1. THE 16th CENTURY: CHARLES I AND PHILIP II

2. HOUSE OF
HABSBURG
OR AUSTRIA
16TH CENTURY
- CHARLES I (1517-1556)
- PHILIP II (1556-1598)
17th CENTURY
- PHILIP III (1598-1621)
- PHILIP IV (1621-1665)
- CHARLES II (1665-1700)

3. CHARLES I (1500-1558)
- Joanna of Castile and Aragón (Joanna the Mad)
and Philip of Burgundy (Philip the Handsome)’s
first born son.
- Born and raised in Ghent (Low Countries) in 1500.
- When his parents went to Castile to receive
Isabella I’s heritage, he stayed in the Low
Countries under the guardianship of his aunt
Margaret of Austria and his grandfather Emperor
Maximilian of Austria.
Charles with his paternal family: the adults are
Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg, Philip the
Handsome and Mary of Burgundy. The children
are his brother Ferdinand and his stepbrother
Louis II of Hungary. The incriptions identified
them as members of Jesus Christ’s family.
It was painted by Berhardt Strigel in 1515.

4. Charles I´s family tree
Charles I inherited the big patrimony of the
Catholic Monarch as a consequence of a series
of dramatic circumstances: the deaths of those
destined to be the heirs, like his uncle prince
John of Castile and Aragón, his infant cousin
Miguel of Portugal, his father Philip I (Philip the
Handsome) and the mental instability of his
mother, Joanna the Mad.
John of Castile
and Aragón
died in 1497
Philip the Handsome (died in
1506) and Joanna the Mad

5. As his mother Joanna, the legitimate heiress of the Catholic Monarchs, was unable to rule,
due to her mental problems, several regents ruled on her behalf during Charles’ minority:
Philip I the Handsome, until his death in 1506, Ferdinand II, until his death in 1516 and
finally Cardinal Cisneros, until his death in December 1516.
Philip I , consort king
of Castile between
1504 and 1506
Ferdinand II of Aragón
and regent of Castile
between 1506 and 1516
Cardinal Cisneros,
regent between
1516 and 1517

6. When Ferdinand II died in 1516, Charles
proclaimed himself king of Castile and
Aragón in Brussels, ignoring her
mother’s rights to the throne.
Charles arrived in the Peninsula in
September 1517, he assumed the
control of an immense empire. As his
mother Joanna was alive, but unable to
rule, the Cortes of the different
kingdoms of the Monarchy accepted
him as king as co-ruler with his mother
and swore allegiance to him, but
imposing some conditions he didn’t
fulfill completely.
BLUE: CROWN OF CASTILE (territories inherited from Isabella of
Castile, including the Canary Islands antd the Indies)
ORANGE: CROWN OF ARAGÓN (territories inherited from
Ferdinand II of Aragón)
GREEN: HOUSE OF AUSTRIA TERRITORIES ( inherited from
Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg)
PURPLE: HOUSE OF BURGUNDY TERRITORIES (inherited from Mary
of Burgundy)

7. Charles I hardly spoke Castilian. He brought
many Flemish noblemen with him and
gave them important posts in the
administration, fact that caused discomfort
among the natives of his reigns.
When Emperor Maximilian died in 1519,
Charles called the Cortes of his different
kingdoms and asked them for money to be
elected Emperor. In his competition with
King Francis I of France, he needed big
amounts of money to bribe the electors.
Finally, he was elected emperor in June
1519 and left the Peninsula in May 1520,
leaving Cardinal Hadrian of Utrecht as
regent.
William de Croy, Charles I’s
counselor
Hadrian of Utrecht, regent
during Charles I’s absence
William of Croy, appointed
archbishop of Toledo

8. Emperor Charles V in 1520
Charles V’s emblem
The bicephalous eagle and the crown are symbols of the Holy Roman Empire
The pillars of Hercules with Charles V’s motto Plus ultra
The Golden Fleece was a piece of decoration from the House of Burgundy, received for his marriage
with Isabella of Portugal, his cousin.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor

9. INTERNAL PROBLEMS: REVOLTS IN CASTILE AND ARAGON
Charles I’s way of treating his
subjects and several latent
conflicts led to the outbreak
of two important revolts:
- revolt of the Comunidades
(Communities) in Castile
- revolt of the Germanías
(Brotherhoods) in Aragón

