Phi 103 week 3 quiz new 2016
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This document appears to be a quiz for a philosophy course (PHI 103) on inductive and deductive reasoning. It contains 19 multiple choice questions testing concepts like inductive vs deductive arguments, falsifiability, causal reasoning, sampling, and margins of error. Key ideas assessed include distinguishing inductive from deductive logic, evaluating the strength of arguments, and logical principles like falsifiability and causal connections.
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Recognizing Fallacies Constructing sound arguments requires .docx
Recognizing Fallacies
Constructing sound arguments requires valid logic and reasoning. If your premises (reasoning) are incorrect they are considered to be “fallacies”. There are several different types of fallacies that exist. Once you recognize the fallacies you are more likely to avoid them in your reasoning.
(Hint: refer to textbook Chapter 11 for more information on fallacies.)
1.
Match
each fallacy with its definition in the chart below.
A. Begging the question
G. Appeal to fear
H. Questionable cause
B. Hasty generalization
C. False dilemma
I. Two wrongs make a right
D Slippery slope J. Misidentification of the cause
E. Appeal to authority
F. Bandwagon
___
.
Also known as circular reasoning because the reasoning assumes the conclusion is true.
___
.
Sometimes occurs due to “peer pressure” or groupthink phenomenon when you may be influenced to conform to the opinion of the group.
___
.
A causal situation where we are unsure of the actual root cause of the issue. It’s possible to ignore a possible cause or to incorrectly assume a common cause.
___
.
This argument states that the action (or conclusion) is a justified response to another wrong action (or conclusion).
___
.
This occurs when there is no real evidence for the argument. Superstitions are a good example of this.
___
.
The “either/or” fallacy – the argument presents only two extreme alternatives and does not allow for alternative options.
___
.
Indicates that one negative action will lead to another, and then another worse one, and so on and so forth all leading to a terrible end result
___
.
Basing a belief on a source or person who is not qualified to give an expert opinion on the subject.
___
.
The argument supports its conclusion not by evidence, but by demands or threats of punishment or misfortune.
___
.
A general conclusion is reached based on a very small sample, so the reasons provide weak support for the conclusion.
Deductive Argument
In a deductive argument, the premises (reasoning) provide such strong support for the conclusion that, if the premises are true, then it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. Deductive arguments are VALID or INVALID.
EXAMPLE:
Valid
– All children are young.
Johnny is a child.
Therefore, Johnny is young.
Invalid – All children are young.
Johnny is a child.
Therefore, all children are Johnny.
Complete each deductive argument below with a valid conclusion.
2.
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: I am human.
Conclusion: Therefore, I am _______________
3.
Premise 1: All birds have feathers.
Premise 2: Cardinals are birds.
Conclusion: Therefore, cardinals have _______________
4.
Premise 1: There is a party at work today.
Premise 2: Jimmy is sick and not at work today.
Con.
Question 1 Evaluate a mode of study that you do well and one.docx
Question 1
Evaluate a mode of study that you do well and one that you could improve on. Please explain
how you plan on improving that which you find to be weak in your own study habits.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length. You are required to use at least the attached
textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be
referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Question 2
Describe the two ways that students normally study in a typical college course.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length. You are required to use at least the attached
textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be
referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Question 3
Describe the typical design of a college course and the outcomes that result for students in these
courses. In addition, describe a situation in which you found yourself falling into this style of
learning.
Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least the
attached textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook,
must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Display competence in the art of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
2. Determine the purpose of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
3. Compare and contrast the logic of college as it is and as it should be.
4. Assess the logic of the four modalities of communication.
5. Appraise the criteria for evaluating an author's reasoning by using the elements of thought.
6. Identify how one should assess one's progress in learning.
7. Describe the strategies for self-assessment.
8. Apply the generic model to various applied majors
Unit Lesson
This lecture continues with the discussion of rhetorical devices.
Downplayers
A downplayer is a word that is inserted in a sentence that undermines something that is being discussed. Let’s take a look at two
sentences that mean the same thing in their deepest structure, but that have radically different connotations due to one word.
