance of the
institution,
– the distance between the circles indicate the degree of
contact between institutions.
• For instance a large overlap high interaction. No overlap
distant relationship.

6. Time related data analysis (four different methods)
6.1 Time Lines
A list of key events in the history of the community that helps
identify past trends, events, problems, and achievements in
its life.
Purpose?
• The time line helps the team to understand what local or
national events the community considers to be important in
its history.
• The time line is prepared through discussion with a small
groups or elders.
• The significant events in the history of the community
hitherto kept in oral form are now documented.

6. Time related data analysis
6.1 Time Lines
What?
• The time lines go back as many generations as
villagers can recall.
• Time line records could include, forest history,
diseases, diets etc.
• These discussions provide a good opportunity to ask
elders about previous trends and traditional
responses, as well as about possible opportunities
to resolve current problems.

6.1 Time Lines
What?
• Time lines are recorded by the community elders
and any other long term resident.
• The team can only assist by asking proving
questions.
• The composition of the community institutions,
such as church groups, self help-groups, political
units or the local administrations and both women
and men should be included.

6.1 Time Lines
How?
• Group discussions are preferred to interviews of key
individuals because they encourage dialogue among
the community members and helping them remember
events form the distant past.
• The elders should be asked to identify events that
shaped and influenced individuals and the community
activity
• large sheets of paper and marker pens should be used
to write in large letter in the local language.
• If there is difficulty in establishing dates for particular
events, try to relate them to a renown event.
•

6.1 Time Lines
Application
• This information re-in forces the
community’s perception of the
evolving problems and the possible
opportunities to be considered in the
preparation of the CAP

6.2 Trend Lines
• Trend lines are helpful to understand the
resident’s perception of significant changes in
the communities over time.
Purpose
• Trend analysis will help the community and PRA team
to:
– Learn from the community how it views change over time
in various sectors
– Integrate key changes into a village profile, which well
simplify problem identification and
– Begin to organize the range of opportunities for the
community to consider.

6.2 Trend Lines
• What?
• Information could be collected on trends
over the past ten to twenty years in the
areas that support the community.
• A core set of trends should include
changes in water availability, soil loss and
fertility, deforestation and tree planting,
grazing, employment rates food
production and population.

6.2 Trend Lines
What?
• Trend lines can be discussed with
community representatives including
elders, long term residents, leaders of
church groups, women groups, and self
help groups. If possible, all ecological
zones in the study site should be
represented.

6.2 Trend Lines
How?
• The following steps are important for proper
generation of trend lines.
1.PRA team should carefully explain the measuring of
trend lines to the community groups.
2. Explain the concept of trend lines using simple
graphs. Demonstrate the meaning of the two lines.
Show them how time moves form left to right along
the horizontal axis, and how the rate of
increase/decrease in resource use is indicated on the
upright vertical axis.

6.2 Trend Lines
How?
3. When the community members have understood the
concept, ask one of them to draw the two lines on the
ground. Once this is done, years should be indicated
at equal intervals along the horizontal line.
4. Use the discussion of trends to probe for explanation
of the changes. This will help identify underlying
problems and traditional activities to correct the
situation. Find out what solutions have been tried in
the past and how well they have worked.

6.2 Trend Lines
Application
• Trend lines provide useful baseline information
for researchers operating on micro level follow
ups of such aspects as population, food
availability, school enrollment etc. It forms the
basis upon which problem identification and
options assessment is made during the
preparation of the community action plan.

6.2 Trend Lines (Crop production trend analysis by year (Cultivated
area in %)
Crop 1950-
1966
1967-
1975
1976-
1983
1984-
1991
Maize
Sorghum
Wheat
Coffee
Chat
Barley
Beans
26
37
-
15
7
11
4
27
18
9
20
10
9
7
27
4
23
21
15
-
-
30
9
15
26
17
3
-
% 100 100 100 100
Changes in cropping area cultivated in a given period of time.

6.3 Seasonal calendar
• The seasonal calendar attempts to
establish regular cycles or patterns of
activities and occurrences within a
community over 12 months.

Purpose
• A seasonal calendar helps present large quantities of
diverse information in a common time frame.
• It compares community activities. Month by month,
across sectoral boundaries.
• It identifies cycles of activity that occur within the life
of community on a regular basis, and helps determine
whether there are common periods of excessive
environmental problems or opportunities over the
course of normal year.

