HISTORY OF HUMAN SEXUALITY

1. History of human sexuality
For the Michel Foucault volume, see The History of
Sexuality.
The social construction of sexual behavior—its taboos,
regulation, and social and political impact—has had a
profound effect on the various cultures of the world since
prehistoric times.
1 The study of the history of hu-
man sexuality
The work of Swiss jurist Johann Bachofen made a major
impact on the study of the history of sexuality. Many au-
thors, notably Lewis Henry Morgan and Friedrich Engels,
were influenced by Bachofen, and criticized Bachofen’s
ideas on the subject, which were almost entirely drawn
from a close reading of ancient mythology. In his 1861
book Mother Right: An Investigation of the Religious and
Juridical Character of Matriarchy in the Ancient World
Bachofen writes that in the beginning human sexuality
was chaotic and promiscuous. This “aphroditic” stage
was replaced by a matriarchal “demeteric” stage, which
resulted from the mother being the only reliable way of
establishing descendence. Only upon the switch to male-
enforced monogamy was paternity certainty possible, giv-
ing rise to patriarchy - the ultimate “apolloan” stage of
humanity. While the views of Bachofen are not based on
empirical evidence, they are important because of the im-
pact they made on thinkers to come, especially in the field
of cultural anthropology. Modern explanations of the ori-
gins of human sexuality are based in evolutionary biology,
and specifically the field of human behavioral ecology.
Evolutionary biology shows that the human genotype, like
that of all other organisms, is the result of those ances-
tors who reproduced with greater frequency than others.
The resultant sexual behavior adaptations are thus not an
“attempt” on the part of the individual to maximize re-
production in a given situation - natural selection does
not “see” into the future. Instead, current behavior is
probably the result of selective forces that occurred in the
Pleistocene.[1]
For example, a man trying to have sex with
many women all while avoiding parental investment is not
doing so because he wants to “increase his fitness”, but
because the psychological framework that evolved and
thrived in the Pleistocene never went away.[2]
1.1 Sources
Sexual speech—and by extension, writing—has been
subject to varying standards of decorum since the begin-
ning of history. For most of historic time writing has not
been used by more than a small part of the total popula-
tion of any society. Only in the 19th century and later
are there societies where over half the population are
basically literate. The resulting self-censorship and eu-
phemistic forms translate today into a dearth of explicit
and accurate evidence on which to base a history. There
are a number of primary sources that can be collected
across a wide variety of times and cultures, including the
following:
• Records of legislation indicating either encourage-
ment or prohibition
• Religious and philosophical texts recommending,
condemning or debating the topic
• Literary sources, perhaps unpublished during their
authors’ lifetimes, including diaries and personal
correspondence
• Medical textbooks treating various forms as a patho-
logical condition
• Linguistic developments, particularly in slang.
• More recently, studies of sexuality
2 Sex in various cultures
2.1 India
Main article: History of sex in India
Further information: Kama Sutra
India played a significant role in the history of sex, from
writing one of the first literature that treated sexual inter-
course as a science, to in modern times being the origin
of the philosophical focus of new-age groups’ attitudes
on sex. It may be argued that India pioneered the use of
sexual education through art and literature. As in many
societies, there was a difference in sexual practices in In-
dia between common people and powerful rulers, with
people in power often indulging in hedonistic lifestyles
that were not representative of common moral attitudes.
The first evidence of attitudes towards sex comes from
the ancient texts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism,
1

2. 2 2 SEX IN VARIOUS CULTURES
Depictions of Apsarases from the Khajuraho temple
Painting from the Kama Sutra
the first of which are perhaps the oldest surviving liter-
ature in the world. These most ancient texts, the Vedas,
reveal moral perspectives on sexuality, marriage and fer-
tility prayers. Sex magic featured in a number of Vedic
rituals, most significantly in the Asvamedha Yajna, where
the ritual culminated with the chief queen lying with the
dead horse in a simulated sexual act; clearly a fertility rite
intended to safeguard and increase the kingdom’s produc-
tivity and martial prowess. The epics of ancient India, the
Ramayana and Mahabharata, which may have been first
composed as early as 1400 BCE, had a huge effect on
the culture of Asia, influencing later Chinese, Japanese,
Tibetan and South East Asian culture. These texts sup-
Painting from the Kama Sutra
Art from the Ajanta Caves
Fresco murals from the Ajanta caves
port the view that in ancient India, sex was considered a
mutual duty between a married couple, where husband
and wife pleasured each other equally, but where sex was

3. 2.2 China 3
considered a private affair, at least by followers of the
aforementioned Indian religions. It seems that polygamy
was allowed during ancient times. In practice, this seems
to have only been practiced by rulers, with common peo-
ple maintaining a monogamous marriage. It is common
in many cultures for a ruling class to practice polygamy
as a way of preserving dynastic succession
The most publicly known sexual literature of India are the
texts of the Kama Sutra. These texts were written for and
kept by the philosopher, warrior and nobility castes, their
servants and concubines, and those in certain religious or-
ders. These were people that could also read and write
and had instruction and education. The sixty four arts
of love-passion-pleasure began in India. There are many
different versions of the arts which began in Sanskrit and
were translated into other languages, such as Persian or
Tibetan. Many of the original texts are missing and the
only clue to their existence is in other texts. Kama Sutra,
the version by Vatsyayana, is one of the well-known sur-
vivors and was first translated into English by Sir Richard
Burton and F. F. Arbuthnot. The Kama Sutra is now per-
haps the most widely read secular text in the world. It
details ways in which partners should pleasure each other
within a marital relationship.