“Brent got a B on his exam.”
“Brent only got a B on his exam.”
By inserting the word “only,” the person saying sentence two has downplayed Brent’s achievement. Most people would be
happy, or at least satisfied, with a grade of B on an exam. However, the second sentence seems to diminish Brent’s
accomplishment by indicating that a grade of B on the exam does not meet his or her expectations of Brent. You can think of
downplayers as using scare quotes “” in verbal language. Let’s look at some more examples.
“Yeah, Ellen just got her ‘degree’,”
In this case, the person seems to indicate ...
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Introduction to Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Additional information for Chapter 9 from Developing Critical Reading Skills
Week 3 - Instructor GuidanceWeek 3 Inductive ReasoningThis we.docx
Week 3 - Instructor Guidance
Week 3: Inductive Reasoning
This week’s guidance will cover the following topics:
1. The Nature of Inductive Reasoning
2. Appeals to Authority
3. Inductive Generalizations
4. Statistical Syllogisms
5. Arguments from Analogy
6. Inferences to the Best Explanation
7. Causal Reasoning
8. Things to Do This Week
The Nature of Inductive Reasoning
Will the sun rise tomorrow morning? Of course it will, but how do you know? The reasoning seems to go as follows:
Premise 1: The sun has risen every morning throughout known history
Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow
Deductively, this argument is invalid, for it is logically possible that the earth could stop spinning tonight. Does that mean that the argument is no good? Of course not. In fact, its premise makes the conclusion is virtually certain. This is an example of a very good argument that is not intended to be deductively valid. That is because it is actually an inductive argument.
An argument is inductive if it does not attempt to be valid, but intends to give strong evidence for the truth of its conclusion.
Many might see inductive reasoning as inferior to deductive reasoning, but that is not generally the case. In fact, inductive arguments often provide much better arguments for the truths of their conclusions than deductive ones. The deductively valid version of our argument about the sun, for example, goes:
Premise 1: The sun will always rise in the morning
Conclusion: Therefore the sun will rise tomorrow morning
This second argument, while valid, actually gives less evidence for the conclusion because its second premise is false (the sun will eventually expand to engulf the earth and then collapse). Therefore the deductive argument is unsound and so offers little evidence for the conclusion, whereas the original inductive argument made the conclusion virtually certain. In other words, inductive reasoning in general can be even better than deductive reasoning in many cases; the trick is to determine which inductive arguments are good and which ones are not so good.Strength versus Weakness
Just as it is the goal of deductive reasoning to be valid, it is the goal of a inductive reasoning to be
strong
. An inductive argument is strong in case its premises, if true, would make the conclusion very likely to be true as well. The above argument about the sun rising is very strong. Most inductive arguments are less strong, all the way along a spectrum between strength and weakness. Here are three with varying degrees of inductive strength:
Weak:
Premise 1: John is tall and in college.
Conclusion: Therefore, he probably plays on the basketball team.
Moderate:
Premise 1: The Lions are a 14 point favorite.
Conclusion: So they will probably win.
Strong:
Premise 1: All of the TV meteorologists report a 99% chance of rain tomorrow.
Conclusion: So it will probably rain tomorrow.
Note that the degree of strength of an inductive argument is independent of whether the.
ESEC 419 Literally LiterateExpository Wr.docx
ESEC 419 Literally Literate
Expository Writing Structure
Academic writing requires presenting your sources and your ideas effectively. The first element involves “entering a conversation about ideas” between you – the writer- and your sources to reflect your critical thinking. This template allows you, the writer, to organize your ideas in relationship to your thesis, supporting evidence, opposing evidence and the conclusion of the argument.
Step 1: INTRODUCE – In a paragraph structure, your first sentence is your Topic Sentence and its purpose is to introduce to your reader the content of the sentences that comprise the paragraph. It should be specific enough to separate it from the rest of the essay, but general enough that all elements in the paragraph can relate back to this one sentence.
Pick a sentence option from A, B and C and complete.