Purpose
• These yearly cycles are important in
determining for example; labour
availability, timing for project activity,
potential absorptive capacity for new
activities, times of diseases and food
shortage and variation of cash flow.

What?
• The actual themes to be recorded will vary from
community to community some of the more
commonly used topics include annual rainfall,
water availability, cash and food crops, livestock,
labour demand, food shortages, and human, crop
and animal diseases.
• The calendar should show times when problems
may be acute, variation in labour demand by
gender and age etc.

Who?
• Data for seasonal calendars should be collected from
community groups.
• If a community has two or three distinct ecological
zones, groups should be selected from each so that
differences in cycles are reflected in the calendar.
• Efforts should be made to diversify informants from
community groups i.e. men and women, informal
leaders, young and old residents.

How?
• Preparation:
• Before:
• Identify what type of seasonal pattern you
wish to learn.
• Find one or more people able and willing to
share their knowledge and their views
• Find a suitable space, enough space and
shade
• Explain the purpose of exercise carefully

How? During
– Ask when their year starts
– Ask how they divide the year
– Use local calendars
– Religious festivals
– Agricultural operation
– Have the informant mark the unit on the ground, floor or
a paper
– Probe and Compare quantities
– Ask the participant to mark which month is or are the
most extreme
– Continue comparing each month with extreme until the
whole year is completed

Materials
– Any kind of material can be used to indicate the
duration or amounts
• i.e. seeds, stones, beans, soil, sand, leaves, pods, ash
etc.
• After
– Make a permanent record
– Analyze the information from different calendars
– Compare the months to identify periods of
stress and comfort

Application
– Information collected during the drawing of the
seasonal calendar is very rich, not only in terms of
what is put down by the community, but also in what
comes out from the discussions during the process.
– For example seasonal calendar data provides
information on opinions and attitudes of the
community towards certain activities. These include
attitudes towards gender allocation of labour, gender
ownership and control of resources, etc. such
information helps the PRA Team and the community
to prepare the community action plan.

6.4 Gender daily calendar
Purpose
• Most daily activities in traditional rural societies are
managed along gender lines. There are activities
that are specifically performed by women, men or
children.
• In some communities gender role divisions are still
pronounced. In such cases it is necessary for the
PRA team to be aware in order not to be seen as
interfering with the community cultural norms
specific gender roles so that new programmers are
not introduced to overburden an already
overworked group.
• Introducing gender awareness in PRA helps a

Who?
• Community members both men and
women, young and old should be in
attendance.
• PRA team members, men and women
and local extension staff in the analysis of
gender roles and responsibilities need to
involve.

How?
• It is better if the community is allowed to lead gender
related discussions.
• The PRA team facilitates discussions through a neutral
process of mapping out a gender daily calendar.
• Men and women discuss on each daily activities on
agreed season (rainy or dry season).
• Allow the group (s) to work on their timetable, from
the time they wake up in the morning to the time
they got to sleep in the evening.

Application
• Gender daily calendar provides a clear picture of
who does what in the community.
• It will help in the formulation of the community
Action Plan.
• The community will become aware that unless
some changes in gender relations are effected
rural development will not proceed as quickly as
they would like it to be.

Daily Routine of Women in
Alemaya Wereda (Ethiopian
Time)
12:00 - Wake up time
12:00 – 2:00 milking cows and Breakfast
preparation
2:00 – 4:00 Making tea cleaning
house
4:00 – 8:00 Fetching water
8:00 – 9:00 Preparation of lunch for the
family
9:00 – 12:00 Collecting firewood
12:00 – 3:00 Supper preparation
3:00 – 5:00 milking cows, pre-
preparation for tomorrow’s
breakfast and sleeping
17 hrs Total working hours

7 Ranking and scoring
Presentation:
• A way in which various kinds of things can be
compared according to different qualities people
value. It places in an order of what is more or
what is less important.
Purpose
• Ranking methods allow us to see individual and
group priorities among a number of alternative
problems or solutions. It helps to generate
reasons why people choose one item from the
other.

What?
• People could use three different ways to
generate a criteria for comparison and
make up their choices.
– preference ranking
– paire-wise ranking
– direct matrix ranking
– and direct matrix scoring

What is preference ranking?
– Preference ranking method helps to quickly get a
good idea of what people think are the priority
problem or preferences.
– The criteria attached to make up a choice is used
to consider in the action plan. Individuals or
groups vote on the items from most important to
least important item.
– The choices could be between crop varieties,
water points, food , livestock species, problems,
solutions and many different issues, which require
preferences.

