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The wind is air in motion relative to the surface of the earth. The primary cause of wind is traced to the earth’s rotation and differences in terrestrial radiation. The radiation effects are mainly responsible for convection current either upwards or downwards. The wind generally blows horizontal to the ground at high speeds. Since vertical components of atmospheric motion are relatively small, the term ‘wind’ denotes almost exclusively the horizontal wind while ‘vertical winds’ are always identified as such. The wind speeds are assessed with the aid of anemometers or anemographs, which are installed at meteorological observatories at heights generally varying from 10 to 30 meters above the ground. Before BNBC 1993 a simple empirical formula is used to determine wind load which does not consider the effect of surrounding objects and structure height in wind pressure. This shortcoming has been overcome in BNBC 1993 by introducing the concept of exposure category and gust factor. The effect of surrounding objects and the height of structures is further upgraded in the proposed BNBC 2020. This thesis aims the comparison of provisions of wind load analysis given in existing BNBC 1993 to that in proposed BNBC 2020. Both are studied and compared in terms of wind load using parameters termed as Basic wind speed, Height and exposure coefficient, Gust factor, Sustained wind pressure, External pressure coefficient, and Design wind pressure. This study reveals that wind load in urban areas according to BNBC 2020 found considerably higher than BNBC 1993. But wind load in obstructed and unobstructed open terrain type areas according to BNBC 2020 is found significantly lower than BNBC 1993.

COMPARISON OF WIND LOAD ALONG WITH BNBC 1993, BNBC 2020.pptx

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National Chung Hsing University

Microprocessors & Microcontrollers: Interrupt controller 8259; The 8259 is known as the Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) microprocessor. In 8085 and 8086 there are five hardware interrupts and two hardware interrupts respectively. Bu adding 8259, we can increase the interrupt handling capability. This chip combines the multi-interrupt input source to single interrupt output. This provides 8-interrupts from IR0 to IR7. Let us see some features of this microprocessor. This chip is designed for 8085 and 8086. It can be programmed either in edge triggered, or in level triggered mode We can mask individual bits of Interrupt Request Register. By cascading 8259 chips, we can increase interrupts up to 64 interrupt lines Clock cycle is not needed. 8259 microprocessor can be programmed according to given interrupts condition and it can be provided either with level or edge-triggered interrupt level. It can be programmed to either work in 8085 or in 8086 microprocessors. Individual interrupt bits can be masked. By cascading Nine 8259’s in Master-Slave Configuration we can handle up to 64 interrupt pins. It contains 3 registers commonly known as ISR, IRR, IMR & there is 1 priority resolver (PR). Interrupt Request Register (IRR): It stores those bits which are requested for their interrupt services. Interrupt Service Register (ISR): It stores the interrupt levels which is currently being served. Interrupt Mask Register (IMR): It stores interrupt levels that have to be masked. These interrupt levels are already accepted by the 8259 microprocessor. Priority Resolver (PR): It examines all the 3 registers and sets the priority of interrupts and sets the interrupt levels in ISR which has the highest priority and the rest of the interrupt bit is IRR which is already accepted. SP/EN (low active pin): If its value is 1 it works in master mode & if its value=e is 0 then it works in slave mode. Cascade Buffer: It is used to cascade more number of Programmable Interrupt Controller to increase the interrupts handling capability up to 64 levels. Advantages: Interrupt management: The 8259 microprocessor is a specialized chip that is dedicated to managing interrupts, which can help to improve system performance and reduce the workload on the main CPU. Programmability: The 8259 microprocessor is programmable, which means that it can be customized to handle specific types of interrupts and to prioritize different interrupt requests. Compatibility: The 8259 microprocessor is compatible with a wide range of microprocessors, making it a popular choice for interrupt management in many different systems. Multiple interrupt inputs: The 8259 microprocessor can handle multiple interrupt inputs, which makes it a useful peripheral for managing complex systems with multiple devices. Ease of use: The 8259 microprocessor includes simple interface pins and registers, making it relatively easy to use and program.

INTERRUPT CONTROLLER 8259 MICROPROCESSOR

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Robotics is an exciting and rapidly evolving field that combines engineering, computer science, and technology. Robots are versatile machines capable of automating a wide range of tasks with precision, speed, and power. This introduction will explore the history, components, and applications of this transformative technology. A robot is an electromechanical machine designed to perform tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously. Robots are controlled by sophisticated software and can be programmed to carry out a variety of functions. Robots use sensors to gather information about their environment and actuators to interact with it. The concept of automata, or self-operating machines, dates back to ancient civilizations such as Greece and China. The development of industrial machinery in the 18th and 19th centuries paved the way for modern robotics. The advent of computers in the 20th century enabled the creation of more advanced, programmable robots Industrial robots are commonly used in manufacturing, performing tasks such as welding, painting, and assembly. Service robots are designed to assist humans in tasks like cleaning, transportation, and healthcare Humanoid robots are designed to mimic the appearance and functionality of the human body. Mechanical Structure Robots have a physical frame, joints, and linkages that allow for movement and manipulation. Power Source Robots require a power source, such as batteries or electrical connections, to operate. Control System The control system, often a computer or microcontroller, coordinates the robot's actions and movements End Effectors Robots may have specialized tools, such as grippers or tools, to interact with their environment Cameras and other vision sensors allow robots to perceive and respond to their environment. Ultrasonic and infrared sensors help robots detect and avoid obstacles. Tactile sensors enable robots to feel and interact with their surroundings. Motors, servos, and other actuators allow robots to move and manipulate objects. Robots are controlled by sophisticated software that defines their behaviors and decision-making processes. Algorithms enable robots to process sensor data, plan actions, and execute tasks autonomously. Advancements in machine learning allow robots to adapt and improve their performance over time. Applications of Robotics Robots are widely used in industrial settings for tasks such as assembly, welding, and packaging. Robotic systems are revolutionizing medicine, from surgical assistants to rehabilitation devices. Robots are essential for exploring hazardous environments, such as deep-sea and outer space