A) Introducing “Standard Views”
1. Americans today tend to believe that ____________.
2. Common sense seems to dictate that _____________.
3. It is often said that ____________.
4. One would think that _____________.
5. Many people assumed that ______________.
B) Making What “They Say” Something you say
1. Everyone has always believed that ____________.
2. As children, everyone probably used to think that _____________.
3. Although everyone would admit that he/she should know better by now, one cannot help thinking that ___________.
4. While one likely believes __________, one should also believe ___________.
C) Capturing Authorial Action
(X=the author’s name or the name of the person being quoted)
1. X acknowledges that _________.
2. X agrees that __________.
3. X argues that ___________.
4. X believes that ___________.
5. X claims that ___________.
6. X complains that ___________.
7. X concedes that __________.
8. X demonstrates that __________.
9. X emphasizes that ___________.
10. X insists that __________.
11. X observes that __________.
12. X questions whether ___________.
13. X refutes the claim that __________.
14. X reminds us that ___________.
15. X reports that __________.
16. X suggests that __________.
17. X urges us to __________.
Step 2: REPRODUCE– In order to back up your assertions, to make your point more valid, you will need to cite evidence or concrete detail from the works you are reading, statistics, stories and anecdotes, etc.
Pick a sentence option from D and complete.
D) Introducing Quotations
1. X states, “__________.”
2. According to X, “___________.”
3. X himself writes, “___________.”
4. In her book,_________, X maintains that “___________”
5. In X’s view, “_____________.”
6. X agrees when she writes, “____________.”
7. X disagrees when he writes, “____________.”
8. X complicates the matters further when he writes, “_____________.”
Step 3: EXPLAIN– Now that you have cited evidence, you need to explain your opinion about why the evidence is important. Using the sentences below, write TWO sentences that comment on the significance of the concrete .
Week 3 - Instructor GuidanceWelcome to week three! This week w.docx
Week 3 - Instructor Guidance
Welcome to week three! This week we will jump ahead to the inductive method of logical reasoning. If you will remember, inductive movements go from general to particular, and the logic of induction operates in the realm of probability. In inductive reasoning you are not certain about the answer with the given information, but you can make an educated guess. You will come across inductive arguments all the time in everyday life. Just think about buying a car. Most of us judge whether or not to buy a certain kind of car based upon past experiences that we have had or our friends have had. If the past two cars that I bought were a Ford, and they fell into pieces after a couple of years, then odds are I will not buy a Ford again when I am perusing the car lot. There are several different kinds of inductive argument.
One major type of inductive argument (like the one I just mentioned) is the argument from analogy or analogical inductive argument. An analogy is where you compare the property of one thing to the property of another. You can spot these when they are in written form because “like” English principles of speech, an analogy compares two things together using “like” or “as”. For example, “Men are like parking spots. All the good ones are taken, and the rest are handicapped.” This was a funny analogy that my sister used to say when she was single. What is the “target” of the analogy and what is the “property” in question being related. It is obvious in this example that men are the targets of the analogy (and the butt of my sister’s joke). The properties in question are availability and desirability because since in the one instance the good guys are already taken by other women, and in the second instance the remaining men are not of good quality. You will probably be able to spot these analogous thought processes in your everyday thinking if you stop and think about it. Inductive arguments are not valid (like deductive arguments) they are strong or weak depending on the logic. For analogical arguments, it is the closeness of the properties being compared between the two things that matters. If you were comparing someone who hurt your feelings to Adolf Hitler, then the analogy would be pretty weak.
Another form of inductive reasoning is “inductive generalization”. This is where you take a sample or piece from a class of things and “generalize” about the whole group or class. If you are shopping for an apple at the grocery store and the first five apples you pull out are completely rotten, then you might generalize that the whole bin is spoiled. We would be more inclined to affirm that the whole bin is spoiled if there were only ten apples than if there were 100 apples. This is because the larger the sample size of the generalization the stronger the induction. This is most true when you consider scientific studies or social science surveys. You want the cancer study to have used a sample group of larger than .