What is Paire wise ranking ?
– Paire wise ranking is used to compare
between two items and make up a choice.
– It is more useful for exploring the reasons
why people prefer one possibility over
another.
– The moment a preference is made lots of
criteria are explored to compare items using
a group of criteria before a choice.
» See example

What is Direct matrix ranking ?
– Direct matrix ranking is used to list items to
be compared along horizontal line and
criteria on the vertical line to rank choices
from most important to least important
(i.e. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc)
– In this case frequency of the items valued as
the 1st choice helps to make up a final
decision.
» See examples

What is Direct matrix scoring ?
– Direct matrix scoring helps to attach a score to a
comparable items against each criteria listed before
a choice.
– A comparison could be made out of a score of 10
(for instance)
– a comparison could be made between many items
against one criteria set, and attach a score out of a
maximum of 10 to items to be chosen.
– The frequencies of the highest scores (closer to 10)
attached against many criteria helps to make up a
decision for preference.

Who?
• Ranking and scoring could be done with
individuals, households, community members
deliberately selected and with mixed group of
men, women, traditional leaders, local
officials, extension workers etc.
• The group combination depends upon the
issues to be ranked. Who made decision on the
issues to be compared?
– Leads to the choice of informants.

How?
• The groups for discussion lists items to
be compared.
• Let them generate either directly or
thorough pair wise comparison criteria
for ranking. Putting in an order of
importance or ranking could be done
through ranking order, scoring or key
voting, from the most to least important.

How?
• Thorough courting frequencies list in ranked order the items to be
compared and make up a decision.
• The final choice could be made through group of criteria or a
single but most important critieria.
• Some times, the period for ranking (emergency) or vested need to
the item may influence decision-making procedures.
• While listing criteria, do not mix up
• PRA team members follow the criteria of the informants.
• Use positive criteria for comparison

Application
• Community action plans are developed
on the basis of peoples preferences.
• The problems, solutions, technical inputs
etc are arranged on the interests of the
users.

8 Wealth Ranking
Presentation:
• Wealth ranking is a method to
understand relative wealth with in a
specific area and community.
• It is a method to learn about local
criteria of well-being.

8 Wealth Ranking
Purpose
• Wealth ranking provides a way to identify
information form different social and economic
groups to produce a baseline against which
future intervention impact can be measured.
• The PRA team differentiates community
members between socio-economic classes. The
team identities problems and needs of each
group.

8 Wealth Ranking
Purpose
• The discussion group provides parameters of
differential for each entity, which helps as a
baseline against which future intervention
impact can be measures.
• The entities could have different patterns of
livelihood systems and vulnerabilities.
• An early evaluation of dangers and
opportunities will help to build up mitigation
systems within the community.

8 Wealth Ranking
Who?
• Wealth ranking is a sensitive issue to discuss with every member
of the community.
• It should be done after couple of days of other PRA field exercise
in the community.
• The team should build up a close relationship with the people.
• Later in the survey, PA leadership, religious and traditional
leaders, women representatives, extension staff and other elderly
men get together in a quiet place and discuss on the
categorization of the community members.
• The discussion group should be able to know the persons and
their possession to be ranked.

8 Wealth Ranking
How?
• The discussion group follows different systems
to categorize community members.
• Method 1: Draw a social map on the ground
and locate every house using symbols.
• List their physical possessions and other
sources of income to put together those with
similar upon their similarities. You may find 4
to 6 different symbols or marks which indicates
various entities.

8 Wealth Ranking
How?
• Method 2: Card sorting method
• Make a list of all households to be ranked. The list could be obtained
from the PA office rosters or directly list in the meeting. Write the name
and number of each household on a separate card.
• Find informants who knows the community well. Informants put cards
into piles of different categories.
• When sorting name cards, informants discuss one ach individual
livelihoods and place house holds in difficult piles according to perceived
wealth.
• Make as many piles as possible until all households are put into piles.
• Informants should list parameters for each pile and build up on wealth
criteria for all communities. Make note of key parameter which is used
for household’s differentiation.
• Repeat with two or more informants group the same households for
accuracy.