Sculpture from a temple at Khajuraho
When the Islamic and Victorian English culture arrived
in India, they generally had an adverse impact on sexual
liberalism in India. Within the context of the Indian reli-
gions, or dharmas, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
and Sikhism, sex is generally either seen as a moral duty
of each partner in a long term marriage relationship to
the other, or is seen as a desire which hinders spiritual
detachment, and so must be renounced. In modern India,
a renaissance of sexual liberalism has occurred amongst
the well-educated urban population, but there is still dis-
crimination and forced marriage incidents amongst the
poor.
Within certain schools of Indian philosophy, such as
Tantra, the emphasis in sex as a sacred duty, or even a
path to spiritual enlightenment or yogic balance is greatly
emphasized. Actual sexual intercourse is not a part of ev-
ery form of tantric practice, but it is the definitive feature
of left-hand Tantra. Contrary to popular belief, “Tantric
sex” is not always slow and sustained, and may end in or-
gasm. For example, the Yoni Tantra states: “there should
be vigorous copulation”. However, all tantra states that
there were certain groups of personalities who were not
fit for certain practices. Tantra was personality specific
and insisted that those with pashu-bhava (animal disposi-
tion), which are people of dishonest, promiscuous, greedy
or violent natures who ate meat and indulged in intoxica-
tion, would only incur bad karma by following Tantric
paths without the aid of a Guru who could instruct them
on the correct path. In Buddhist tantra, actual ejacula-
tion is very much a taboo, as the main goal of the sex-
ual practice is to use the sexual energy towards achieving
full enlightenment, rather than ordinary pleasure. Tantric
sex is considered to be a pleasurable experience in Tantra
philosophy. 71
2.2 China
In the I Ching (The Book of Changes, a Chinese classic
text dealing with divination) sexual intercourse is one of
two fundamental models used to explain the world. With
neither embarrassment nor circumlocution, Heaven is de-
scribed as having sexual intercourse with Earth. Simi-
larly, with no sense of prurient interest, the male lovers of
early Chinese men of great political power are mentioned
in one of the earliest great works of philosophy and lit-
erature, the Zhuang Zi (or Chuang Tzu, as it is written in
the old system of romanization).
China has had a long history of sexism, with even moral
leaders such as Confucius giving extremely pejorative ac-
counts of the innate characteristics of women. From early
times, the virginity of women was rigidly enforced by
family and community and linked to the monetary value
of women as a kind of commodity (the “sale” of women
involving the delivery of a bride price). Men were pro-
tected in their own sexual adventures by a transparent
double standard. While the first wife of a man with any
kind of social status in traditional society was almost cer-
tainly chosen for him by his father and/or grandfather, the
same man might later secure for himself more desirable
sexual partners with the status of concubines. In addi-
tion, bondservants in his possession could also be sexually
available to him. Naturally, not all men had the financial
resources to so greatly indulge themselves.
Chinese literature displays a long history of interest in
affection, marital bliss, unabashed sexuality, romance,
amorous dalliances, homosexual alliances—in short, all

4. 4 2 SEX IN VARIOUS CULTURES
of the aspects of behavior that are affiliated with sexual-
ity in the West. Besides the previously mentioned Zhuang
Zi passages, sexuality is exhibited in other works of litera-
ture such as the Tang dynasty Yingying zhuan (Biography
of Cui Yingying), the Qing dynasty Fu sheng liu ji (Six
Chapters of a Floating Life), the humorous and intention-
ally salacious Jin Ping Mei, and the multi-faceted and in-
sightful Hong lou meng (Dream of the Red Chamber, also
called Story of the Stone). Of the above, only the story
of Yingying and her de facto husband Zhang fail to de-
scribe homosexual as well as heterosexual interactions.
The novel entitled Rou bu tuan (Prayer mat of flesh) even
describes cross-species organ transplants for the sake of
enhanced sexual performance. Among Chinese litera-
ture are the Taoist classical texts.[3]
This philosophical
tradition of China has developed Taoist Sexual Practices
which have three main goals: health, longevity, and spir-
itual development.
The desire for respectability and the belief that all aspects
of human behavior might be brought under government
control has until recently mandated to official Chinese
spokesmen that they maintain the fiction of sexual fidelity
in marriage, absence of any great frequency of premari-
tal sexual intercourse, and total absence in China of the
so-called “decadent capitalist phenomenon” of homosex-
uality. The result of the ideological demands preventing
objective examination of sexual behavior in China has,
until very recently, made it extremely difficult for the gov-
ernment to take effective action against sexually transmit-
ted diseases, especially AIDS. At the same time, large
migrations to the cities coupled with China’s gender im-
balance and significant amounts of unemployment have
led to resurgence of prostitution in unregulated venues, a
prominent accelerant of the propagation of STDs to many
ordinary members of society.
