Asset based and actor led development

Asset Based and
Actor Led Development
Australian Community Development and Civil Society
Strengthening Scheme (ACCESS) Phase II

Asset Based and
Actor Led Development
Australian Community Development and Civil Society
Strengthening Scheme (ACCESS) Phase II
This work has been produced as a commissioned study for the AusAID funded Australian Community
Development and Civil Society Strengthening Scheme (ACCESS). Although consistent with the approach
taken by ACCESS, the work represents the views of the author and in no way implicates or wholly represents
the official policy or thinking of either the managers of the ACCESS program or the Australian Government or
its officers in AusAID. The author takes full responsibility for the work as it is presented.
Christopher Dureau

Table of
Contents
Foreword........................................................................................... vii
1. Introduction.................................................................................... 1
2. Key Elements of an Asset Based Approach................................. 07
.
Overview of this Chapter......................................................................................................................................................08
A Different Perspective on Development......................................................................................... 08
Comparison between Needs and Asset Based Approaches....................................................................................09
Limitations of the Traditional Needs Based Approach...............................................................................................12
Three Key Elements............................................................................................................................. 16
The Energy of the Past:..........................................................................................................................................................16
The Pull of the Future:............................................................................................................................................................16
The Persuasion of the Present:............................................................................................................................................17
Why Emphasise Negative Messages.................................................................................................. 18
Addressing Injustice and Social Problems?...................................................................................... 22
Thinking with Memory and Imagination.......................................................................................... 24
Gender and Social Inclusion............................................................................................................... 25
Role of Facilitating Agencies and Government................................................................................ 26
Summary Points from this Chapter...................................................................................................................................30
i

3. Historical Influences on Asset Based Approaches..................... 33
.
Participatory Approaches.................................................................................................................. 35
Positive Psychology............................................................................................................................ 38
Organisational Development............................................................................................................. 38
Asset Mapping..................................................................................................................................... 39
The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach............................................................................................. 41
Positive Exceptions............................................................................................................................. 44
Social Capital....................................................................................................................................... 45
Power Dynamics and Citizen Voice.................................................................................................... 48
Conversational and Narrative (Storytelling)..................................................................................... 52
Organic and Locally Directed Growth............................................................................................... 53
4. Theories of Change in Asset Based Approaches........................ 59
.
Change Theory in Asset Based Approaches...................................................................................... 60
Theoretical Frameworks and Assumptions....................................................................................... 62
Operating Principles in Asset Based Development.......................................................................... 65
5. Relations between Citizens and Governments.......................... 69
.
Multi-Stakeholder Forums................................................................................................................. 70
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Decentralisation and Citizen Participation in Government............................................................ 71
Co-Production..................................................................................................................................... 76
Demand and Supply Side................................................................................................................... 82
6. Most Common Methodologies.................................................... 87
Overview of Chapter..............................................................................................................................................................88
Appreciative Inquiry........................................................................................................................... 88
Lessons from Appreciative Inquiry...................................................................................................................................93
Turn Problems into Objectives...........................................................................................................................................94
Asset Based Community Development............................................................................................. 95
Associations, Associations, Institutions and Citizens..............................................................................................102
Lessons from Asset Based Community Development............................................................................................104
Positive Deviance.............................................................................................................................. 105
Lessons from Positive Deviance......................................................................................................................................107
Diverse Community Economics....................................................................................................... 108
Lessons from Diverse Community Economies..........................................................................................................110
Endogenous Development............................................................................................................... 110
Lessons from Endogenous Development...................................................................................................................112
Summary Points from this chapter................................................................................................................................112
7. Stages in Implementing Asset Based Approaches.................. 115
.
Stage 1: Exploring and Setting the Scene...................................................................................... 116
Place..........................................................................................................................................................................................117
People.......................................................................................................................................................................................118
iii

Program Focus.......................................................................................................................................................................119
Background Information...................................................................................................................................................120
Who should Participate?....................................................................................................................................................121
Tools..........................................................................................................................................................................................121
Stage 2: Discovering the Past........................................................................................................... 123
Discovery Story Telling.......................................................................................................................................................124
Analysis of Successes and Strengths.............................................................................................................................124
Intention of Discovery........................................................................................................................................................126
How?.........................................................................................................................................................................................126
Role of Facilitator..................................................................................................................................................................128
Time Required.......................................................................................................................................................................129
Tools Useful for Discovery.................................................................................................................................................129
Stage 3: Dreaming the Future.......................................................................................................... 131
Articulating the Vision........................................................................................................................................................131
Seeking Agreement about the Vision...........................................................................................................................133
Intention of Dream or Vision............................................................................................................................................134
How?.........................................................................................................................................................................................135
Role of the Facilitator..........................................................................................................................................................136
Tools..........................................................................................................................................................................................137
Stage 4: Mapping Assets.................................................................................................................. 138
Mapping Assets.....................................................................................................................................................................139
Selecting Relevant Assets..................................................................................................................................................140
Intention of Asset Mapping..............................................................................................................................................141
How?.........................................................................................................................................................................................142
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Time Required.......................................................................................................................................................................145
Role of the Facilitator..........................................................................................................................................................145
Tools..........................................................................................................................................................................................146
Stage 5: Linking and Mobilising Assets / Action Planning............................................................ 152
Intention of Asset Linking and Mobilisation..............................................................................................................154
How...........................................................................................................................................................................................155
Role of Facilitator..................................................................................................................................................................156
Time Required.......................................................................................................................................................................157
Tools..........................................................................................................................................................................................158
Stage 6: Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning.............................................................................. 158
Examples of Asset Building Monitoring and Evaluation............................................................... 162
Appreciative Evaluation.....................................................................................................................................................162
Asset Based Community Development.......................................................................................................................162
Outcome Mapping...............................................................................................................................................................163
8. Training and References............................................................. 165
.
Training Agendas.............................................................................................................................. 166
One day: Asset Based Approaches to Community and Social Change............................................................166
Two day: Asset Based Approaches to Community and Social Change............................................................167
Training Books................................................................................................................................... 171
References......................................................................................................................................... 172
Web Sites........................................................................................................................................... 176
Endnotes ........................................................................................................................................... 180
v

VIII
Asset Based and Actor Led Development
Occasionally, over the last half-century, there is a radical shift in the way people think about
development work. This book, Asset Based & Actor Led Development, describes one such change.
The shift it describes is from looking at reality as a problem to be solved to looking at reality
as resplendent with possibilities and potential. Tapping into this potential has the capacity to
leverage social and organisational change well beyond the expectations of existing practice.
Indeed, when applied to improving the way citizens and governments cooperate, the book claims
that such a change in thinking has proven to exponentially increase program effectiveness and
long term impact.
Is it necessary? Our old ways have not had the results we predicted. Existing models for
community driven development and for promoting democratic governance have not reached
the levels of ownership and engagement they were expected to achieve. Gender equity and
social inclusion have been considered add-ons to programs rather than integral to the process
of implementation. Governments have assumed the role of a feudal lord expecting citizens to
simply wait their turn and be satisfied with what they are given. A new approach putting citizens
and their assets first has the capacity to change all these and many more challenges we now face.
If someone finds a hole in the roof what would be the process for fixing it? It may not make
much sense to look at other parts of the roof to find a way to fix that hole. But, using a strength
based approach, it does make considerable sense to recall past successful attempts at roof repairing
and to begin by making an inventory of what tools, skills and materials are already available to
fix the hole. Drawing on local experience and locally available resources as a starting point for
change is the asset or strength based approach described in this book.
In Indonesia, as well as in many parts of the world the use of an asset based approach in
capacity building and citizen-government relations is something quite new. However, the
Viii