10. REVOLT OF THE GERMANIAS IN ARAGON (1519-1521)
Agermanats with Hadrian of Utrecht
- It developed in Valencia and Mallorca
-Causes:
- Discontent because Charles I didn’t go to the
Cortes to swear their fueros
-Power vacuum as a consequence of the
Barbary pirates attacks and a bubonic plague
epidemic
- The agermanats, members of artisan guilds,
revolted and established a government (Council
of the Thirteen) in the city of Valencia
- Demands:
-More participation in the municipal
government
- Peasants wanted an improvement in the
renting conditions of land and protection
against the abuses of the nobles.
- The leaders of the revolt were Vicent Peris
and Joan Llorenç

11. The protests also had a xenophobic component
against the Muslims who lived in nobles lordships
and in the city of Valencia. Many of them were
killed. The Germanías movement extended to
some places in Murcia and Mallorca and lasted for
18 months. But the regent Hadrian of Utrecht
looked for the alliance with the high nobility and
crushed the revolt. The same happened in
Mallorca. Repression was hard.
Many Muslims were forced to baptism
The Peace of the Germanias, by Marcelino Unceta, 19th century

12. REVOLT OF THE COMUNEROS IN CASTILE (1520-1521)
-It started in Castile in 1520, in trouble
since Isabella I’s death.
-The Cortes had asked the king for more
attention to the problems of the Crown,
but the monarch only called them to ask
for money. When he left to go to Germany,
malaise increased.
-Many Castilian cities (Comunidades)
revolted against the king, formed a
government, the Santa Junta de las
Comunidades (Holy Assembly of the
Communities), visited Queen Joanna,
confined in Tordesillas, and offered her the
crown of Castile. She received them, but
didn’t accept their claims.
The comuneros visiting Queen Joanna

13. -The protesters were mainly members of the low
nobility (hidalgos) and the middle bourgeoisie
(merchants, craftsmen, civil servants)
- Main leaders were Juan Bravo, Juan López de
Padilla and Francisco Maldonado.
- The reasons for their protest were diverse:
- they didn’t want foreigners in the main posts
of the administration and wanted them to be
held by Castilians
- they asked for periodic meetings of the Cortes
and not only when the king called them and
they wanted the Cortes to have more decision
power, like the Cortes of Aragón
- they claimed for more participation in politics
and the respect of the laws of the kingdom
- they demanded protection for the textile
industry of Castile, damaged for the exports of
wool
The comuneros going out from Valladolid, Joan Planella
Juan de Padilla, one of the
leaders of the comuneros.

14. The revolt quickly extended and peasants
also revolted against their lords. When this
happened, the king found the support of the
big wool exporters and the big noble
landowners. They gave military support to
the royal army, gathered by Hadrian of
Utrecht, and in several weeks the comuneros
(communards) were crushed. They were
definitely defeated at the Battle of Villalar
(23rd April 1521). Their leaders were
executed.
Villlalar, Manuel Picolo y López (1887)
The comuneros of Castile, Antonio Gisbert, 1860

15. After these revolts, no one else questioned Charles I’s power in the Peninsula and the
privileged had to accept the imperial orientation that the monarch gave to his reign.
- Charles I’s empire was made up
of many different territories,
with their own laws and
institutions. The monarch was
the only common institution and
in theory the king had to respect
the specific laws of every part of
his empire.
- The court was itinerant and the
king went to the territories that
had problems.

16. - Charles I spent most of his time in Europe,
fighting in several wars. In his absence,
several regents acted on his behalf and every
territory of the empire had a viceroy or a
governor, who ruled in the king´s name.
Charles I only lived four years in the
Peninsula: three years in Castile and one year
in Aragón
- Most of the money to finance wars came
from taxes, collected especially in Castile
and the Low Countries, the richest parts of
the Empire. But this was not enough and the
Emperor had to ask for special subsidies to
the Cortes or loans to bankers and use the
precious metals of America as a guarantee
of payment.
Charles I and her cousin and wife Isabella of
Portugal, who acted as regent several times. They
were married for 13 years and had 6 children (only
3 survived)
Anton Fugger, one of
the most important
bankers who gave
credit to Charles V