In recent decades the power of the family over individuals
has weakened, making it increasingly possible for young
men and women to find their own sexual and/or marriage
partners.
2.3 Japan
Main article: Sexuality in Japan
In what is often called the world’s first novel, the Genji
Monogatari (Tale of Genji), which dates back to around
the eighth century AD, eroticism is treated as a central
part of the aesthetic life of the nobility. The sexual inter-
actions of Prince Genji are described in great detail, in an
objective tone of voice, and in a way that indicates that
sexuality was as much a valued component of cultured
life as music or any of the arts. While most of his erotic
interactions involve women, there is one telling episode in
which Genji travels a fairly long distance to visit one of
the women with whom he occasionally consorts but finds
her away from home. It being late, and intercourse al-
A kabuki actor moonlighting as a sex worker, toys with his client;
enjoying the favors of the serving girl. Nishikawa Sukenobu,
Shunga-style woodblock print, ink on paper; Kyoho era (1716-
1735)
ready being on the menu of the day, Genji takes pleasure
in the availability of the lady’s younger brother who, he
reports, is equally satisfactory as an erotic partner.
From that time on to at least as late as the Meiji Refor-
mation, there is no indication that sexuality was treated
in a pejorative way. In modern times homosexuality
was driven out of sight until it reemerged in the wake
of the sexual revolution with seemingly little if any need
for a period of acceleration. Yukio Mishima, probably
the best-known Japanese writer in the outside world, fre-
quently wrote about homosexuality, and its relationship
with Japanese culture new and old. Likewise, prostitu-
tion, pornography, the tradition of the Geisha, and count-
less types of fetish and sadomasochism have resurfaced
after decades underground.
In Japan, sexuality was governed by the same social forces
that make its culture considerably different from that of
China, Korea, India, or Europe. In Japanese society, the
primary method used to secure social control is the threat
of ostracism. Japanese society is still very much a shame
society. More attention is paid to what is polite or appro-
priate to show others than to which behaviors might make
a person seem “corrupt” or “guilty”, in the Christian sense
of the words. The tendency of people in Japanese soci-
ety to group in terms of “in groups” and “out groups” -
residue of its long history as a caste society - is a source
of great pressure on every facet of society, via pop cul-
ture (reflected in the tribal, often materialistic, and very
complex nature of teenage subcultures) as well as more
traditional standards (as in the high-pressure role of the
salaryman). Sexual expression ranges from a requirement
to a complete taboo, and many, especially teenagers, find
themselves playing many otherwise strictly-separate roles
during the week.
A frequent locus of misconceptions in regard to Japanese
sexuality is the institution of the geisha. Rather than be-
ing a prostitute, a geisha was a woman trained in arts
such as music and cultured conversation, and who was
available for non-sexual interactions with her male clien-

5. 2.4 Classical antiquity 5
tele. These women differed from the wives that their
patrons probably had at home because, except for the
geisha, women were ordinarily not expected to be pre-
pared for anything other than the fulfillment of house-
hold duties. This limitation imposed by the normal so-
cial role of the majority of women in traditional society
produced a diminution in the pursuits that those women
could enjoy, but also a limitation in the ways that a man
could enjoy the company of his wife. The geisha fulfilled
the non-sexual social roles that ordinary women were pre-
vented from fulfilling, and for this service they were well
paid. The geisha were not deprived of opportunities to
express themselves sexually and in other erotic ways. A
geisha might have a patron with whom she enjoyed sexual
intimacy, but this sexual role was not part of her role or
responsibility as a geisha.
As a superficial level, in traditional Japanese society
women were expected to be highly subservient to men
and especially to their husbands. So, in a socionormal de-
scription of their roles, they were little more than house-
keepers and faithful sexual partners to their husbands.
Their husbands, on the other hand, might consort sexu-
ally with whomever they chose outside of the family, and
a major part of male social behavior involves after-work
forays to places of entertainment in the company of male
cohorts from the workplace—places that might easily of-
fer possibilities of sexual satisfaction outside the family.
In the postwar period this side of Japanese society has
seen some liberalization in regard to the norms imposed
on women as well as an expansion of the de facto powers
of women in the family and in the community that existed
unacknowledged in traditional society.
In the years since people first became aware of the AIDS
epidemic, Japan has not suffered the high rates of disease
and death that characterize, for example, some nations
in Africa, some nations in Southeast Asia, etc. In 1992,
the government of Japan justified its continued refusal to
allow oral contraceptives to be distributed in Japan on the
fear that it would lead to reduced condom use, and thus
increase transmission of AIDS.[4]
As of 2004, condoms
accounted for 80% of birth control use in Japan, and this
may explain Japan’s comparably lower rates of AIDS.[5]
2.4 Classical antiquity
2.4.1 Greece
See also: Homosexuality in ancient Greece
In ancient Greece, the phallus, often in the form of a
herma, was an object of worship as a symbol of fertil-
ity. This finds expression in Greek sculpture and other
artworks. One ancient Greek male idea of female sex-
uality was that women envied penises of males. Wives
were considered as commodity and instruments for bear-
ing legitimate children. They had to compete sexually
A man kisses his younger lover on a cup ca. 480BC
with eromenoi, hetaeras and slaves in their own homes.