8 Wealth Ranking
Application
• PRA team focuses on category of people (rich, middle
level or poor), among wealth groups, and target them
for intervention.
• Development plans should be geared towards a
category of people who could similarly benefit from
the efforts to be made.
• Some could be useful for research subjects, others for
extension, the marginalized and the weak (women) for
rehabilitation and / or subsidies and free gifts.

9 Proportional piling
• Proportional piling is a simple method
that helps to obtain data from
respondents in percentages.
• It shows relative values of items to be
compared.
• By how much is an item lower or higher
than the second?
• It is a measure of relative importance of
an item for certain uses.

Purpose
• Proportional piling is used to obtain
qualitative values of comparable items.
• It shows relative shares or proportions of
things to be compared.
• The values could be calculated out of the
whole i.e. 100 or other scores.

What?
• In a situation where there is not information, estimates are given
in relative proportion.
• In a community where less number of people are literate,
information’s are obtained in qualitative values and estimates.
• Informants take certain number of countable materials i.e. beans,
pods, stones etc. and share into relative proportions.
• For instance rural community is reluctant to provide information
on income and expenditure, the amount of food distributed
among households, proportions of land use types etc.
• If mass of materials are proportionally allotted to different items,
then the most or the least element could be identified.

Who?
• The best information could be obtained
form the class of people concerned i.e.
sometimes the issue could be related to
women, or to households, or a group of
elders or leadership.
• Thus, depending upon the information
required, the kind of informants is
selected.

How?
• Proportional piling is applied in the middle of discussion to probe
additional responses. We do not start discussion with materials of
proportional piling.
• Two situations could be mentioned.
– Use of grain seeds, small stones and sand piles. If you want to
compare between 5 – 10 items, then you should divide the
materials into proportion of their importance. The result is
thus, 1st, 2nd . . . 10th important.
– “Hundred seeds methods” to simplify an arithmetic problem,
issue 100 seeds of grain etc to the informants.
– Let them proportionally allocate the seeds. Then you come up
with percentages (20%, 60% etc) out of the proportions pie
charts could be constructed.

Application
• Proportional pilling is relatively applied
to all kinds of information’s required to
be produced in proportions.
• It is a method that indicates magnitude
of importance and uses.

10. Semi structured interviews (SSI)
• SSI is a guided interview about the major topics
• a few key questions are formulated before the
interview.
• But many new additional are asked during the
interview based on answers to the key question.
Types of SSI
1. The individual interview
– Get representative information about the society
form individual informants
– Ask individuals at a time

Types of SSI
2. The key informant interview
– Get specialized information from one or group of
persons about the community
– Informants with specialized knowledge
3. Group interviews:
– Useful for obtaining general information about the
community
– Better for cross checking information
– Group interviews require very careful preparation
– The ideal group is 8 – 15 people

Interview guides and checklist
• Formulate open – ended question and themes
for free discussion
• Explore what farmers think about the theme
• Allow two way communication
• Learn as you go along rather than to answer
specific questions of limited range
• Use the six helpers What? Why? How? Who?
When? Where?

Interview guides and checklist
• Use simple questions with single idea
• Probe to explore more in depth, to stimulation
• Avoid ambiguous, leading, dead and direct questions
scheduling and arrival
• Select open/interactive person to lead or control the
interview
• Be sensitive to farming work or other work schedule
• Try not to disrupt working activities
• Agree on a team contract: what time to begin work each
morning? Who will take notes? (Write this in your
notebook)

Beginning the Interview
• Will the team stand or sit on chairs with the informant sitting on
the ground?
• Sit down in a suitable place & shade
• Begin with the traditional greeting in the local manner
• Explain who you are. Describe the purpose of your visit do not
imply any promise
• If the informant is busy ask when it would be appropriate to return
• The team should say we are here to learn and mean it
• Spend some time in casual conversation
• Begin your questioning by referring to something or someone
visible.
• Deal with more sensitive issues when confidence is built.

Directing the flow of Interview
– Do not interrupt each other
– Write down new questions to ask latter on
– Ask one question at a time
– Take your time; allow your response to
answer completely before moving on.
– Probe/explore

Recording the interview
– Record during an interview
– Ask permission from your informants before
you start writing things down or tape
recording the discussion
– What to record?
The interview setting
– Where was the interview held?
– Who was interviewed?
– Was it a group or individual?