Foreword
IX
approach to change described in this book emerges from a now substantial body of knowledge
and experience. The change in thinking to strength based approaches began more than 15
years ago and has been applied in the context of social welfare, organisational development and
community empowerment in many countries. The book explores the ideas of key proponents
of strength and asset based approaches including David Cooperrider’s Appreciative Inquiry and
Jody Kretzmann’s Asset Based Community Development. However, in the field of international
development work and democratic governance this is a new way of thinking. This book can be
seen as a window into learning how organisations in all walks of life in countries across the globe
are discovering a very different way of facilitating social and organisational change.
Most of us are very comfortable with ‘finding the root cause of the problem’ and proposing a
design based on external support. For this reason it will take a considerable amount of reflection
and practice before we might want to embrace the promise of a very different, even contrary
approach. Without taking time to learn about and try this new approach, as often happens, we
will soon fall back to the default position where people demand and governments (and donors)
supply, where citizens become users and complainers but are never fully engaged in determining
their own future.
The reader of this book will learn what is understood by the asset based approach, what are
the historical influences that have given rise to it, what assumptions, operating principles or
theories of change does it embody and how can it be applied. The focus on application is both in
relation to improving democratic governance – or how citizen organisations can collaborate with
government service agencies in ensuring that the countries resources are applied for maximum
improvements in social wellbeing – and in mobilising communities into agents of their own
development.
iX

X
This book is commissioned by the Australian Community Development and Civil Society
Strengthening Scheme (ACCESS). ACCESS is a program of the Australian Government in
partnership with the Government of Indonesia to promote innovative methods of improving the
way government departments and citizen organisations work together. ACCESS has chosen the
asset based approach as a key guiding principle for development practice. The author, Christopher
Dureau, has been a strategic advisor to ACCESS for the past 10 years. He has had considerable
international development experience and has been involved in community development in
Indonesia for many decades. We can be assured in reading this book that it is grounded on
substantial reflection and experience.
Through the publication of this book and its supplementary learning tools, ACCESS hopes
that all its partners both strategic and implementing, at national, district and community levels
will truly understand what is the concept and basic values that underlie this approach and how
it can be used at every stage in the program cycle. How can this approach imbibe the way
things are done in support of communities who are attempting to improve their living standards,
whether it be through education, health, improved infrastructure, gender and social equity, more
sustainable management of natural resources or in economic development?
Whether it achieves this will depend not simply on how many people understand this approach
as an alternative, but how much insight into its usefulness will people who are applying it gain.
The richness of the experience and the value for development will be derived from how successful
it has been in practice. It is only through trial and reflection that we will eventually learn
whether this has more universal application in programs such as the Indonesian Government’s
National Community Empowerment Program (PNPM) and whether it can also influence similar
national programs for community driven development across Indonesia and indeed in countries
all around the world.
X

Hence the book is intended to be a practioners’ guide on how to facilitate the use of an asset
based approach. In addition to sections of the book that help readers deepen their understanding
of the key concepts, there are practical sections on how it can be applied. The six-stage process
described in the latter part of the book together with the training modules for one and two day
workshops and the reference sections can be used by facilitators and change agents to design
new programs or monitor the work of ongoing programs. To help the practioners, the book also
contains many examples of how the approach has been applied in many parts of Indonesia, and
also in other parts of the world as well. These small case studies provide hope to the reader that
this approach is worth the time and effort that practioners may invest in trialling it in their own
future work.
ACCESS Phase II has been trying this approach during the past few years. It is now time,
through this book to open the approach and methodology to others who may have heard about
it but never had the opportunity to gain more comprehensive understanding and illustration of
the asset based approach to development.
August 2013
Paul Boon
Program Director
ACCESS Phase II
Xi

XII

Introduction
01
Chapter 1Introduction
01

02
This manual contains an overview of the theory and practice of asset based approaches to
development work. The term ‘asset based’ is used to describe a positive approach to development
workandtoorganisationalchange.Inthismanualitappliestoarangeofrelativelynewapproaches
to development work that have remarkably similar guiding principles, theories of change and
methodologicalsteps. Theseapproachesaresometimesreferredtoas‘strengthbased’approaches.
Words like ‘appreciative’ and ‘positive’ are also frequently used when describing this new way of
thinking about development work and organisational change. People who use this approach also
draw inspiration from nature and refer to it as organic or endogenous, meaning emerging from
within and based upon what exists already.
These approaches, while remarkably similar in themselves and substantially different from
conventional practice, vary because they have emerged from different but related fields of
social and behavioural change, whether they are from psychology, organisational development,
community development or international development. They are applied in various contexts
including personal and clinical psychology, organisational capacity development, service
delivery by government and civil society, or business enterprises. They represent a different
way of thinking and doing that could equally apply to strategic planning, program design,
implementation or evaluation.
Asset based approaches incorporate new more holistic and creative ways of
seeing reality including – seeing the glass half full; appreciating what worked in
the past; and using what we have to acquire what we desire.
Asset based – includes Appreciative Inquiry; Asset-Based Community
Development; Positive Deviance and Endogenous Development.

Introduction
03
While there are many methodologies or approaches, there is enough commonality to use one
or other of the more generic terms such as Appreciative, Strength or Asset Based Approaches
while at the same time leaving open the possibility of incorporating insights from the whole
range of strategies that fall within the category of positive approaches to development work.
In this manual, we will apply the Asset Based approach to citizen led development where the
aim is for governments and citizens and the organisations they form, to work more collaboratively
to improve the process and benefits of development work.
The book is divided into two main sections. The first section, chapters 1-6, contains the
theoretical frameworks and various methodologies that can be included in the category of asset
based approaches to organisational change and citizen-led development.
The topics covered in the first section include:
l Key Elements of Asset Based Approaches
l Historical Influences in Asset Based Approaches
l Theories of Change Behind Asset Based Approaches
l Relationships Between Citizens and Governments
l Most Common Methodologies Incorporating Asset Based Approaches
The second section contains chapter 7, which describes a practical six-stage process, and
chapter 8, which provides examples of workshops and further sources of information.
For each stage described in chapter 7 there is an overview of the most important aspects of the
stage, its intention, how it can be applied, who should participate, the role of the facilitator and
suggested tools that may be useful in carrying out the stage.

04
This book is based on the experience of using an Asset Based approach in many community
driven development activities across Indonesia and in other parts of Asia, Africa and the Pacific.
More specifically many of the insights and examples contained in this manual are drawn from
a project of the Indonesian Directorate General of Community Empowerment (Pemberdayaan
Masyarakat dan Desa) under the Ministry of Home Affairs (Kementrian Dalam Negeri) in
partnership with the Australian Government’s Agency for International Development (AusAID).
This project, AustralianCommunityDevelopmentandCivilSocietyStrengtheningScheme(ACCESS), has
been operating in multiple districts across eastern provinces of Indonesia since 2002. Currently it
works with governments and civil society organisations in 20 Districts covering more than 1000
village communities. The core statement for ACCESS is:
‘Citizens and their organisations are empowered to engage with local governments on improving local
development impacts in 20 districts in Eastern Indonesia’
The Australian Civil Society and Community Development Scheme (ACCESS) Phase II is:
l Values driven
l Prioritises an asset based approach to development
l Actor (citizens and their organisations) led

06

Key Elements of an Asset Based Approach
07
07
Key Elements of
an Asset Based
Approach
Chapter 2

08
Overview of this Chapter
This chapter describes the key elements of the main approach to development and organisational
change that we are calling an asset based approaches. It includes consideration of the following:
l A different perspective on development
l Comparison between needs and asset based approaches
l Three key elements of asset based approaches
l Why emphasise negative messages?
l How do asset based approaches address problem contexts
l Gender and Social Inclusion
l The role of facilitating Agencies and Governments
A Different Perspective on Development
An asset based approach is both a method of acting and a way of thinking about development. It
represents a significant and radical shift in current thinking and touches every aspect of the way
we engage in development work now. Instead of viewing developing countries as problems to
be solved and beginning the process of engagement with a problem tree analysis, an asset based
approach focuses on the history of success so far; identifies current champions or people who
are or have achieved success and recognises the potential of mobilising and connecting existing
strengths and assets. According to the thinking behind asset based approaches, by focusing on
what is not working or by looking at the needs and problems rather than looking at what has
worked well, the change agent is hindering people discovering that they already have many of
the competencies they need to manage their own process of change.