Both Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in the form of
pederasty, were social institutions in ancient Greece, and
were integral to education, art, religion, and politics. Re-
lationships between adults were not unknown but they
were disfavored. Lesbian relations were also of a ped-
erastic nature.
In ancient Greece, it was common for men to have sex-
ual relationships with young boys. These practices were
a sign of maturity for young boys, who looked up to men
as sexual mentors.
Ancient Greek men believed that refined prostitution
was necessary for pleasure and different classes of pros-
titutes were available. Hetaera, educated and intelli-
gent companions, were for intellectual as well as physi-
cal pleasure, Peripatetic prostitutes solicited business on
the streets, whereas temple or consecrated prostitutes
charged a higher price. In Corinth, a port city, on the
Aegean Sea, the temple held a thousand consecrated pros-
titutes.
Rape - usually in the context of warfare - was common
and was seen by men as a “right of domination”. Rape
in the sense of “abduction” followed by consensual love-
making was represented even in religion: Zeus was said to
have ravished many women: Leda in the form of a swan,
Danaë disguised as a golden rain, Alkmene disguised as
her own husband. Zeus also ravished a boy, Ganymede,
a myth that paralleled Cretan custom.
2.4.2 Etruria
The ancient Etruscans had very different views on sex-
uality, when compared with the other European ancient
peoples, most of whom had inherited the Indo-European
traditions and views on the gender roles.

6. 6 2 SEX IN VARIOUS CULTURES
Greek writers, such as Theopompus and Plato named the
Etruscan 'immoral' and from their descriptions we find
out that the women commonly had sex with men who
were not their husbands and that in their society, children
were not labelled "illegitimate" just because they did not
know who the father was. Theopompus also described or-
giastic rituals, but it is not clear whether they were a com-
mon custom or only a minor ritual dedicated to a certain
deity.
2.4.3 Rome
Wall painting from Pompeii depicting the “woman riding” po-
sition, a favorite in Roman art: even in explicit sex scenes, the
woman’s breasts are often covered
Main article: Sexuality in ancient Rome
The citizen's duty to control his body was central to
the concept of male sexuality in the Roman Repub-
lic.[6]
“Virtue” (virtus, from vir, “man”) was equated with
“manliness.” The equivalent virtue for female citizens
of good social standing was pudicitia, a form of sex-
ual integrity that displayed their attractiveness and self-
control.[7]
Female sexuality was encouraged within mar-
riage. In Roman patriarchal society, a “real man” was
supposed to govern both himself and others well, and
should not submit to the use or pleasure of others.[8]
Same-sex behaviors were not perceived as diminishing a
Roman’s masculinity, as long as he played the penetrative
or dominating role. Acceptable male partners were social
inferiors such as prostitutes, entertainers, and slaves. Sex
with freeborn male minors was formally prohibited (see
Lex Scantinia). “Homosexual” and “heterosexual” thus
did not form the primary dichotomy of Roman thinking
about sexuality, and no Latin words for these concepts
exist.[9]
Depictions of frank sexuality are abundant in Roman lit-
erature and art. The fascinum, a phallic charm, was a
ubiquitous decoration. Sexual positions and scenarios are
depicted in great variety among the wall paintings pre-
served at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Collections of po-
etry celebrated love affairs, and The Art of Love by the
Augustan poet Ovid playfully instructed both men and
women in how to attract and enjoy lovers. Elaborate
theories of human sexuality based on Greek philosophy
were developed by thinkers such as Lucretius and Seneca.
Classical myths often deal with sexual themes such as
gender identity, adultery, incest, and rape.
Like other aspects of Roman life, sexuality was supported
and regulated by traditional Roman religion, both the
public cult of the state and private religious practices and
magic.[10]
Cicero held that the desire to procreate (libido)
was “the seedbed of the republic,” as it was the cause
for the first form of social institution, marriage, which
in turn created the family, regarded by the Romans as
the building block of civilization.[11]
Roman law penal-
ized sex crimes (stuprum), particularly rape, as well as
adultery. A Roman husband, however, committed the
crime of adultery only when his sexual partner was a mar-
ried woman.
Prostitution was legal, public, and widespread. Entertain-
ers of any gender were assumed to be sexually available
(see infamia), and gladiators were sexually glamorous.
Slaves lacked legal personhood, and were vulnerable to
sexual exploitation.
The dissolution of Republican ideals of physical integrity
in relation to political liberty contributes to and is re-
flected by the sexual license and decadence associated
with the Roman Empire.[12]
Anxieties about the loss of
liberty and the subordination of the citizen to the emperor
were expressed by a perceived increase in passive homo-
sexual behavior among free men.[13]
Sexual conquest was
a frequent metaphor for Roman imperialism.:[14]
)
2.5 French Polynesia
The Islands have been noted for their sexual culture.
Many sexual activities seen as taboo in western cultures
were viewed as appropriate by the native culture. Con-
tact with Western societies has changed many of these
customs, so research into their pre-Western social history
has to be done by reading antique writings.[15][16]
Children slept in the same room as their parents and were
able to witness their parents while they had sex. Inter-
course simulation became real penetration as soon as boys
were physically able. Adults found simulation of sex by
children to be funny. As children approached 11 attitudes
shifted toward girls.