Record what you see
– The condition of the farmers field
– Type of a house, possessions, access to
water; indicators of wealth, health
Record what is said
– The details of an interview
– Do not attempt to analyze responses in your
head and record an interpretation
– Record the conduct of the interview
– Assign an interview observer

Ask the information, Was it?
– A Fact: Something definitely known to have occurred or be
true
– An opinion: judgment or belief base on grounds short of
proof
– A rumor: general talk, report of doubtful accuracy.
The team leader need to ask:
– Was the interview relaxed and open?
– Was it dominated by any individuals?
– Did the interviewer bias the response
– Judge the responses quickly
– Cross – check by comparing responses against other sources
of information
– “Look wonder, questions”

Closing the interview
– Summarize the discussion briefly
– Look around the homestead or farm
– Ask respondents, if they have other issues to be looked in
to
– Thank respondents graciously
– Take a few minutes with your colleagues to reflect on the
interview and compare thoughts and impressions
– Make any additional notes you feel are necessary
– Fill in the blanks in your notebook while the interview is
fresh in your mind
– Once done move on to the next household; or groups

11 Direct observation
– Observe a particular topic or theme in a
particular place and time
– Guidelines for making observation
– Record observations as soon as possible
– Decide on the major theme or topic to be
observed
– Decide before hand where observation will
take place. When and how long you will
observe

12 Using secondary sources
• Secondary sources of information include
previously written documents, maps, diagrams,
tables, census data, aerial photos, marketing
reports, etc.
– Review secondary sources before beginning field
survey
• In reviewing secondary sources, you should keep
summary notes, in the form of short paragraphs,
diagrams, charts, etc
• Be as critical as possible in reviewing secondary
sources in short period of time
• Help to develop understanding of local livelihoods

7. Constraints Analysis
• A constraint is a situation or a factor that
determines what will not happen.
• These limitations, imposed by nature or by
humankind, prevent the realization of goals and
targets, by not permitting certain actions to be
taken.
• Constraints occur at different levels: farm,
community, region or district as well as nationally
and internationally.
• Some constraints have few causes and can be
easily and quickly eliminated.
– These elastic types of constraints do not therefore
preclude actions, alternatives, consequences, and
objectives in the short term.

• Other constraints have many fundamental causes
and a network of influences.
– These rigid types of constraints are usually more
difficult to deal with and require a coherent set of
actions in the medium to long term.
• It is useful to distinguish short, medium and long-
term constraints.
For example,
– poor drainage may a constraint in the short term,
– however low yields may be a medium-term problem;
– while insecure land tenure and soil degradation could
pose problems in the long term.

• Constraints analysis is a methodology for
mapping a critical path of actions required to
create an enabling environment for sustainable
livelihood systems.
• The strategy to remove or circumvent the most
critical or binding constraints and facilitate
technological advancement and improved rural
livelihood systems must clearly identify
(i) why the problem exists,
(ii) what and who is responsible for the problem
and
(iii) how, when and who needs to act to overcome
the constraint(s).

• Once the constraints of a particular
circumstance have been clearly identified,
they need to be analysed in order to find
solutions.
• Towards this end, problem- tree analysis is
used to logically map the relationship
among constraints in a hierarchy of cause-
effect relationships.

Constructing a Problem Tree
1 . Brainstorm and research all existing negative
conditions that can potentially be resolved.
– Do not list conditions with no solutions e.g. hurricane
or time.
2 . The group must discuss the constraints identified
and attempt to fine-tune the listing by merging
similar issues.
3. Use a separate (mobile) card to itemize each of
the discrete constraints identified.

4 . Determine which is the core constraint and place
the card in the center of the work area for the
development of the tree.
i . It is recommended that participants use the
floor or wall with constraints concisely written,
each on a separate small piece of paper or bristol
board (mobile cards).
5 . Identify which of the remaining constraints
directly contribute this focal problem and place
these causes below the core constraint.

6 . Similarly, the direct and substantive effects of the core problem are
identified and placed above it.
7 . Other contributing causes and effects are similarly identified and
diagrammed.
• The problem tree comprises various levels of cause and effect
relationships which are all connected to the core problem.
• This process is debated until all participants concur with the mapping
of the relationships among the constraints identified by the group.
• Once the problem tree has been constructed, its validity must be
tested.
• To do this, each constraint is examined systematically to determine
whether or not it can be resolved through the efforts of
– the individual farm household,
– the farming community or
– the region.
• The reformulation of the constraints into positive desirable conditions
or opportunities, constitutes the transition to an objectives tree and
the start of the formatting of an opportunity matrix.