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Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptx
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
1.4 modern child centered education - mahatma gandhi-2.pptx
Child centred education is an educational approach that priorities the interest, needs and abilities of the child in the learning process.
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH GLOBAL SUCCESS LỚP 3 - CẢ NĂM (CÓ FILE NGHE VÀ ĐÁP Á...
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Recognizing Fallacies Constructing sound arguments requires .docx
Recognizing Fallacies
Constructing sound arguments requires valid logic and reasoning. If your premises (reasoning) are incorrect they are considered to be “fallacies”. There are several different types of fallacies that exist. Once you recognize the fallacies you are more likely to avoid them in your reasoning.
(Hint: refer to textbook Chapter 11 for more information on fallacies.)
1.
Match
each fallacy with its definition in the chart below.
A. Begging the question
G. Appeal to fear
H. Questionable cause
B. Hasty generalization
C. False dilemma
I. Two wrongs make a right
D Slippery slope J. Misidentification of the cause
E. Appeal to authority
F. Bandwagon
___
.
Also known as circular reasoning because the reasoning assumes the conclusion is true.
___
.
Sometimes occurs due to “peer pressure” or groupthink phenomenon when you may be influenced to conform to the opinion of the group.
___
.
A causal situation where we are unsure of the actual root cause of the issue. It’s possible to ignore a possible cause or to incorrectly assume a common cause.
___
.
This argument states that the action (or conclusion) is a justified response to another wrong action (or conclusion).
___
.
This occurs when there is no real evidence for the argument. Superstitions are a good example of this.
___
.
The “either/or” fallacy – the argument presents only two extreme alternatives and does not allow for alternative options.
___
.
Indicates that one negative action will lead to another, and then another worse one, and so on and so forth all leading to a terrible end result
___
.
Basing a belief on a source or person who is not qualified to give an expert opinion on the subject.
___
.
The argument supports its conclusion not by evidence, but by demands or threats of punishment or misfortune.
___
.
A general conclusion is reached based on a very small sample, so the reasons provide weak support for the conclusion.
Deductive Argument
In a deductive argument, the premises (reasoning) provide such strong support for the conclusion that, if the premises are true, then it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. Deductive arguments are VALID or INVALID.
EXAMPLE:
Valid
– All children are young.
Johnny is a child.
Therefore, Johnny is young.
Invalid – All children are young.
Johnny is a child.
Therefore, all children are Johnny.
Complete each deductive argument below with a valid conclusion.
2.
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: I am human.
Conclusion: Therefore, I am _______________
3.
Premise 1: All birds have feathers.
Premise 2: Cardinals are birds.
Conclusion: Therefore, cardinals have _______________
4.
Premise 1: There is a party at work today.
Premise 2: Jimmy is sick and not at work today.
Con.
Question 1 Evaluate a mode of study that you do well and one.docx
Question 1
Evaluate a mode of study that you do well and one that you could improve on. Please explain
how you plan on improving that which you find to be weak in your own study habits.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length. You are required to use at least the attached
textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be
referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Question 2
Describe the two ways that students normally study in a typical college course.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length. You are required to use at least the attached
textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be
referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Question 3
Describe the typical design of a college course and the outcomes that result for students in these
courses. In addition, describe a situation in which you found yourself falling into this style of
learning.
Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least the
attached textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook,
must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Display competence in the art of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
2. Determine the purpose of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
3. Compare and contrast the logic of college as it is and as it should be.
4. Assess the logic of the four modalities of communication.
5. Appraise the criteria for evaluating an author's reasoning by using the elements of thought.
6. Identify how one should assess one's progress in learning.
7. Describe the strategies for self-assessment.
8. Apply the generic model to various applied majors
Unit Lesson
This lecture continues with the discussion of rhetorical devices.
Downplayers
A downplayer is a word that is inserted in a sentence that undermines something that is being discussed. Let’s take a look at two
sentences that mean the same thing in their deepest structure, but that have radically different connotations due to one word.
“Brent got a B on his exam.”