Premarital sex was not encouraged but was allowed in
general, restrictions on adolescent sexuality were incest,
exogamy regulations, and firstborn daughters of high-

7. 7
ranking lineage. After their firstborn child, high-ranking
women were permitted extramarital affairs.
The next day, as soon as it was light, we
were surrounded by a still greater multitude
of these people. There were now a hundred
females at least; and they practised all the
arts of lewd expression and gesture, to gain
admission on board. It was with difficulty I
could get my crew to obey the orders I had
given on this subject. Amongst these females
were some not more than ten years of age. But
youth, it seems, is here no test of innocence;
these infants, as I may call them, rivalled their
mothers in the wantonness of their motions
and the arts of allurement.
—Yuri Lisyansky in his memoirs[17]
Adam Johann von Krusenstern in his book[18]
about the
same expedition as Yuri’s, reports that a father brought a
10-12-year-old girl on his ship, and she had sex with the
crew. According to the book[19]
of Charles Pierre Claret
de Fleurieu and Étienne Marchand, 8-year-old girls had
sex and performed other sexual acts in public.
2.6 Twentieth Century: Sexual revolution
Main article: Sexual revolution
The second sexual revolution was a substantial change in
sexual morality and sexual behaviour throughout the West
in the 1960s and early 1970s. One factor in the change
of values pertaining to sexual activities was the invention
of new, efficient technologies for the personal control of
ability to enter pregnancy. Prime among them, at that
time, was the first birth control pill. Liberalized laws on
abortion in many countries likewise made it possible to
safely and legally break off an unwanted pregnancy with-
out having to invoke a birth posing grave danger to the
health of the mother.[20]
3 Same-sex relations
Main article: History of homosexuality
Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have
varied over time and place, from expecting all males to
engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration,
through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin,
repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mech-
anisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death.
In a detailed compilation of historical and ethnographic
materials of pre-industrial cultures, “strong disapproval
Shah Abbas I embracing his wine boy. Painting by Muhammad
Qasim, 1627. The poem reads “May life grant all that you de-
sire from three lips, those of your lover, the river, and the cup.”
Louvre, Paris
of homosexuality was reported for 41% of 42 cultures;
it was accepted or ignored by 21%, and 12% reported no
such concept. Of 70 ethnographies, 59% reported homo-
sexuality absent or rare in frequency and 41% reported it
present or not uncommon.” [21]
In cultures influenced by Abrahamic religions, the law and
the church established sodomy as a transgression against
divine law or a crime against nature. The condemnation
of anal sex between males, however, predates Christian
belief. It was frequent in ancient Greece; “unnatural” can
be traced back to Plato.[22]
Many historical figures, including Socrates, Lord Byron,
Edward II, and Hadrian,[23]
have had terms such as gay or
bisexual applied to them; some scholars, such as Michel
Foucault, have regarded this as risking the anachronistic
introduction of a contemporary construction of sexuality
foreign to their times,[24]
though others challenge this.[25]
A common thread of constructionist argument is that no
one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homo-
sexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of
sexuality. John Boswell has countered this argument by

8. 8 4 RELIGION AND SEX
citing ancient Greek writings by Plato,[26]
which describe
individuals exhibiting exclusive homosexuality.
4 Religion and sex
Main article: Religion and sexuality
4.1 Judaism
In Jewish law, sex is not considered intrinsically sinful or
shameful when conducted in marriage, nor is it a neces-
sary evil for the purpose of procreation. Sex is consid-
ered a private and holy act between a husband and wife.
Certain deviant sexual practices, enumerated below, were
considered gravely immoral “abominations” sometimes
punishable by death. The residue of sex (as with any lost
bodily fluid) was considered ritually unclean outside the
body, and required ablution.
Recently, some scholars have questioned whether the Old
Testament banned all forms of homosexuality, raising
issues of translation and references to ancient cultural
practices.[27]
However, rabbinic Judaism had unambigu-
ously condemned homosexuality.
4.1.1 Mosaic law
• And God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be
fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it,
and rule over the fish of the sea and over the fowl
of the sky and over all the beasts that tread upon the
earth. (Genesis 1:28)
The Torah, while being quite frank in its descrip-
tion of various sexual acts, forbids certain relation-
ships. Namely, adultery, all forms of incest, male
homosexuality, bestiality, and introduced the idea that
one should not have sex during the wife’s period:
• You shall not lie carnally with your neighbor’s wife,
to become defiled by her. (Lev. 18:20)
• Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind:
it is abomination. (Lev. 18:22)
• And with no animal shall you cohabit, to become de-
filed by it. And a woman shall not stand in front of
an animal to cohabit with it; this is depravity. (Lev.
18:23)
• And to a woman during the uncleanness of her sepa-
ration, you shall not come near to uncover her naked-
ness. (Lev. 18:19)
The above passages may, however, be open to modern
interpretation. The original meanings of these verses did
not change, but their interpretation may have changed af-
ter they were translated into English and other languages.
This view however, has been counteracted by conserva-
tives.
4.2 Christianity
Christianity re-emphasised the Jewish attitudes on sex-
uality with two new concepts. First, there was the re-
iterated idea that marriage was absolutely exclusive and
indissoluble, placing further guidance on divorce and ex-
panding on the reasons and principles behind those laws.