09
Comparison between Needs and Asset Based Approaches
It may be useful to think of a needs based approach as a gap filling approach or a deficit approach.
Once a gap or deficit has been identified someone has to fill it or fix it, the assumption being that
the resources required to fill the gap are not present. A change agent or manager finds these
holes or gaps and sets about filling them in.
On the other hand we could consider the asset based approach as a nurturing approach. If we
look at nature to see how things grow we see that growth occurs when there is light, water and
nutrients. It is similar with social organisations which all have an inherent ability to grow and
change given the right circumstances. When they fail to grow it is because they are deprived of
the right conditions for growth. A change agent or manager makes the assumption that there is
the potential for growth – there are the seeds of what will become something greater – and what
are needed are the proper conditions for growth to occur. The change agent acts like a farmer
nurturing the natural and inherent growth potential that already exists.
Based on extensive inquiry into the characteristics of successful community initiatives
in America, John McKnight and Jody Kretzmann founded an approach to improving welfare
dependent communities which they called Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD).1
This
approach was initially proposed as an alternative to what they saw as a “needs-based” approach
to development. In publishing their research findings they described two very distinct paths to
address poverty. The first focuses on a community’s needs, deficiencies and problems. This is the
traditional path. It creates negative images or a “problems map” of the community. This negative
picture or reality is only part of the truth about the actual conditions in which people live. But
unfortunately in attempting to justify a better future, this is often taken to be the whole truth.
There is however, also another ‘’truth”, the examples of times when people have felt good about

10
themselves and their communities. It is a choice as to which “truth” is selected, you can choose
to see the glass as being half-full or being half-empty.
The “needs-based” approach to development is the product of the well-intentioned efforts of
universities, donor agencies and governments. Using needs surveys to identify deficiencies, they
develop solutions to meet the needs identified. However, this process inadvertently presents a
one-sided negative view of community, which has often compromised, rather than contributed
to, community capacity building.
Conductingastudyofhoworganisationsdevelop,DavidCooperrider2
proposedthataproblem
solving approach to change is much less effective than an approach that looks first at what has
given life to that organisation. He found that when people look back at their history and search
for their moments or sources of inspiration and resilience and used that knowledge as the basis
for moving forward they became more capable and committed to change where change was
desirable. He called this approach Appreciative Inquiry and concluded that the best way to bring
about organisational development is through an exploration of what has been done well so far.3

11
If you look for problems, you find more problems;
If you look for successes, you find more success.
If you believe in your dreams you can accomplish miracles.”
Our motto thus became to “seek the root cause of success,”
rather than the “root cause of problems.”4
~R.M. Brown~
“
“

12
Limitations of the traditional needs-based approach
One of the reasons why change is often resisted and slow is that there are lots of forces operating
to resist that change. When the change process is based on problem solving, the forces resistant
to change find lots of excuses to argue their position, that change is not good for them. The
following typical responses to problem based approaches illustrate the reason why some
development workers are finding limited success in generating community participation and a
willingness to change.
l A few leaders try to convince the rest that change is needed, so change depends on how well
it can be ‘sold’ to those who need to change.
l Change occurs sequentially and in the order that change agents and leaders have decided,
rather than having the potential to expand explosively along multiple paths when people
embrace change themselves.
l Change is seen as disruptive of routine work or at least an additional burden in an already full
life
l Breakdown occurs at implementation when people forget what they are supposed to be doing
l Change process has no life beyond the managed intervention
l Cynicism about change is strong among traditional power holders and often among
communities who have ‘wasted their time’ on previous outside interventions.
On the other hand when the program focuses on mobilising assets or building on existing
strengths, those who want to resist change have less legitimacy or a smaller space to argue their
case for no change. The following table contrasts the two approaches to change. The first is the
more traditional deficit (problem, needs) approach and the second is an asset based approach.
This table has been adapted from an article about Appreciative Inquiry, which compares the
problem solving approach with the appreciative approach.5

13
Identification of problems and needs
Focus is on what is wrong
Analysis of causes of problems
Is weakness-based
Analysis of possible solutions
Seeks the co-operationof members
Design tends to be mechanical
Is designed to be done with communities
Tends to be stressful
Tends to be stressful
Structured process within a limited time
frame for completion
Problem approach
Exploring stories of past successesand those
who are doing things best now
Focus is on what is best so far
Analyses the strengths and assets that now
exist
Is strength-based
Envisages what is most desirable– sets a goal
for all to reach out to
Asks members to be co-creators of a new
future
Design tends to be transformational
and open to multiple possible paths.
Is empowering communities to do it
themselves
Generates lots of positive energy, hope and
inspiration
Oriented towards community led
Flexible – Open ended
Appreciative Approach

14
Asset based approaches help communities look at their reality and possibility for change
differently. Promoting change focuses on what they want to achieve and helps them discover
new and creative ways to reach their vision.
For example asset based approaches always contain something of the following key elements:
l Focused on looking at the success of the past
l Everyone decides on what is desirable
l A comprehensive and participative identification of available assets
l An appreciation of those assets that are most immediately useful
l Action plans based on mobilising available assets to maximum advantage
l Releases energy and authority for every actor to work in multiple ways
l Mutual contributions and responsibility for success
The definition of insanity is doing the same thing over
and over again expecting different results.
~Albert Einstein~
“ “

15
An asset based approach seeks to find ways for individuals and whole communities to contri
bute towards their development by:
l Exploring and mobilising their own capacities and assets;
l Strengthening their own ability to manage the change process through modifying and
improving existing organisational structures.
l Encouraging those who wish to change, to clearly articulate their dream or picture of what
change they would like to see and to understand how they are going to achieve that change.
This way of thinking about development has the potential to revitalise the understanding
of partnership because its focus is on helping each partner identify their strengths or what they
bring to the partnership. It can help to make much more sense of the latest declarations about
the direction and effectiveness of aid work. For example, concepts like aligning the approach
with existing local processes and structures or promoting mutual responsibility for achieving
outcomes are much better understood from an asset based perspective on development work.6
In fact it is also not particularly difficult to get started. When given the opportunity, most
communities and organisations can find examples of using what they already have to achieve
what they want in the future. Most people can look into their past and find strategies that have
helped them address daily or organisational challenges. Many of us can also find people that
we know who seem to be addressing problems and so have found solutions that could be applied
more universally.

16
Three Key Elements
There is no “blueprint” for carrying out an asset based approach to development. Each of the
methods has their own preferred steps or processes. Some emphasise the historical context, some
focus on developing a more clearly articulated dream of the future, some begin with inventories of
currently available assets. The steps chosen by a program or an NGO in the process of facilitating
citizen-driven development will be determined by the amount of time available for engagement;
the particular context; the number and type of people who are likely to participate and the theme
or focus area of a project.
In general, however all methods contain three key processes, with different methods giving
different emphasis to one or the other. The key processes of an asset based approach are:
The Energy of the Past
A discovery of what has given an individual, group or organisation the means to succeed in
the past. This is sometimes referred to as looking into the past to find what has given ‘life’, what
has made people proud and what strategies were used to achieve a successful outcome. These
memories and stories represent their resilient status – how strong and creative have they been in
meeting historical challenges.
The Pull of the Future
A totally inclusive group formulation of and commitment to a vision of the future; a picture
of what all agree will be success in the future. The group commitment to working together for a
common future is a powerful motivator for each and every participant. Continuously reminding
people of their own vision or picture of success has proven to be an effective change strategy.