“Brent only got a B on his exam.”
By inserting the word “only,” the person saying sentence two has downplayed Brent’s achievement. Most people would be
happy, or at least satisfied, with a grade of B on an exam. However, the second sentence seems to diminish Brent’s
accomplishment by indicating that a grade of B on the exam does not meet his or her expectations of Brent. You can think of
downplayers as using scare quotes “” in verbal language. Let’s look at some more examples.
“Yeah, Ellen just got her ‘degree’,”
In this case, the person seems to indicate ...
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An Argument For Community Change
Argumentive Outline Essay
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Introduction to Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Additional information for Chapter 9 from Developing Critical Reading Skills
Week 3 - Instructor GuidanceWeek 3 Inductive ReasoningThis we.docx
Week 3 - Instructor Guidance
Week 3: Inductive Reasoning
This week’s guidance will cover the following topics:
1. The Nature of Inductive Reasoning
2. Appeals to Authority
3. Inductive Generalizations
4. Statistical Syllogisms
5. Arguments from Analogy
6. Inferences to the Best Explanation
7. Causal Reasoning
8. Things to Do This Week
The Nature of Inductive Reasoning
Will the sun rise tomorrow morning? Of course it will, but how do you know? The reasoning seems to go as follows:
Premise 1: The sun has risen every morning throughout known history
Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow
Deductively, this argument is invalid, for it is logically possible that the earth could stop spinning tonight. Does that mean that the argument is no good? Of course not. In fact, its premise makes the conclusion is virtually certain. This is an example of a very good argument that is not intended to be deductively valid. That is because it is actually an inductive argument.
An argument is inductive if it does not attempt to be valid, but intends to give strong evidence for the truth of its conclusion.
Many might see inductive reasoning as inferior to deductive reasoning, but that is not generally the case. In fact, inductive arguments often provide much better arguments for the truths of their conclusions than deductive ones. The deductively valid version of our argument about the sun, for example, goes:
Premise 1: The sun will always rise in the morning
Conclusion: Therefore the sun will rise tomorrow morning
This second argument, while valid, actually gives less evidence for the conclusion because its second premise is false (the sun will eventually expand to engulf the earth and then collapse). Therefore the deductive argument is unsound and so offers little evidence for the conclusion, whereas the original inductive argument made the conclusion virtually certain. In other words, inductive reasoning in general can be even better than deductive reasoning in many cases; the trick is to determine which inductive arguments are good and which ones are not so good.Strength versus Weakness
Just as it is the goal of deductive reasoning to be valid, it is the goal of a inductive reasoning to be
strong
. An inductive argument is strong in case its premises, if true, would make the conclusion very likely to be true as well. The above argument about the sun rising is very strong. Most inductive arguments are less strong, all the way along a spectrum between strength and weakness. Here are three with varying degrees of inductive strength:
Weak:
Premise 1: John is tall and in college.
Conclusion: Therefore, he probably plays on the basketball team.
Moderate:
Premise 1: The Lions are a 14 point favorite.
Conclusion: So they will probably win.
Strong:
Premise 1: All of the TV meteorologists report a 99% chance of rain tomorrow.
Conclusion: So it will probably rain tomorrow.
Note that the degree of strength of an inductive argument is independent of whether the.
ESEC 419 Literally LiterateExpository Wr.docx
ESEC 419 Literally Literate
Expository Writing Structure
Academic writing requires presenting your sources and your ideas effectively. The first element involves “entering a conversation about ideas” between you – the writer- and your sources to reflect your critical thinking. This template allows you, the writer, to organize your ideas in relationship to your thesis, supporting evidence, opposing evidence and the conclusion of the argument.
Step 1: INTRODUCE – In a paragraph structure, your first sentence is your Topic Sentence and its purpose is to introduce to your reader the content of the sentences that comprise the paragraph. It should be specific enough to separate it from the rest of the essay, but general enough that all elements in the paragraph can relate back to this one sentence.
Pick a sentence option from A, B and C and complete.