17. During Charles I’s rule the administrative structure
created by the Catholic Monarchs was improved:
∙ More consulting councils were created:
Council of State (1521), Council of the
Treasury (1523), Council of the Indies (1524),
Council of Italy (1558), etc. The Council of
State was in charge of the design of the
imperial policy, but it wasn’t a real
government, because the final decisions
depended on the king.
∙ Bureaucracy increased and professionalized
∙ The permanent army was improved with the
creation of the tercios, when Charles I divided
the troops stationed in Italy into three parts
(tercios): Sicily, Naples and Milan. These were
the Old Tercios (tercios viejos). Later other
armies were created. Every army had 3,000
soldiers, divided into 12 companies, and with
two types of soldiers: pikemen and
arquebusiers
COUNCILS
THEMATIC TERRITORIAL
STATE
WAR
TREASURY
CRUSADE
MILITARY
ORDERS
INQUISITION
CASTILE
ARAGON
INDIES
ITALY
PORTUGAL
FLANDERS
(1588)
Soldiers of the tercios

18. OBJECTIVES
- FIGHT FOR HEGEMONY AGAINST FRANCE
- DEFENSE OF CATHOLIC ORTHODOXY IN THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
- CONFRONTMENT AGAINST THE MUSLIMS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN
AND EASTERN EUROPE
Charles I’s foreign policy put the
interests of the Holy Roman Empire
ahead of the ones of Castile
and Aragón, as can be seen in the
confrontation against France.
FOREIGN POLICY

19. WARS AGAINST FRANCE
King Francis I
of France
Francis I of France was Charles I’s main enemy in the first part of his reign.
The Habsburgs and the Valois were confronted for the hegemony in Italy
(mainly Milan), Flanders and Burgundy.
Battle of Pavia, 1525
There were three periods of war and five direct confrontments:
∙ 1521-1529: Charles I’s troops defeated
the French in the Battle of Pavia
(1525). Francis I was captured and
imprisoned in Madrid. After the
signature of the Treaty of Madrid
(1526), he was set free and France
renounced to the territories in Italy
and Flanders and let his children as
guarantee in Madrid. When Francis I
came back to France, the Parliament
obliged him to revoke the treaty and a
new war started.

20. The pro-French attitude of Pope Clement VII
led to the Sack of Rome by Charles I’s troops in
1527. A new peace treaty was signed in 1529,
the Peace of Cambrai (Peace of the Ladies,
signed by Margaret of Austria, Charles I’s aunt,
and Louise of Savoy, Francis I’s mother):
Charles I renounced to his rights to Burgundy
and Francis I renounced to Italy and Flanders
and Francis I’s sons were set free in exchange
for a reward of 2 million ducats.
∙ 1535-1538: When Duke Francesco Sforza of
Milan died without successors in 1535, Charles
I annexed Milan. This led to the third war
against France in 1536, but the exhaustion of
both armies and their mutual financial
problems drove to the signature of the Truce
of Nice in 1538: both monarchs agreed to stop
fighting for 10 years.
Sack of Rome (1527). The tercios mutinied
and destroyed the city of Rome
Peace of Cambrai, Francisco Jover (1871)

21. ∙ 1542- 1559: Francis I broke the truce in
1542 and war started again in Italy. In 1544
they signed the Peace of Crépy, which
meant the ratification of former
agreements and the definitive end of
Charles I’s intervention in Italy. In 1551 the
new French monarch Henry II declared
war against Charles I (Italian War, 1551-
1559) and occupied the episcopal cities of
Metz, Toul and Verdun, which were
included in France. The war extended until
1559. After the French defeat at Saint
Quentin in 1557 and Gravelines in 1558,
the definitive peace arrived with the
signature of the Peace of Cateau-
Cambrésis between Philip II and Henry II in
1559.
Henry II of France
Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, symbolic
reconciliation between France and the
Hispanic Monarchy

22. WARS AGAINST THE MUSLIMS
Charles I announcing Pope Paul III
the conquest of Tunis, tapestry
made in 1535
Suleiman the
Magnificent, sultan of
the Ottoman Empire
Charles I also launched several
attacks to stop the Ottoman Turks
and the Barbary pirates of the North
of Africa, who threatened the
Mediterranean possessions :
∙ He helped his brother Ferdinand
stop the Ottoman Turks,
commanded by Suleiman the
Magnificent, in Vienna (1532)
and stopped their advance in
Eastern Europe.
∙ In the Mediterranean Sea he
conquered Tunis and La Goulette
in 1535, but he failed in his
attempt to conquer Algiers in
1541.
Barbarossa, Ottoman
admiral defeated at La
Goulette
Ottoman
depiction
of the siege
of Vienna,
from 1529
to 1532