17
Power
(energy) in
the Success
of the Past
Pull (drive) of the
Positive Image of
the Future
Persuasion of
identifying and
using our Present
Strengths
The Persuasion of the Present
This is a comprehensive re-shaping of the current situation, from a picture of ‘deficit’ into a
picture of ‘abundance’. Asset mapping carried out by the members of the group, organisation or
community becomes a very persuasive picture of what can be achieved beginning immediately.
Asset mapping is a process of learning to count and appreciate – to lay out and value the assets
a community has, including both what it can identify as its own productive resources and the
support it receives from outside. It also becomes the basis for a much more real partnership
between local groups and outside support agencies including governments.
These three processes should be part of any selection of tools in any context for asset based
approaches. Diagrammatically, these three elements can be described as follows:

18
As noted above, the sequencing of these three key elements does vary among different
methods included in the group of asset based approaches. For example, some begin with a
mapping of current assets, others begin with stories of past success and yet others begin with
a given end goal or statement of what success looks like. The sequencing will vary depending
on the circumstances and the nature of the task. In many community development activities,
exploring existing assets helps the community focus on their potential and where they can get
started. The availability of useable assets determines the direction. In project activity, where
the end goal and the sector are predetermined, beginning with stories of success in the past will
focus the attention of the community on finding the self-esteem and conviction that the members
have the positive energy to address new challenges.
Why Emphasise Negative Messages
There is a place for seeking the root cause of the problem and designing an intervention based
on this analysis when solving relatively simple technical problems or identifying what actions
to be taken following a humanitarian disaster. A problem analysis approach is more suitable in
engineering and fixing something like an engine or a house. Problem analysis of government
services by and with a community helps beneficiaries become clear about what they want to
see changed by others. Such an approach is inherent in methods like Community Score Cards
and Citizen Report Cards7
. Academics also examine the whole of reality and attempt to identify
‘what is going wrong’ as part of their description of reality.
An asset based approach does not deny the worth of such academic research, or of the need
at times to get to the bottom of what is stopping progress or why something is not working as
planned. However social researchers and designers who have chosen the asset approach point

19
to the inadequacies of the problem or needs approach in bringing about sustainable change and
found that the alternative positive and affirming approach is both more empowering and more
effective as a way to bring a whole community or organisation along in the change process.
While there is some value in taking a problem or needs approach to designing or evaluating a
program, it is less suitable for programs that require social behaviour change and service delivery
improvements. In typical complex, multi-actor contexts there is never a single problem or an
easily definable solution. In such a context identifying endless needs can be disempowering,
especially as the starting point for change. Hence asset based approaches arenow considered
more useful for social, economic and political contexts that are complex in nature and where
there are many paths for change. The starting point is the root cause of past successes rather than
the root cause of past failures.
Marty Seligman is considered today as the founder of Positive Psychology.8
He has proposed
that it has been more natural to present risk and obstacles and the negativity of any situation
because it is more likely to guarantee the continuation of our species. Emphasising the dangers
around us helps us grow up safely. The consequences of avoiding danger are about saving life. So
it’s natural that we emphasise avoidance over positivity in order to keep ourselves and the ones
we love safer. He also goes on to say in all his work – about learning to be healthy and optimistic
– that people who do focus on the positive are people who are likely to grow stronger and better.
Should we stop talking about problems?
An asset based approach does not deny that there are problems. However, it is
a strategy for organisational and community strengthening that prefers to look not
at the problem but rather at the available strengths as the basis for a design for
change.

20
Thriving
Surviving
Positivity is about
extending borders
– flourishing and
growing healthier
Negativity is
aobout being
safe or keeping
alive and avoiding
death
( - )
( + )

21
In the context of organisations and especially traditional associations and village groupings,
often the surviving instinct is much stronger and given much more emphasis by leaders than
the thriving option. Village leaders are respected because they know how to preserve culture
and tradition. If traditional village and other groupings want to change they will be required to
deliberately learn a new way of thinking about their life - to learn to become much more positive
about moving into the future – to learn to identify what has helped them grow rather than what
has kept them secure; what can they use within their existing context to extend their borders
rather than to be concerned about failure. Their focus will need to move from maintaining their
culture (looking back) to transitioning their culture (looking forward).
We both learned that the quickest way to disempower
a neighbourhood is to introduce a whole lot of social
workers and lawyers.
~Jody Kretzmann, talking about himself and his colleague John McKnight, April 2002~
“ “

22
Addressing Injustice and Social Problems?
Asset based approaches are sometimes criticised because they do not confront social injustice or
basic human weakness. In reality however, the need for change is the starting point of asset based
approaches and historically, most asset based approaches have arisen from the failure of more
conventional approaches to adequately address the existing problem. In some contexts, asset
based approaches have been tried initially with the problem group, or the section of society that
has become the ‘least developed’ or hardest to manage. The evidence of success that is achieved
by taking an asset based approach with such groups has led to applying the same approach to the
broader society or larger context. So, historically at least, the asset based approach has emerged
from having been successful in contexts where the social problem is greatest.
While the starting point for an asset based approach is not to highlight the problems or
obstacles, they do not go away simply by not looking at them. But they do diminish in stature as
a problem – what looked like a problem in the first place becomes an opportunity for change or
less worthy of considering because the focus is on learning a new way of moving into the future.
An asset based approach redefines the picture of reality – recreates the narrative turning problem
situations into avenues for change.
Using this asset approach, Florence Nderitu, was recently working with a group of
Kenyan women who were concerned that they were all illiterate. Focusing not on the
problem of illiteracy but on the capacity to communicate, she found that almost all women
regularly use a mobile phone. They had learnt to use the mobile phone, to understand
literary contexts and to convey messages. Analysing this means of communication and the
strategies women currently have to manage it, Florence was able to help the women gain
a new understanding of how to improve their ability to communicate using what they
already do as a basis for improving their functional literacy and numeracy.

23
Below is a list of how asset based approaches attempt to address social problems and structural
obstacles to justice and equity.
l Expand the reality of the community to become open to other alternatives
l Creates new alignments and relationships of power and influence
l Focus on power to, power with and power within rather than the existence of power over
l Re-aligns (and challenges) our assumption about how change occurs – ie not from outside but
from inside pressure
l Does not deny reality – but chooses to look for sources of what gives life in that reality.
These points will be considered more fully in other parts of this document when we consider
the lessons from different methods and the key steps in the process.
Management of change is about
‘creating an alignment of strengths in a way
that makes a system’s weaknesses irrelevant’9
~Peter Drucker~
“ “

24
Thinking with Memory and Imagination
As has been explained above, all of us have the choice of looking at reality from a negative or
a positive perspective. When we engage in analytical ways of thinking we tend to focus on
problems and obstacles or what is stoping us from living as we desire. When we engage in
creative and imaginative way of thinking we tend to be thinking about how we can get to a
new reality. This latter way of thinking engages memory and imagination more than critical
thinking and analysis. Asset based approaches encourage us to turn what looks like a problem
into what could be a future possibility partly by remembering what has been achieved and partly
by imagining what might be in the future.
An asset based approach draws on experiences of having achieved something in the past –
on the memory that what is desirable was in some way achieved in the past. This is done by
helping the community to delve into the past, with storytelling and inventories to find what or
where there are examples of how things worked in a desirable way. The past represents latent
and potential capacity to be used as the beginning of change for the future. Identifying what has
worked, what has been achieved and what is deeply valued in the past locates the energy and
enthusiasm for change in the future.
Recalling the past is not simply a retelling of history. When a community is faced with current
challenges and looks back at its journey to this point in time, there is also a reinterpreting of what
happened in a way that makes sense to the challenges faced ahead. This process of reinterpreting
helps a community revisit traditional practice and behaviour patterns that are no longer relevant.
This in turn opens the way to the re-formulation of collective wisdom. It is the breaking of new
ground or the turning over of the soil that is necessary to plant new policy directions that address
challenges or obstacles.