Second, in Old Testament times marriage was almost uni-
versal, in continuity with the total matrimony in Eden, but
in the New Testament, the trajectory is extended forward
to the goal of no marriage in the new heavens and new
earth (see Matthew 22). Practically therefore the new
age after Jesus now has marriage as only normative, but
celibacy is a valuable gift in and of itself.
4.2.1 New Testament
The New Testament is quite clear on principles regarding
sexual relations. In one of his letters to the Corinthian
church, Paul directly answers some questions they had
asked about this.
1 Now concerning the matters about which you
wrote: 'It is well for a man not to touch a
woman.' 2 But because of cases of sexual im-
morality, each man should have his own wife
and each woman her own husband. 3 The hus-
band should give to his wife her conjugal rights,
and likewise the wife to her husband. 4 For
the wife does not have authority over her own
body, but the husband does; likewise the hus-
band does not have authority over his own body,
but the wife does. 5 Do not deprive one another
except perhaps by agreement for a set time, to
devote yourselves to prayer, and then come to-
gether again, so that Satan may not tempt you
because of your lack of self-control. 6 This I
say by way of concession, not of command. 7
I wish that all were as I myself am. But each
has a particular gift from God, one having one
kind and another a different kind.” (1 Corinthi-
ans 7:1-9, NRSV)
Paul is speaking into a situation where the church was
falling into lust, and some members even using prostitutes
(6:16), while others advocated a 'higher spirituality' that
wrongly denied pleasure from earthly things, including
abstinence from sex (7:1). Paul writes to them to explain
the right context for sex in marriage, and the importance
of couples keeping having sex and giving each other plea-
sure, but encourages them to pursue celibacy (as he later
explains [7:32-35], so that they may devote more time

9. 4.4 Islam 9
and energy to others) wherever God has granted that gift
(7:7).
Many other passages refer to sex or marriage.
4.2.2 Later Christian thought
St. Augustine opined that before Adam’s fall, there was
no lust in the sexual act, but that it was entirely subordi-
nate to human reason. Later theologians similarly con-
cluded that the lust involved in sexuality was a result of
original sin, but nearly all agreed that this was only a ve-
nial sin if conducted within marriage without inordinate
lust.
In Reformed schools, as represented for example by the
Westminster Confession, three purposes of marriage are
drawn out: for mutual encouragement, support, and plea-
sure; for having children; and to prevent lustful sin.
Today, many Christians have adopted the view that there
is no sin whatsoever in the uninhibited enjoyment of
marital relations. Some Christians will tend to limit the
circumstances and degree to which sexual pleasure is
morally licit, for example to build self-control to prevent
sex becoming addictive, or as a fast.
4.3 Hinduism
In India, Hinduism accepted an open attitude towards sex
as an art, science and spiritual practice. The most famous
pieces of Indian literature on sex are Kamasutra (Apho-
risms on Love) and Kamashastra (from Kama = pleasure,
shastra = specialised knowledge or technique). This col-
lection of explicit sexual writings, both spiritual and prac-
tical, covers most aspects of human courtship and sexual
intercourse. It was put together in this form by the sage
Vatsyayana from a 150 chapter manuscript that had itself
been distilled from 300 chapters that had in turn come
from a compilation of some 100,000 chapters of text.
The Kamasutra is thought to have been written in its final
form sometime between the third and fifth century AD.
Also notable are the sculptures carved on temples in In-
dia, particularly the Khajuraho temple. The frank depic-
tion of uninhibited sex hints towards a liberated society
and times where people believed in dealing openly with
all aspects of life. On the other hand, a group of thinkers
believe that depiction of sexually implicit carvings out-
side the temples indicate that one should enter the temples
leaving desires (kama).
Apart from Vatsyayana’s Kamashastra, which is no doubt
the most famous of all such writings, there exist a number
of other books, for example:
• The Ratirahasya, literal translation - secrets (ra-
hasya) of love (rati, the union);
• The Panchasakya, or the five (panch) arrows
(sakya);
• The Ratimanjari, or the garland (manjari) of love
(rati, the union)
• The Anunga Runga, or the stage of love.
The Secrets of Love was written by a poet named
Kukkoka. He is believed to have written this treatise
on his work to please one Venudutta, considered to be a
king. This work was translated into Hindi years ago and
the author’s name became Koka in short and the book he
wrote was called Koka Shastra. The same name crept into
all the translations into other languages in India. Koka
Shastra literally means doctrines of Koka, which is iden-
tical with the Kama Shastra, or doctrines of love, and the
names Koka Shastra and Kama Shastra are used indis-
criminately.
4.4 Islam
In Islam sexual intercourse is allowed only after marriage
and only with one’s spouse. Sex outside of marriage,
called zina, is considered a sin and strictly prohibited and
is punishable. According to the chapter Al-Israa', verse
32 of the Qur'an, Allah (God) prohibits Muslims from
getting close to (engaging in) zina. And since marriage is
only between a man and a woman, any sexual intercourse
between two men is considered Lewat,i.e. prohibited ho-
mosexual relations between two men and punishable with
the death penalty.