8. Opportunity Matrix
• There are a variety of methods that can be used to
capture data and information in a participatory approach.
• Having collected the data, there is always a need for a
structured approach to analyzing data and information
sets and to define the way forward to resolve constraints
and achieve predetermined goals and targets.
• Identifying constraints, their causes and effects and the
most appropriate and practical ways to overcome them,
initiates communication and builds trust among all key
actors and stakeholders involved in the PRA process.
• Options for overcoming constraints should be as specific
as possible and each solution suggested by the group
must comply with the following ground rule:

• Those involved are both willing and able to
initiate and facilitate the change.
• This approach fosters self determination,
diminishes apathy and emphasizes the
creation of sustainable solutions and the
exploitation of opportunities which are
accessible and within one’s sphere of
control.
• In this way, development becomes self-
propelled and sustainable.

• The development of an opportunity matrix
starts with rephrasing each identified
constraint into positive desirable
conditions and detailing the opportunities
for innovation and change.
• The following matrix provides an example
of the process:

• The Opportunity Matrix can be further
expanded to an overall strategy that
translates constraints into a logical
hierarchy of opportunities and actions.
• Each action proposed must be owned by an
individual or agency with the commitment
to guarantee its successful implementation
in the stipulated time frame.

9. Stakeholder Analysis
• Stakeholder analysis provides scope for
– the identification and assessment of the degree
of influence which individuals, groups and
institutions may have on a specified activity or
project.

This PRA tool can therefore be used to:
• Identify people, groups, and institutions that
will influence the initiative (either positively or
negatively).
• Anticipate the kind of influence, positive or
negative, these groups will have on the
initiative.
• Develop strategies to get the most effective
support possible for the initiative and reduce
any obstacles to successful implementation of
the programme.

Developing a Stakeholder Analysis Matrix
1 . Organize group brainstorming to identify all the
persons, groups, organizations and institutions
that will impact or be impacted by the proposed
interventions.
2 . Determine whether each stakeholder is likely to
enable or sabotage the proposed intervention
and using the following matrix, list each
appropriately in the segregated column titled
“stakeholder”.

3 . Having assessed each stakeholder listed as an
enabler or saboteur, consider:
i . The role the key stakeholder must play to
guarantee the successful implementation of the
intervention.
ii . The likelihood that the stakeholder will commit to
the prescribed role.
iii . The consequences of a stakeholder’s negative
response to the project.
• Assign A for extremely important, B for fairly
important, and C for not very important. Record
these letters in the column entitled “Assessment
of Impact”.

4 . The final step is to determine what actions
can be taken to ensure that all key actors and
stakeholders add value to the proposed
change process. What can be done to get
stakeholder support and reduce opposition?
Record proposed strategies for obtaining
support or reducing opposition in the last
column in the matrix.

• Problems are very likely as long as there are people
or interest groups. To understand the problem,
stakeholders must be first understood. Stakeholder
analysis is therefore critical to the process of
problem solving, This participatory technique serves
to discern the interest and expectations of persons
and groups, in addition to how they can be impacted
or can impact, positively or negatively on the
intervention in question.

10. Venn Diagrams
• Venn Diagrams or set diagrams illustrate the hypothetical and possible logical
relationships among individual and groups and are also useful tools in
discerning and highlighting potential
• conflicts between different stakeholder groups or circumstances. When used
as a participatory tool,
• venn diagrams help target groups to conceptualize the relative strengths and
weaknesses of relationships among specified key actors / stakeholders or
situations / conditions.

• A venn diagram is constructed with a collection of simple
closed curves drawn in the plane.
• Venn diagrams normally comprise overlapping circles. The
interior of the circle symbolically represents the particular
grouping or set, while the exterior represents what does not
belong. The size of the circle used can help indicate the
relative power or influence of each group or the impact of
specified situations, while the spatial separation denotes
degree of similarity or differences among them.

• For instance, in a typically three-set Venn diagram (as
shown in the following diagram), one circle may
represent the degree of pest infestation, while
another circle may represent water-logging and the
third illustrates the extent and impact of poor
drainage.
• The overlapping area or intersection would then
represent the degree of commonality / relationship
among these three variables.