25
Gender and Social Inclusion
From a gender perspective an asset based approach is most helpful. One key assumption of all
asset based approaches is that all people have something to contribute and the whole community
is the richer when each one’s potential contribution is recognised. Identifying and mobilising
skills, competencies and capacities of women both individually and as a group is part of any
thorough asset based approach. Recognising the fact that women have the ability to contribute
economically, socially and politically is empowering not only for women but also for men.
When women become organised to contribute to the family economy or to participate in total
community economic output, then all benefit.
Recognising and releasing the potential that women have not only to carry out useful social
and economic activities but also to contribute to decision-making and leadership in the public
domain has been found to significantly decrease the incidence of domestic and gender based
violence10
. As their contribution to the public domain is increasingly recognised so too women
are more respected and treated equitably.
There are many examples of how the contribution of women in any sector or activity has
enhanced the quality and sustainability of community development.
In West Kayuloe, South Sulawesi a Village leader reported that ‘when we started listening to
the women and they became engaged in all aspects of rice production, our rice production rose
from 2-3 tons per hectare to 5-6 tons. Women brought discipline and consistency to our work,’
he said.

26
In Noelbaki in West Timor, women looked at the potential of their natural assets and formed
themselves into women farmer groups. Thinking of their needs and what was available they
decided to help each other use the land in front of each house however big or small to grow all
sorts of vegetables and fruits and raise more chickens. They also learnt how to make organic
fertiliser. Before too long they were able to provide added nutrition to the diet and a source of
regular income to the family. From this experience they were given a certificate of appreciation
and additional resources from the local government to train women in surrounding villages.
Similarly, recognising the total assets of the community and the potential of every individual
to contribute provides an imperative to identify ways in which those who were traditionally
socially excluded could also contribute. Not only do the more marginalised members of a
community understand what needs changing but they also are the most willing to contribute
when given the opportunity to participate.
People living with disability are an example of this. Focusing on their disability hides the
many competencies they have acquired partly as a result of this disability. People living with
a disability have also learnt to develop different abilities which enrich us all when given the
opportunity to be applied. To focus on ‘disability’ is only part of the picture because they have
often acquired different abilities or ‘difabilities’.
Role of Facilitating Agencies and Government
One aspect of the asset based approach is that it builds a strong partnership between citizens
and government. Although asset based approaches refer to development as citizen-led, they
are not exclusive of outside support. Asset based approaches are sometimes thought to be a

27
reinvention of what was once referred to as a ‘self-sufficiency’. This is not so, because while asset
approaches encourage citizens to learn more about the resources they have at their disposal, they
also encourage citizens to realise the potential of the assets that governments (and any outside
agency) are able to provide. An eventual outcome of an asset based approach is a strong and
mutual engagement between citizen organisations and government with each contributing of
their own capacity to a jointly shared vision of development for the future.
Support from outside agencies, whether government or CSOs working with them, in an asset
based approach is initially to facilitate a community’s discovery of its own capacities to achieve
the changes they most care about. This is a pre-condition of being able to work as partners
in the future. Subsequently, additional knowledge and understanding or technical expertise is
needed as and when the community becomes aware of such a need. In an asset based approach,
sometimesthemostusefulknowledgearisesfromtheinteractionoflocalwisdomandprofessional
competence. Ensuring that local wisdom and best practice is part of the solution requires that
outside agencies are willing to learn from the community about how their expertise or policies
can be applied in each specific context.
When a facilitating agency adopts an asset based approach, a whole range of differences
between this and more traditional ways of program management and organisational priorities
emerge. The following table illustrates the difference at multiple levels:

28
Focus on future NEEDS
Responds to PROBLEMS
DONOR FUNDS Orientation
Emphasis on NGO/CONTRACTOR
Focus on INDIVIDUALS
Goal is SERVICE DELIVERY
Power is CREDENTIALS of TA/NGO
PROJECTS are the answer
People are CLIENTS
Focus on ADVOCACY
CONTEST - limited existing power
Focus on POTENTIAL OBSTACLES
Internal dialogue – rewards CRITICISM
Monitor what the project actors did
Evaluation – how project inputs were used
Focus on present ABUNDANCE
Builds from OPPORTUNITIES
INVESTMENT/PARTNER Orientation
Emphasis on INTERNAL ASSOCIATIONS
Focus on WHOLE COMMUNITY
Goal is COMPETENT COMMUNITIES
Power is RELATIONAL within systems
PEOPLE searching for their answer
People are CITIZENS
Focus on CO-CREATION
EXPANDS& creates more power
Focus on FUTURE OPPORTUNITY
Internal dialogue –rewards CREATIVITY
Monitor how the situation changes
Evaluation - how own assets are used
Traditional Project
Management
Asset Based Facilitation
Comparison of Traditional Project Model and an Asset Based Model11

29
The key difference between these two ways of managing development programs is the
different nature of relationships between the change agent and the people who are engaged
in changing. In the first instance, the change agent assumes the role of an informed manager
providing direction. In the second the relationship is one of learning and facilitating communities
to become actors in their own change process.
It is not surprising that development ‘professionals’ and civil society organisations involved in
managing donor funds are often the most reluctant to change the way they work towards a more
asset-based facilitation role. The concept of ‘dependence on outside support’ is a key operating
assumption for such agencies. For as long as donors are looking to provide funding, development
agencies gain their legitimacy from proposing a ‘solution’ to other people’s problems. They see
themselves as important intermediaries and this is all the clearer if they can convince the donor
that the communities do not have the capacity to achieve their own aspirations.
On the other hand, communities are usually quick to appreciate and adopt an asset based
approach. They most appreciate an approach that helps them acknowledge and mobilise the
multiple assets they possess or to which they can easily gain access.

30
Summary Points from this Chapter
l Assetbasedapproachesbeginwithdiscoveringthestoriesofsuccessfromthepastandmapping
the assets within a community or organisation. Stories of success are analysed to find ‘success
elements’ or the strategies that have given life to the community or organisation. Assets are
mapped in order to be better appreciated (for their productive value or usefulness) and then
mobilised.
l Asset based approaches look for what is being done well or who is doing it better than others
and examines this set of behaviours as a strategy for designing what can be done in the future
by others.
l Traditional approaches begin with research into the problems and deficits or needs of a
community and then depend on outside support to address these problems. Asset based
approaches consider a deficit or needs approach is less effective for mobilising and empowering
community organisations and citizens because it highlights disempowerment and is the less
useful half of the total reality in bringing about change.
l Assetbasedapproachesbuildonwhatalreadyexistsaspartofaprocessthatbuildsacommunity
or organisation from the inside. It bases future action on what people and organisations have
in order to obtain what they want in the future.
l Asset based approaches contain three key steps – carried out in different sequences but always
present:

31
n An exploration of what has and continues to give life to a group or community (the stories
of success so far);
n A mapping of the available assets (talents, capacities and resources) within an organisation
or community;
n A motivating vision of the future that all stakeholders work to formulate for themselves.
l Allassetbasedapproachesaddressproblemsbylookingatpotentialopportunitiesandfocusing
on how existing assets can be better mobilised to reach a new and desirable vision of the
future.

32

Historical Influences on Asset Based Approaches
33
33
Chapter 3
Historical
Influences on Asset
Based Approaches

34
Overview of this Chapter
As with any new approach or change in method, asset based approaches have emerged historically
from many insights about community development, community organising and organisational
capacity building.
This chapter provides an overview of some of these historical influences. In this chapter the
reader will learn about:
l Different sectors that are beginning to use more positive and strength based approaches
l Different methods and tools that use strength based and appreciative approaches to promoting
change
l Different contexts out of which asset based approaches have arisen
In particular the connection between the asset based approach and the following development
related methods are explored:
l Participatory Approaches
l Positive Psychology
l Organisational Development
l Asset Building
l Sustainable Livelihoods
l Positive Exceptions
l Social Capital
l Power Dynamics and Citizen Voice
l Multi-Stakeholder Platforms
l Conversational and Narrative Approaches