23. WARS AGAINST THE PROTESTANTS IN THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
Martin Luther, author of the
95 Wittemberg Theses, beginner
of the Protestant Reformation
Diet of Worms, 1521
Excommunication of the Lutherans
The Reformation started in 1517 by Martin
Luther, inside the Holy Roman Empire.
Several German princes used religion to
confront the Emperor´s authority.
- At first Charles I tried to make an agreement
with the Lutherans and called the Diet of
Worms in 1521, where Martin Luther was
asked to recant. But as he refused to do it, he
was declared an outlaw and found the
protection of some German princes, like
Frederic of Saxony.
Frederic III, Elector
of Saxony

24. There were some attempts of conciliation, like the
Diet of Spires of 1526, where freedom of religion,
according to the principle of Cuius regis, eius
religio, was considered. But in the following Diet
of Spires in 1529 Lutheranism was condemned
and the Lutherans protested against this decision.
This is the origin of the term “Protestants”.
As conciliation wasn’t possible, Charles I decided
to use force to impose Catholic orthodoxy in the
Empire and fought against the Schmalkaldic
League, an alliance of Protestant German princes,
formed in 1531. The Schmalkaldic League found
France’s support, mixing religion and political
conflicts.
When Charles I signed the Truce of Nice with
France in 1542, he decided to eliminate the
Protestant resistance in the Empire, although on
the other side, he promoted the celebration of a
council to update Catholicism. The Council of
Trent opened in 1545, but didn’t end until 1563.
Diet of Spires, 1529, origin of the term “Protestants”
Members of the Schmalkaldic League. The expulsion
of Catholic bishops from their States and the land
confiscations of the properties of the Church they
practiced decided Charles V to declare war on them

25. AUGSBURG PEACE, 1555
In 1546 Charles I declared war against the
Schmalkaldic League, defeating the
German princes in the Battle of Mühlberg
in 1547. But as Protestantism had firmly
settled down in many States of the Empire,
imposing Catholicism was utopic and
several concessions were made to the
Lutherans in the Augsburg Interim in 1548
(Protestant clergymen could get married,
for example). Finally, the Peace of
Augsburg, signed in 1555, allowed the
German princes to choose the religion they
wanted (Catholicism or Lutheranism). This
peace consecrated religious division in the
Holy Roman Empire.
Charles V in the Battle of Mülhberg, painting by Titian

26. - GREEN: Protestant States
- DARK GREEN: Schmalkaldic League members
States
- LIGHT BROWN: territories of the House of
Austria (Habsburg)
- YELLOW AND LIGHT BROWN: Catholic
States
Charles V enthroned over his defeated enemies: from left to
right, Suleiman, Pope Clement VII, Francis I, the Duke of
Cleves, the Duke of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse.

27. SUCCESSION
In 1556, after so many wars, tired and ill,
Charles I decided to abdicate and divide his
heritage:
- The territories of the House of Austria and
the title of Emperor were assigned to his
brother Ferdinand.
-The rest of his heritage (including the Low
Countries) was for his first son Philip, who
ruled with the name of Philip II.
Charles I’s abdication in Brussels, 1556
Ferdinand, Charles´s
brother, inherited the
Holy Roman Empire.
Philip II inherited the
rest of the Empire

28. In 1557 the expenses created by so many wars
led to the first default in the Hispanic
Monarchy. The Treasury couldn’t pay the
amount of debts created after long years of
war. Philip II had to restructure the debt,
reducing the interests paid by the crown and
converting short term debt titles (juros) into
long term debt titles. This default also meant
the decline of the Fuggers, a family of German
bankers, who had been an important support
for Charles I’s foreign policy
After his abdication, Charles I retired to the
Monastery of Yuste, in Extremadura, where
he died of malaria in 1558.
Monastery of Yuste
Charles V in the Monastery of Yuste, painted
by Eugène Delacroix in 1837

29. PHILIP II’s HISPANIC EMPIRE (1556-1598)
After Charles I’s abdication in Brussels, Philip II
started acting as the king of a large empire.
Although he didn´t inherit the Holy Roman Empire,
the territories under his rule were immense.
More territories were added during his reign:
- the Philippines Islands were conquered in 1565
by Miguel de Legazpi
- in 1580 Portugal and its colonies in Africa, Asia
and America were annexed.
Philip II was the most powerful monarch of his
time (“the Sun never set in his Empire”, around 30
million km2 wide). But he always considered the
Peninsula as the centre of his monarchy. This is
why his reigns have been called Hispanic Empire.
Philip II, painted by Titian in
1551, when he was still a
prince

30. In orange, territories inherited by Philip II and conquered during his rule
In green, territories added when Philip II became the king of Portugal.