11. Gender Analysis
• The term ‘gender’ refers to the social construction of
the female and male identity.
• It can be defined as ‘more than biological differences
between men and women”.
• It includes the ways in which those differences,
whether real or perceived, have been valued, used
and relied upon to classify women and men and to
assign roles to and expectations of them.
• Gender blindness or gender neutrality is in fact a
misnomer and any intervention that professes to be
gender-neutral will, in fact, reflect and probably
reinforce the imbalances that exist.

• Women and men are impacted differently, in all
situations, by the outcomes of policies, programmes
and projects at local, regional and international
levels.
• However, the dimensions of these inequalities are
often so deeply embedded that they are difficult to
perceive.
• Gender analysis reveals these differences.

Gender analysis recognizes that:
• Women’s and men’s lives and therefore experiences, needs,
issues and priorities are different.
• Women’s lives are not all the same; the interests that
women have in common may be determined as much by
their social position or their ethnic identity as by the fact
they are women.
• Women’s life experiences, needs, issues and priorities are
different for different ethnic groups.
• The life experiences, needs, issues, and priorities vary for
different groups of women (dependent on age, ethnicity,
disability, income levels, employment status, marital
status, sexual orientation and whether they have
dependants).
• Different strategies may be necessary to achieve equitable
outcomes for women and men and different groups of
women.

• Gender equality is based on the premise that
women and men should be treated in the same
way.
• This fails to recognize that equal treatment will
not produce equitable results, because women
and men have different life experiences.
• However, gender equity takes into consideration
the differences in women’s and men’s lives and
recognizes that different approaches may be
needed to produce outcomes that are equitable.

• Gender analyses of various kinds is therefore required to
bring these disparities to the surface and to the attention
of people who can make a difference, so that their
decisions are taken in a manner that is sensitive to and
reflects the outcome of gender analysis.
• In effect, gender analysis aims to integrate women into
the development equation and to achieve equity, rather
than equality, by taking due account of the differences in
women’s and men’s lives, including those which lead to
social and economic inequity for women.
• This understanding is applied to policy and programme
development, as well as extension service delivery.

• The Gender Analysis framework provides a basis
for robust analysis of the differences between
women’s and men’s lives.
• This removes any possibility of analysis being
based on incorrect assumptions and stereotypes.
• This methodology also underscores the need for
the adoption of non-traditional information
capturing procedures such as:
– (1) time- budget analysis,
– (2) analysis of the relations of production and
– (3) a genderised logical framework approach to project
cycle analysis.

12. Time Budget Analysis
• Time Budget Ananysis facilitates the documentation of reality
with regard to:
1 . Activities oriented towards the production of market goods
and services.
2 . Activities oriented towards the (re) production of the farm
household.
• The approach, as exemplified in the following matrix,
facilitates better understanding of :
– Who does what activities?
– How much time is spent on these activities?
– Where is the location of these activities?
– Where do they take place?

• According to a UNIFEM publication, time use budget surveys
have revealed the failure of conventional labour statistics to
capture the extent, range and complexity of activities in which
individuals engage.
• This is particularly so in developing countries, such as
CARICOM member states, and among women for whom
multi-tasking is common.
• Time use studies therefore provide scope for the capture of
invaluable information relating to the dynamics of the
reproductive/care economy and the informal market
segments of the economy.

13. Analysis of the Relations of
Production
• Analysis of the Relations of Production will provide insights
into the nature of the relationship between the persons
engaged in particular activities and the means used to
accomplish such tasks.
• In this context, it is necessary to differentiate between access
and control over the means of production.
• This type of analysis provides some understanding of both the
resources required and the benefits derived.
• An example of an access and control profile as it relates to
resources / production inputs is as follows:

• The access and control profile can therefore be used to
evaluate the likely impact on women vis a vis men and likely
reasons for the perceived differences as an important
component of a gender- aware framework for the monitoring
and evaluation of the impact of various policy interventions,
programmes and projects.
• Such analyses make it possible to discern the relative capacity
of a target group to either mobilize resources or to generate
the required output.
• It also becomes possible to very early identify the salient
feature of the system that encourages or mitigates
achievement of the desired outputs.

• Some of these limiting factors could be
– land tenure patterns,
– access to capital (e.g. credit schemes),
– the market distribution network,
– the transportation system,
– institutional capacity of service organizations (e.g.
farmers’ group),
– demographic factors,
– socio-cultural norms,
– national policy conflicts
• (e.g. in relation to land use by competing sector) and
• international trade and foreign aid protocols
among others.

Main PRA.ppt

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Main PRA.ppt