35
Participatory Approaches
Participatory approaches are intended to include beneficiaries in the initial data collection and
the design of appropriate activities. Participatory approaches emerged from action research and
action reflection processes popular in the 1970’s. By the mid 1990’s participatory approaches
became universally applied in community related projects. It was at this time however that
some critics became aware that the tools for participation were becoming more important than
the purpose for which they were intended. They became the end in itself rather than a means
to giving the community an opportunity to drive the process. Citizens were still the objects of
information gathering processes rather than the subjects of the development process. Critics
of the participatory approach argued that the tools were burdensome to the community and the
power still remained in the hands of the donor or intermediary organisation.
At the same time a range of approaches began emerging that had the potential to put power
back into the hands of citizens. These approaches are now part of the family of asset based
approaches. Most of such asset based approaches have grown out of the same desire to increase
the possibility of citizen led development. The tools for increasing participation are still relevant
in an asset based approach. But the selection of tools is determined by what would most empower
the communities to manage their own assets. The participatory tools were applied to helping the
community discover what they can bring to the development process.
The following table has been adapted from the Coady Institute’s training book on Asset-
Based Community Development and outlines the historical changes that have influenced the
development of participatory approaches:12

36
When What Basic idea Tools and Methods
1970s PAR
Participatory
Action Research
Education for critical consciousness:
Understanding oppression
Action Research to promote
understanding of one’s
situation as the basis for action
Early
1980s
RRA
Rapid Rural
Appraisal
Multidisciplinary research
teams carrying out rapid
local assessments with local
communities. Usually carried out as
a preliminary phase of planning by
outsiders in consultation with local
communities
A repertoire of rapid
assessment tools was
developed to measure local
economy, land availability,
productivity etc., then
expanded to include ways of
measuring access to water,
nutritional status, income and
expenditure patterns etc.
Late
1980’s
PRA
Participatory Rural
Appraisal
Seen as a subset of RRA but with
a focus on local community
doing research and analysis and
owning the knowledge. Some
NGOs packaged a set of tools for
problem identification, analysis
and prioritization, but this is not
intrinsic to PRA.
More tools added to the
repertoire: Mapping, ranking,
scoring, and modelling. The
guiding principle is that non
literate people can use and
learn from the tools, analyse
situation and plan strategies
to solve problems. Tools also
applied to M and E.

37
When What Basic idea Tools and Methods
1990s PRA, PLA
PRA changes its name to become Participatory Learning and Action. The idea of PLA takes off
in India, SE Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa. By 1996, PLA is used in 100 countries. RRA and PRA are
seen as a continuum with outsider control of the process at one extreme and local control at
the other. In the middle is collaboration between local and outside agents.
Late
1990s
Critique of
PRA
PRA promises empowerment but in practice PRA is often“done to”communities rather than
done by them, reinforcing the position of the outside organisation that extracts information
for its own planning purposes. PRA often ignores and reinforces local power relations and can
have the effect of disempowering local associations.
Late
1990s,
2000s
AI
Appreciative
Inquiry
Originates as an organizational
development strategy but soon
seen as a way to energise and
motivate communities
Interviewing and discussion
techniques to focus on
strengths and past“peak“
experiences as a motivator for
people to take action
Late
1990s,
2000s
ABCD
Asset-Based
Community
Development
A focus on strengths and assets,
rather than problems and needs
(the“glass half full”). Designed to
stimulate community organizing,
linking with and leveraging
assistance from external
institutions
Methods, behaviours,
attitudes, and tools identify
assets, strengths, and
opportunities:“Not mapping
but organizing”. Less a research
focus, more an action focus.

38
Positive Psychology
Psychologists refer to positive psychology as a way in which people and organisations are
encouraged to generate greater energy and enthusiasm for bringing about desired change.
Positive psychology emerged from some now well know experiments such as the Placebo
Effect and Pygmalion Effect to test how people react to positive and negative feedback. These
social experiments demonstrate how the whole person can change behaviour patterns to match
expectations. If a group has a strong self-expectation of success the behaviour patterns of the
group are more likely to reflect that expectation. Conversely if the image of disadvantage
becomes dominant then group behaviour is likely to reinforce this image. Positively imaging
and visioning success has also been applied in sports psychology and in creating an enabling
learning environment by focusing on what builds a sense of self-esteem and a strong picture of
being a winner.
In the field of social and educational psychology, there are now many advocates of positive
psychology, most notably Marty Seligman and Barbara Fredrickson. Their research demonstrates
theimportanceofgivingequalattentiontonurturingtalentandenhancingattitudesandcapacities
that are more likely to lead to improved well being and happiness. Those who are more inclined
to adopt a positive approach to life and to building upon their own competencies are most likely
to achieve their life goals, according to their findings13
.
Organisational Development
Organisational change management draws on the concept that we can and do construct our
own future by the words we use and the dreams we choose to have. This concept is part of
the construction theory that goes back to Kolb’s learning cycle experience, reflection and action

39
model or experiential learning inspired by Kurt Lewin. These ideas are based on what is called
‘action-reflection’ or learning based on what we or any group of people have experienced -
what we have done in the past. Coming out of this school of learning from the past to change
organisations, David Cooperrider discovered that organisations change more when they focus
on particular aspects of their previous experience, namely the positive and life giving aspects
of the past. Instead of thinking about what went wrong, more learning can be gained from
thinking about what went right.
The same ideas can also be found in Peter Senge’s discussion about how organisations learn.
Organisations learn when people in them embrace the desire to be different and reflect upon their
experience of what they have been doing in the past. He introduced the concept of a ‘learning
organisation’. According to Peter Senge learning organisations are ‘…organisations where people
continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive
patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are
continually learning to see the whole together.’14
Asset Mapping
Asset thinking and mapping a community’s assets has been part of community development
work for more than twenty years, mainly through the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)
and Asset Based Community Development (ABCD) which will be considered more fully later.
The idea of “asset building” has several origins. Amartya Sen promotes the idea of enhancing
thefreedomofindividualstobeactiveagentsofchange,ratherthanpassiverecipientsofservices15
.
Such freedom is not only political but occurs when people have capacities and capabilities to
take action as a result of adequate education, health care, and protective security. Asset building

40
in a broad sense therefore has to do with creating an environment where such capacities can
be generated and sustained. In this view, it is important to invest in health care and education
as well as protecting natural resources and generating financial assets for investment. Thus,
asset building is reflected in programmes as varied as: micro-finance, such as the work of the
Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in India16
and the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh;
investment in community organisations managed by local communities; programmes designed
to strengthen social capital; organizational capacity building; reproductive health care; and
community-based resource management.
Assets… are not simply resources that people use
in building livelihoods - they… give them the
capability to be and act.
~Bebbington, 1999~
Asset building begins with a community or organisation learning to appreciate the assets
they have at their disposal. Many communities either ignore or do not take seriously the value
of the assets they have already. Learning to identify a resource and then to begin to count it
as a potential asset for engaging in development work is a key insight of the tradition that has
emerged from asset building and asset based approaches.

“ “

41
Asset building: Strengthening existing assets and expanding the asset base.
Asset mobilising: Assembling, preparing and organising assets, and putting them to use for long
term livelihood security.
Asset Based: Recognising and developing an organisation’s or a community’s assets.
The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach
The concept of Sustainable Livelihoods evolved out of the work of Robert Chambers and others
in the 1980s. It was developed into a specific approach to development in the late 1990’s by the
British Department for International Development (DFID), assisted to some degree by Institute
for Development Studies (UK). Other organizations such as UNDP, CARE (USA), Oxfam (UK)
and the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) in Canada have all been
pioneers in using this approach.
The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) grew out of a concern that poverty alleviation
was being treated too narrowly by simply focusing on income generating activities. Proponents
of “sustainable livelihoods” saw the need to take into account many other factors including:
l The vulnerable context in which the poor find themselves;
l Strategies that households and communities employ to deal with these shocks;
l All the human, financial, social, physical and natural assets of households and the community;
and
l The larger structures and processes (institutions, organizations, policies and legislation) that
shape people’s livelihoods.