A) Introducing “Standard Views”
1. Americans today tend to believe that ____________.
2. Common sense seems to dictate that _____________.
3. It is often said that ____________.
4. One would think that _____________.
5. Many people assumed that ______________.
B) Making What “They Say” Something you say
1. Everyone has always believed that ____________.
2. As children, everyone probably used to think that _____________.
3. Although everyone would admit that he/she should know better by now, one cannot help thinking that ___________.
4. While one likely believes __________, one should also believe ___________.
C) Capturing Authorial Action
(X=the author’s name or the name of the person being quoted)
1. X acknowledges that _________.
2. X agrees that __________.
3. X argues that ___________.
4. X believes that ___________.
5. X claims that ___________.
6. X complains that ___________.
7. X concedes that __________.
8. X demonstrates that __________.
9. X emphasizes that ___________.
10. X insists that __________.
11. X observes that __________.
12. X questions whether ___________.
13. X refutes the claim that __________.
14. X reminds us that ___________.
15. X reports that __________.
16. X suggests that __________.
17. X urges us to __________.
Step 2: REPRODUCE– In order to back up your assertions, to make your point more valid, you will need to cite evidence or concrete detail from the works you are reading, statistics, stories and anecdotes, etc.
Pick a sentence option from D and complete.
D) Introducing Quotations
1. X states, “__________.”
2. According to X, “___________.”
3. X himself writes, “___________.”
4. In her book,_________, X maintains that “___________”
5. In X’s view, “_____________.”
6. X agrees when she writes, “____________.”
7. X disagrees when he writes, “____________.”
8. X complicates the matters further when he writes, “_____________.”
Step 3: EXPLAIN– Now that you have cited evidence, you need to explain your opinion about why the evidence is important. Using the sentences below, write TWO sentences that comment on the significance of the concrete .
Week 3 - Instructor GuidanceWelcome to week three! This week w.docx
Week 3 - Instructor Guidance
Welcome to week three! This week we will jump ahead to the inductive method of logical reasoning. If you will remember, inductive movements go from general to particular, and the logic of induction operates in the realm of probability. In inductive reasoning you are not certain about the answer with the given information, but you can make an educated guess. You will come across inductive arguments all the time in everyday life. Just think about buying a car. Most of us judge whether or not to buy a certain kind of car based upon past experiences that we have had or our friends have had. If the past two cars that I bought were a Ford, and they fell into pieces after a couple of years, then odds are I will not buy a Ford again when I am perusing the car lot. There are several different kinds of inductive argument.
One major type of inductive argument (like the one I just mentioned) is the argument from analogy or analogical inductive argument. An analogy is where you compare the property of one thing to the property of another. You can spot these when they are in written form because “like” English principles of speech, an analogy compares two things together using “like” or “as”. For example, “Men are like parking spots. All the good ones are taken, and the rest are handicapped.” This was a funny analogy that my sister used to say when she was single. What is the “target” of the analogy and what is the “property” in question being related. It is obvious in this example that men are the targets of the analogy (and the butt of my sister’s joke). The properties in question are availability and desirability because since in the one instance the good guys are already taken by other women, and in the second instance the remaining men are not of good quality. You will probably be able to spot these analogous thought processes in your everyday thinking if you stop and think about it. Inductive arguments are not valid (like deductive arguments) they are strong or weak depending on the logic. For analogical arguments, it is the closeness of the properties being compared between the two things that matters. If you were comparing someone who hurt your feelings to Adolf Hitler, then the analogy would be pretty weak.
Another form of inductive reasoning is “inductive generalization”. This is where you take a sample or piece from a class of things and “generalize” about the whole group or class. If you are shopping for an apple at the grocery store and the first five apples you pull out are completely rotten, then you might generalize that the whole bin is spoiled. We would be more inclined to affirm that the whole bin is spoiled if there were only ten apples than if there were 100 apples. This is because the larger the sample size of the generalization the stronger the induction. This is most true when you consider scientific studies or social science surveys. You want the cancer study to have used a sample group of larger than .
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