5 Technology and sex
In the mid 20th century advances in medical science and
modern understanding of the menstrual cycle led to ob-
servational, surgical, chemical and laboratory techniques
to allow diagnosis and the treatment of many forms of
infertility.
6 Pederasty
Many cultures normalized or promoted adult males and
male youths, usually teenagers, entering into pedagogic
friendships or love affairs that also had an erotic dimen-
sion. These were usually sexually expressed, but chaste
ones were not infrequent. If sexual, that phase of the re-
lationship lasted until the youth was ready for adulthood
and marriage. Other cultures saw such relationships as
inimical to their interests – often on religious grounds –
and tried to stamp them out.
See Pederasty, Shudo, Pederasty in ancient Greece

10. 10 11 REFERENCES
7 Zoophilia
Main article: History of zoophilia
Zoophilia or bestiality—sexual activity between humans
and animals—probably dates back to prehistory. Depic-
tions of humans and animals in a sexual context appear in-
frequently in rock art in Europe beginning around the on-
set of the Neolithic and the domestication of animals.[28]
Bestiality remained a common theme in mythology and
folklore through the classical period and into the Middle
Ages (e.g. Leda and the Swan)[29]
and several ancient
authors purported to document it as a regular, accepted
practice – albeit usually in “other” cultures.
Explicit legal prohibition of human sexual contact with
animals is a legacy of the Abrahamic religions:[29]
the
Hebrew Bible imposes the death penalty on both the
person and animal involved in an act of bestiality.[30]
There are several examples known from medieval Europe
of people and animals executed for committing bestial-
ity. With the Age of Enlightenment, bestiality was sub-
sumed with other sexual “crimes against nature” into civil
sodomy laws, usually remaining a capital crime.
Bestiality remains illegal in most countries and condoned
in none. Though religious and “crime against nature” ar-
guments may still be used to justify this, today the central
issue is the ability of non-human animals to give consent:
it is argued that sex with animals is inherently abusive.[31]
In common with many paraphilias, the internet has al-
lowed the formation of a zoophile community that has
begun to lobby for zoophilia to be considered an alterna-
tive sexuality and for the legalisation of bestiality.[32]
8 Prostitution
Main article: History of prostitution
Prostitution is the sale of sexual services, such as oral sex
or sexual intercourse. Prostitution has been described as
the “world’s oldest profession”.
In some cultures, prostitution has been an element of
religious practices. Religious prostitution is well docu-
mented in the ancient cultures of the near East, such as
Sumer, Babylon, ancient Greece and Israel, where pros-
titutes appear in the Bible. In Greece the hetaerae were
often women of high social class, whereas in Rome the
meretrices were of lower social order. The Devadasi,
prostitutes of Hindu temples in south India, were made
illegal by the Indian government in 1988.
9 Sexually transmitted diseases
Main articles: Sexually transmitted diseases and Safe sex
For much of human history, sexually transmitted diseases
have been a scourge of humanity. They raged unchecked
through society until the discovery of antibiotics. The de-
velopment of inexpensive condoms and education about
sexually transmitted diseases has helped reduce risks. For
a period of about thirty years (in the second half of the
twentieth century) their threat subsided. However, due
to the free movement of people and uncontrolled distri-
bution of antibiotics, organisms resistant to antibiotics
quickly spread and at the present time pose a threat to
people who have more than one sex partner.
9.1 AIDS
Main article: AIDS
AIDS has profoundly changed modern sexuality. It
was first noticed (although many historians feel that the
first case was in 1959) spreading among gay men and
intravenous drug users in the 1970s and 1980s. Today,
the majority of victims are heterosexual women, men,
and children in developing countries. In most develop-
ing countries, fear of epidemic has drastically changed
many aspects of twentieth century human sexuality. Fear
of contracting AIDS has driven a revolution in sex edu-
cation, which now centers far more the use of protection
and abstinence, and spends much more time discussing
sexually transmitted diseases.
Further effects of this disease run deep, radically impact-
ing the expected average lifespan as reported by the BBC
News: "[The expected average lifespan] is falling in many
African countries - a girl born today in Sierra Leone could
expect only to live to 36, in contrast to Japan, where to-
day’s newborn girl might reach 85 on average.” [33]
10 See also
11 References
[1] The Adapted Mind (Google Books Link) “Cognitive
Adaptations for Social Change” by Leda Cosmides and
John Tooby, page 219.
[2] The Adapted Mind (Google Books Link) On the Use and
Misuse of Darwinism in the Study of Human Behavior by
Donald Symons, page 137
[3] bigeye.com
[4] “Djerassi on birth control in Japan - abortion 'yes,' pill
'no'" (Press release). Stanford University News Service.

11. 11
96-14-02. Retrieved 2006-08-23. Check date values in:
|date= (help)
[5] AP (August 20, 2004). “Japanese Women Shun The Pill”.
HealthWatch (CBS News). Retrieved 2006-08-23.
[6] Thomas A.J. McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law
in Ancient Rome (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 326.
[7] Rebecca Langlands, Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome
(Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 37–38 et pas-
sim.
[8] Eva Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale
University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988
in Italian), p. xii.
[9] Craig Williams, Roman Homosexuality (Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1999, 2010), p. 304, citing Saara Lilja, Ho-
mosexuality in Republican and Augustan Rome (Societas
Scientiarum Fennica, 1983), p. 122.