42
All of these factors “influence people’s livelihood strategies – ways of combining and using
assets – that are open to people in pursuit of beneficial livelihood outcomes that meet their own
livelihood objectives”17
H
influence
The Poor
P
S N
F
Policies
Institutions
processes
Vulnerability
Context
Shocks
Seasonility
Trends
Changes
Livelihood
Strategies
Livelihood
Outcomes

43
As promoted by DFID and UNDP, the sustainable livelihoods approach has four essential
features.
l Firstly, its starting point is that vulnerability to shocks and trends prevent people from having
the security of a sustainable livelihood.
l Secondly, as a framework for analysis, it draws attention to the full range of assets that people
draw upon to compose a livelihood (namely human, natural, financial, physical, and social
and/or cultural assets) and examines these in the context of the larger economic, political, and
institutional environment.
l Thirdly, as an instrument for policy and program design, it emphasises an integrated approach
to development in which an adequate asset mix can be created, sustained and transferred
from one generation to the next.
l Finally, it puts people in the community at the centre as the principle agents of development
acting through community based organisations and collaborating with various other agents
such as local government, NGOs, and the private sector (DFID, 2001; UNDP, 1997).
The SLA provides analytical tools for building a comprehensive understanding of how people
deal with crisis or living in situations of vulnerability to poverty, as well as with opportunity. It
is thorough the deliberate intention, contained on the process of SLA, to study and document the
the range of assets available to the community that has enhanced the ABCD approach. The SLA
opened the door to mapping a communities assets or capitals and how they can use their assets
to become actively engaged in changing their situation. In more recent discussions about the
SLA there is a much greater emphasis on asset based approaches as the guiding principle. “SLA
builds on people’s perceived strengths and opportunities rather than focusing on their problems
and needs. It supports existing livelihood strategies”. 18

44
Positive Exceptions
Another important influence of asset based thinking is the strategy of finding positive examples
of what is desirable in the present context. According to this analysis, one can find examples
of overcoming difficulties in a more desirable way in any situation. In other words, any given
context can also be analysed to reveal behavioural examples of desirable practice. Some people
can be found to get it right or be doing it better than those around them even though all have
access to the same resources.
Organisationsusingthisapproach,commonlyidentifythosewhoareperformingexceptionally
well and not only reward them for doing so but research why they did so. This means the focus
of change is on taking time to examine why the exceptional performers have been exceptional
within the same context as everyone else. What did they do to achieve what others have not
been able to do in the same context.
For ACCESS, finding and supporting local champions or stories of change that illustrate new and
innovative approaches is central to almost every aspect of its work. For example before the initial
Appreciative District Summit on Empowering Citizens and Organisation, an extensive interview
process takes place to find the ‘democracy’ champions within that District who will be invited to
participate in the summit.
Similarlycommunitiescanidentifyfromamongtheirownmembers,somewhocouldbecalled
‘champions’. They may be better farmers, have healthier children, perform better at business or
they could be people who have better insights into how to bring about a desired change.

45
The Positive Deviance Initiative19
is perhaps the best example of an approach that adopts this
way of promoting change. Positive Deviance has remarkably similar steps and insights as many
other asset based approaches and will be considered more fully in a later section. As with other
asset based approaches, here the starting point for change is not critical analysis and knowledge,
but exploring existing practice or behaviour – what is working well that can be examined and
enhanced for more universal application.
Social Capital20
Social capital refers to the gain or capital that a society acquires when two or more of its citizens
work for a common good – to help other people in society and do this not for profit. Social capital
in this context refers to the assets gained by a community when people form associations or
groups for self-help or for common good. Social capital is an important part of the Sustainable
Livelihoods approach but its significant role as an asset for development has been more clearly
identified in the more recent asset based approaches.
Social capital has been well studied since Robert Putnam, in his study of regional differences
in economic prosperity in Northern Italy, identified a relationship between economic prosperity
and membership of associations and social networks (which are representative of social capital
in a community). His research demonstrated how the trust and cooperation found in self-help
or social groups improves information flow, enhances the potential of individual and collective
effort, and stimulates local economic growth.
Social capital does not refer to the way members of a single family help each other, but would
apply to small sub-village communities in developing countries where many households are in

46
some way part of an extended or related family. Putman and others following his pioneering
work, described social capital as the set of:
l Confidence (trust) between members of a society or community
l Groups that exist within that community
l Social norms that are applied by these groups,
l Social networks or the relationships between groups and individuals in these groups
l Organizations or more formal groupings working for the common good beyond the members.
All these factors shape the interactions of actors within a society or community and are
considered an asset for the individual and collective production of wellbeing. Increasingly, among
those who promote asset-based approaches, social capital or associational life outside of business
and work is becoming the ‘asset that gives access to all other assets’. This is because those who
are socially connected in relationships of cooperation and trust have a bridge or gateway to all
sorts of other useful assets that belong to others in the community. Those who do not have access
to social associations, or are socially isolated are often the most poor and marginalised in any
community.
Experience tells us that where there is a strong commitment in a society to build and maintain
social capital, a commitment to collective action for change is more likely to occur. So helping
a community to become aware of the social capital it already has (for example the wide range of
associations and groups people belong to) is a way of building a community’s capacity to work
together for change.
Some authors who have followed the initial research of Robert Pittman have found his

47
distinction between bonding social capital (enabling us to survive) and bridging social capital
(enabling us to link into networks that will improve our livelihood options) to be useful. Bridging
social capital is the connections that they have with resource groups and institutions outside the
traditional boundaries of kin and community. In asset based approaches bonding social capital
becomes the source of inspiration and conviction about the importance of collective action, and
bridging social capital becomes the means by which a community can strengthen their links
with local government, civil society organisations and potential donors. Some modern authors
now refer to this latter as linking social capital. Linking social capital also includes reaching
out beyond the community to build relationships with groups that are similarly related to a key
organisation, such as a government department, but not necessarily related to each other21
.
Because social capital in all its forms is about building relationships and building relationships
is key to capacity building for organisations and communities, it is now considered a key element
in all local development activities. Associations, groupings and social networks provide the
connections and the experience of collaborative effort for the individual and collective good. This
leads also to local economic growth. Studies have shown that where social capital is promoted
especially in the context of decentralisation, more effective partnerships with local government
in the management of local resources are likely.22
As we will explore in later sections when
communities increase their use of social capital they also strengthen their capacity to leverage
greater responsiveness from government.
Behind all asset based approaches, therefore are the associations and social networks that
form the building blocks of community life and collective effort. Communities demonstrate
their capacities as citizens to bring about change through their associational life.

48
Power Dynamics and Citizen Voice
Asset based approaches usually do not directly confront the dynamics of power imbalance, for
example between an oppressor and an oppressed. While advocacy is important in social change,
asset based approaches look for alliances and dialogue rather than confrontation and protest
when talking about advocacy. For this reason asset-based approaches may initially appear to be
less effective in situations where there are large scale and entrenched inequality and oppression.
If there is continuing violence and internal social conflict either at the level of society or within
a family context, people have little opportunity to engage with each other in non-violent ways
and victims of violence often have little choice but to submit to the parameters set by those who
wield absolute power.
So the question many put to proponents of the asset based approach is whether such an
approach can be used in resolving social and domestic conflict and whether it is a useful approach
to address social injustice.
In 1999, Mary Anderson wrote a book entitled ‘Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace
– or War’. Reflecting on experiences of peace building in the Middle East, the author identified
ways in which aid agencies can identify and build upon what is referred to as ‘local capacities
for peace’23
. By analysing past experiences in any conflict situation, an aid worker will be able
to discover patterns of behaviour, including people, places and events, that are more inclined to
promote peace making. Aid workers are encouraged to learn from this analysis of past peace
building actions and use them instead of those that are likely to escalate the conflict. These
patterns or capacities that ‘connect’ rather than ‘divide’ those living in conflict are what we might
also call peace-building assets within any given community. If assets are anything within our
current context that is more likely to help us reach our goal, then what Mary Anderson calls