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Online Food Ordering System is proposed for simplifies the food ordering process. ThisSystem shows an user interface and update the menu with all available options so that it eases thecustomer work. Customer can choose more than one item to make an order and can view Orderdetails before logging off. The order confirmation is sent to the customer. The order is placed inthe queue and updated in the Database and returned in real time. This system assists the staff togo through the orders in real time and process it efficiently. Online food order system is mainlydesigned primarily function for use in the food delivery industry. This system will allowhotels and restaurants to increase online food ordering such type of business. The customerscan be selected food menu items just few minutes. In the modern food industries allows toquickly and easily delivery on customer place. Restaurant employees then use these ordersthrough an easy to delivery on customer place easy find out navigate graphical interface forefficient processing .

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Education system forms the backbone of every nation. And hence it is important to provide a strong educational foundation to the young generation to ensure the development of open-minded global citizens securing the future for everyone. Advanced technology available today can play a crucial role in streamlining education-related processes to promote solidarity among students, teachers and the school staff. School Management System(SMS) consists of tasks such as registering students, attendance record keeping to control absentees, producing report cards, producing official transcript, preparing timetable and producing different reports for teachers, officials from Dr.Mohiuddin Education foundation and other stakeholders. Automation is the utilization of technology to replace human with a machine that can perform more quickly and more continuously. By automating SMS documents that took up many large storage rooms can be stored on few disks. Transcript images can be annotate. It reduces the time to retrieve old transcripts from hours to seconds.

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The project Hospital Management system includes registration of patients, storing their details into the system, and also computerized billing in the pharmacy, and labs. The software has the facility to give a unique id for every patient and stores the details of every patient and the staff automatically. It includes a search facility to know the current status of each room. User can search availability of a doctor and the details of a patient using the id. The Hospital Management System can be entered using a username and password. It is accessible either by an administrator or receptionist. Only they can add data into the database. The data can be retrieved easily. The interface is very user-friendly. The data are well protected for personal use and makes the data processing very fast. Hospital Management System is powerful, flexible, and easy to use and is designed and developed to deliver real conceivable benefits to hospitals. Hospital Management System is designed for multispecialty hospitals, to cover a wide range of hospital administration and management processes. It is an integrated end-to-end Hospital Management System that provides relevant information across the hospital to support effective decision making for patient care, hospital administration and critical financial accounting, in a seamless flow. Hospital Management System is a software product suite designed to improve the quality and management of hospital management in the areas of clinical process analysis and activity-based costing. Hospital Management System enables you to develop your organization and improve its effectiveness and quality of work. Managing the key processes efficiently is critical to the success of the hospital helps you manage your processes.

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POST OFFICE works in every walk of our life. Through the automation of this system one can easily generate the information about the customer available and also about the old records. For this efficient software the first and the foremost thing is that all the requirements should be known before hand and the developer should devote its effort for the completion of that requirement which are demanded by the customer should be fulfilled. This system can be used in various education departments and can distribute the copies of the system among the management and staff members for the required information of their customer.

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Digital Communication: Digital communication refers to the transmission of information using digital signals, where data is represented by discrete symbols or values. It encompasses various techniques for encoding, transmitting, and decoding digital data, including text, images, audio, and video. Digital communication systems offer advantages such as improved signal quality, noise immunity, and the ability to multiplex multiple data streams. Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM): DPCM is a digital modulation technique used for encoding analog signals into digital form. In DPCM, the difference between the current sample and the predicted value of the sample is quantized and encoded, rather than encoding the absolute sample value directly. This technique can reduce the amount of data required for transmission compared to standard pulse code modulation (PCM), especially for signals with correlation between successive samples. Delta Modulation (DM): Delta modulation is a simple form of analog-to-digital conversion where the difference (delta) between the current sample and the previous sample is quantized and encoded. In DM, only the sign of the difference (positive or negative) is transmitted, which simplifies the encoding process. However, DM may suffer from quantization noise and limited signal fidelity, especially for rapidly changing or high-frequency signals. Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM): Adaptive delta modulation is an extension of delta modulation that dynamically adjusts the step size or quantization level based on the characteristics of the input signal. Unlike fixed-step delta modulation, ADM can adapt to changes in signal amplitude or frequency, resulting in improved signal fidelity and reduced quantization error. ADM is particularly useful for encoding signals with varying dynamics or signal-to-noise ratios

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