[10] As argued by Ariadne Staples throughout From Good
Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Re-
ligion (Routledge, 1998).
[11] Cicero, De officiis 1.17.54; Sabine MacCormack, “Sin,
Citizenship, and the Salvation of Souls: The Impact of
Christian Priorities on Late-Roman and Post-Roman So-
ciety,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 39.4
(1997), p. 651.
[12] This is a theme throughout Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows
of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster
(Princeton University Press, 1993).
[13] Amy Richlin, “Sexuality in the Roman Empire,” in A
Companion to the Roman Empire,” p. 329.
[14] Davina C. Lopez, “Before Your Very Eyes: Roman
Imperial Ideology, Gender Constructs and Paul’s Inter-
Nationalism,” in Mapping Gender in Ancient Religious Dis-
courses (Brill, 2007), p. 135.
[15] the International Encyclopedia of Sexuality in volume
1,French Polynesia(Anne Bolin, Ph.D.),5. Interpersonal
Heterosexual Behaviors,A. Children, edited by Robert T.
Francoeur publish by Continuum International Publishing
Group
[16] Sexual Behavior in Pre Contact Hawai’i: A Sexological
Ethnography from Milton Diamond
[17] Voyage round the world in the Ship “Neva”, Lisiansky,
London 1814, p67
[18] Reise um die Welt in den Jahren 1803, 1804, 1805 und
1806 auf Befehl Seiner Kaiserliche Majestät Alexanders
des Ersten auf den Schiffen Nadeschda und Newa (Jour-
ney around the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, and
1806 at the Command of his Imperial Majesty Alexan-
der I in the Ships Nadezhda and Neva) published in Saint
Petersburg in 1810. volume I,p116
[19] Voyage autour du monde par Étienne Marchand, précédé
d'une introduction historique ; auquel on a joint des
recherches sur les terres australes de Drake, et un examen
critique de voyage de Roggeween, avec cartes et figures,
Paris, years VI-VIII, 4 vol. p109
[20] Time. 13 March 1972 http://www.time.com/
time/magazine/article/0,9171,903358,00.html?
promoid=googlep%7ctitle=Abortion_and_Privacy%
7caccessdate=2013-12-13. Missing or empty |title=
(help)
[21] Adolescence and puberty By John Bancroft, June Ma-
chover Reinisch, p.162
[22] "... sow illegitimate and bastard seed in courtesans, or
sterile seed in males in defiance of nature.” — Plato, in
Laws (Book VIII p.841 edition of Stephanus or p.340,
edition of Penguin Books, 1972).
[23] Roman Homosexuality, Craig Arthur Williams, p.60
[24] (Foucault 1986)
[25] Thomas K. Hubbard, Review of David M. Halperin, How
to Do the History of Homosexuality. in Bryn Mawr Classi-
cal Review 2003.09.22
[26] (Boswell 1980)
[27] “Shrine Prostitutes - Is THAT what Moses was talking
about in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13?".
[28] Bahn, Paul G. (1998). The Cambridge illustrated history of
prehistoric art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
p. 188. ISBN 978-0-521-45473-5. Retrieved 18 Febru-
ary 2012.
[29] Cornog, M.; Perper, T. (1994). “Bestiality”. In Haeberle,
E. J.; Bullough, B. L.; Bullough et al. Human Sexuality:
An Encyclopedia. New York & London: Garland. Re-
trieved 18 February 2012.
[30] Leviticus 20:15
[31] Regan, Tom. Animal Rights, Human Wrongs. Rowman &
Littlefield, 2003, pp. 63-4, 89.
[32] Francis, Thomas (20 August 2009). “Those Who Prac-
tice Bestiality Say They're Part of the Next Sexual Rights
Movement”. Broward Palm Beach New Times. Retrieved
18 February 2012.
[33] BBC News
12 Further reading
• Cante, Richard C. (March 2008). Gay Men and the
Forms of Contemporary US Culture. London: Ash-
gate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-7230-1.
• Endsjø, Dag Øistein, Sex and Religion: Teachings
and Taboos in the History of World Faiths, Reaktion
Books 2011. ISBN 978-1-86189-815-9
• Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality, Volumes
1, 2 and 3. New York: Vintage Books, 1990. ISBN
0-679-72469-9
• Hubbard, Thomas K. (ed.) Homosexuality in Greece
and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents, Uni-
versity of California Press, 2003.

12. 12 13 EXTERNAL LINKS
• Rousseau, George and Roy Porter. Sexual Under-
worlds of the Enlightenment (Chapel Hill: The Uni-
versity of North Carolina Press, 1987). ISBN 0-
7190-1961-3
13 External links
• Sex Scrolls - Journey through the hormones of his-
tory
• History of Sexuality
• University of California, Santa Barbara’s SexInfo
• Hers and History of Sexuality
• Explore the History of Sex with the Bacchanalian -
By Mark Zedler
13.1 Sexual orientation
• The Invention of Heterosexuality by Jonathan Katz
• The World History of Male Love
• Encyclopedia of GLBQT culture
• Who’s Gay? What’s Straight?
• The Myth of Ancient Greek Sexuality by Bruce
Thornton

13. 13
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