49
connectors or local capacities for peace building represent the positive or strength based approach
to working in conflict situations being considered in this book.
Similarly, asset based approaches are increasingly looking at power through different lenses.
In an asset based approach ‘power’ can be seen as a latent strength available to all members of
the community. According to traditional understandings power is seen as residing in formal
organisations and institutions, is dominated by the concept of having power over someone and is
considered to be a fixed amount or ‘zero sum’24
. In this traditional framework of thinking about
power, certain people hold power over others and that power is of a limited quantity. Power
resides in a few and powerlessness resides in those who are dominated. Hence the only way to
change the existing power dynamic is to engage in a ‘power struggle’ with the intention of taking
power from those who hold it now – to remove the power from one person or group in society
and give it to another. The dynamics of power changes when those who do not have power take
it from those who hold it now.25
This framework of thinking about power ignores the potential of informal and invisible
power, such as the power in all of us to create a new reality, the power that arises out of being
alive and the power to act with others.26
These types of power are also described as power ‘within’
someone, power ‘to do’ something and power ‘with’ that comes from ‘people acting together’
because they care enough. Power within emerges from self-esteem, confidence and an inner
belief that gives a person or a group the right to exercise their own latent power. Power to act is
the ability to take action and the recognition that taking action has been a force for change in the
past. This is the power to be a subject of change rather than a passive recipient of the exercise
of power by others. Power with comes from people acting together. Margaret Mead is reputed
to have recognised this when she wrote the famous words: “Never doubt that a small group of
thoughtful, committed people can change the world; indeed it’s the only thing that ever has.”

50
So asset based approaches do not ask how to take back power from the elites and the dominant
groups. Rather asset based approaches seek out new sources of hitherto unexercised power.
Power is not a zero sum but can grow or increase depending on who and how many people in the
community are willing to exercise power. Those who currently have power do not necessarily
have to lose the power they have for others to gain power. When others recognise the latent
power they have and use it the totality of power becomes larger and the relative importance of
current power holders becomes smaller. Those without power begin to acknowledge that power
is not an inaccessible commodity but rather as a potential resource - not static but dynamic.
Those without power begin to realise that they have power they have not exercised or applied
in the context where they have previously felt powerless. On the other hand, those who hold
power often realise that their power over others is less legitimate, less useful or simply no longer
as relevant.
In Papua New Guinea, as part of a community capacity building project for primary schools,
the parents and community of a school came to realise that they were potential power holders for
bringing about change in the way the school was managed. Previously they had complained that the
School Board, made up of landowners and power élites, was ineffective and in active. When they
became organised with a plan of action and a clear understanding of how they could mobilise their
own available assets, the old School Board members decided they did not have the energy to fight
back and hold on to their power. They realised they did not have the support of the community who
had more ideas and more resources than they were able to muster. So they withdrew making way for
a new and more representative School Board.27

51
Asset based approaches look for new alliances, new sources of power and creative ways
of recognising and utilising existing power sources. Some asset based advocates describe the
process of change in power dynamics as ‘crowding out’ the exercise of power over others with an
increasing exercise of power within, with and to act. Those who have not potentially exercised
powerorwhohavepowerinothercontextsareencouragedtorecognisethepowerthatisavailable
to them and use it. This is the basis for rights based approaches and participative programs of
social accountability through promoting citizen voice and citizen self-directed action.
This change in power dynamics that asset based approaches seek can be described
diagrammatically as follows:
PENGARUH HISTORIS PADA PENDEKATAN BERBASIS ASET
61
Disini Keseimbangan
kekuasaaan bersifat berubah
Static power belongs to an eliteor a
designated (elected) group.
Here the balance of power remains constant
Dynamic power can grow stronger in any
section of society
Here the balance of power is changing

52
The four key strategies used by asset based approaches in relation to changing power
dynamics are:
l Amplify the use of new sources of power (power within, with and to act)
l Crowd out the misuse of power over others by a few or a dominant individual
l Generate forums of engagement that are appreciative, inclusive and equitable
l Promote Dialogue – through deliberative/representative governance by discovery of new
platforms for citizen voice and accountability
l Establish multi-stakeholder platforms - where everyone or representatives of every level
within a system or organisation negotiate a new collective vision of reality
Conversational and Narrative (Storytelling)
Many modern approaches to social change are much more open-ended than they used to be.
Storytelling and free running conversations between members of the same community bring
people together to listen to and learn from each other. These approaches propose that every story
told, every conversation held contains valuable lessons and success ingredients that can become
the building blocks for future action. These open forums and small table discussions encourage
rich conversations among citizens as the beginning of a process of planning for the future.
A well known process for conducting such open discussion in a gathering is Open Space
Technology28
. Open Space Technology is a simple way to run small and large meetings around
topics for which there is a passion and a person to champion that passion.

53
Similar to both of these and again more suited to seminars and workshops is The Art of
Hosting29
, which refers to itself as a way for people to meet together and develop their own
competencies through conversations of discovery.
Arenewedinterestinactivelisteningorlearninghowtobeopentoothersthroughconversation
is being developed by the Collaborative for Development Action (CDA), which brought us the
‘Do No Harm’ framework referred to above, and it is called the Listening Project.30
The project is
directed at obtaining feedback from beneficiaries or recipients of aid or humanitarian assistance
by simply asking open-ended questions.
Organic and Locally Directed Growth
While not being directly critical of the ‘root cause of the problem’ many of the examples or
methods considered above have changed the focus of development work towards a more organic
and ecological method. With these, the emphasis is about creating an enabling environment
for growth from within as opposed to depending on outside intervention for success. Rather
than setting out a ‘critical intervention path’ and looking for a predictable project objective, this
body of thinking about development is more concerned with facilitating growth by creating
the context in which change can be self driven along multiple paths towards a more broadly
conceived or higher level goal. Most of these organic approaches see change as an evolutionary
process that is driven from mutations from within in response to external challenges and a desire
for a more appropriate life response. They draw from natural sciences which refer to change in
this way as bio-dynamic or an endogenous approach to change.

54
The Rights Based approach now a preferred strategy for many agencies, might also be seen as a
step towards this organic and internally driven approach. The rights based approach emphasises
that the initiative and mandate for development comes from within the people. Development
should be citizen-led and focused on what citizens need for their wellbeing. Citizens have the
right to experience the benefits of development. However, while asset based approaches are both
rights and value driven, they also compliment the simple affirmation that citizen have rights to
development. Citizens, also have the right to engage actively in their own development. They
have the right to the space and resources to be their own agents for change. In this regard,
asset based approaches encourage us to promote actor-led development initiatives where the
government is seen as a collaborator rather than the duty bearer or agency responsible for change.
Finally, it could be argued that many of the Development Principles proclaimed in the last
three Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) High Level Forums
on Aid Effectiveness31
are also increasingly consistent with asset based approaches. The emphasis
on using a government’s or local organisations own systems and processes and providing aid
funds for local initiatives is a recognition that our starting point should be building on local
capacities and supporting local efforts. Similarly the development principles contained in these
aid effectiveness statements emphasise that overseas development assistance (ODA) need to
be designed around obtaining a commonly agreed vision of the future while building on local
competencies to achieve this vision for the partnership agreement.

55
Summary Points from this Chapter
l In this chapter many but by no means all of the influences behind asset based approaches has
been discussed.
l Participatory approaches have been applied to development for more than 20 years. Asset
based approaches remain open to using participatory methods and endorse the purpose
of participatory approaches as attempting to put citizens in the driving seat of their own
development.
l AssetbasedapproachesalsodrawfromawholenewtrendcalledPositivePsychologywherethe
emphasis is on helping people and organisations to focus upon and work towards developing
positive images and strategies for addressing life’s challenges.
l Asset mapping has been around for many years as a recognised strategy available to citizen
organisations interested in promoting social change.
l Sustainable Livelihoods Approach was introduced in the early 1990’s as a way to overcome
vulnerability in poor and largely rural communities. It proposed using stronger assets -
where there is greater capital – as a way to addressing weaker assets or deficiencies that could
lead to poverty and dependence. SLA was one of the first approaches to deliberately identify
categories that could be used to document an inventory of assets.
l While the contribution of social capital to development has been recognised for many
years, when it is combined with citizen associations and organisations it becomes one of the
most important assets a community has at its disposal. Capacity building of organisations

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