31. Contrary to his father Charles I, Philip II spent
almost all his life in Castile and he took personal
care of the government. He only participated
directly in one battle (Saint Quentin, in 1557).
He established the capital city in Madrid in 1566,
although he finally retired to El Escorial.
During his reign, political centralization
increased, the highest posts in the administration
and the army were for Castilian natives, Castilian
became the official language in the Monarchy and
most of the financial resources came from this
crown (from the Indies). The Cortes were barely
called and almost all the decisions were made by
the king, who took personal care of the
government and was helped by a professional
bureaucracy and the consulting councils (a new
one was created in 1588: the Council of Flanders,
to administer the Low Countries).
Royal Monastery of El Escorial, built to
commemorate the victory in the Battle of Saint
Quentin, and Philip II’s favourite place
Cardinal Granvelle, one of
Philip II’s secretaries
Antonio Pérez, a secretary
who caused a lot of problems

32. PHILIP II’s
MAIN OBJECTIVES
DEFENSE OF
CATHOLICIS
M
- Expansion of the Council of Trent principles
- Fight against heresy
- Fight against the Muslims
PRESERVATION OF
HEGEMONY IN EUROPE
- Wars against France
- Revolt of the Low Countries
- Conflict with England
MAIN CONFLICTS
IN THE PENINSULA
- Revolt of the Alpujarras in Granada (1568-
1571)
- Annexation of Portugal (1580)
- Disturbances of Aragón (1590-1591)

33. DEFENSE OF CATHOLICISM
Philip II assumed the defense of the principles of
the Council of Trent (1545-1563) and the
offensive of the Catholic Church against the
Protestant Reformation (Counter-Reformation).
He refused to give his subjects religious freedom
and forbade Protestantism in his kingdoms. This
caused huge problems in several territories of the
Monarchy, especially in the Low Countries.
In the Peninsula several decisions were made:
- the Inquisition was reinforced to chase
heretics
- students were not allowed to study abroad
- the import of books was also forbidden
- blood cleanliness was established in the
administration and religious orders (people
with Muslims or Jewish ancestors were
excluded).
Council of Trent, where the reaction of the Catholic
Church to the Protestant Reformation was established
- Increasing pressure against the Moorish Document of blood cleanliness,
18th century

34. REVOLT OF THE ALPUJARRAS IN GRANADA (1568)
Revolt of the Alpujarras, 1567
Mistrust with respect to the Moorish fidelity was
constant. They were accused of collusion with the
Barbary pirates and with the Turks. Their situation
got worse during the 1560s :
- taxes on silk increased, charging one of their
traditional activities, and the export of this
product was forbidden.
- In 1567 an edict forbade them to speak Arabic,
wear their clothes and keep their traditions.
The Moorish tried to negotiate with the king and pay
for keeping their status, but Philip II rejected their
proposition and the revolt started in 1568, led by
Aben Humeya, a Moorish nobleman, and extended
through the Alpujarras region. But the revolted didn’t
receive the support of the Turks or the Moorish from
other regions and finally Philip II’s troops,
commanded by his stepbrother John of Austria,
defeated the Moorish in 1571. Punishment was
severe: 80,000 Moorish were banished to other parts
of the Peninsula.
John of Austria,
Charles I’s bastard son
and outstanding
general in charge of the
repression of the
Alpujarras revolt

35. ANNEXATION OF PORTUGAL (1580)
In 1578, King Sebastian of Portugal died in
the Battle of Alcazarquivir and was
succeeded by his uncle Henry I, who died in
1580. Philip II reclaimed the Portuguese
crown as Isabella of Portugal’s son, but the
other candidate, António, Prior of Crato,
proclaimed himself king. This fact made
Philip II decide the invasion of Portugal. He
sent the Duke of Alba against the Prior of
Crato. After Alba’s victory in the Battle of
Alcántara, Philip II was crowned king of
Portugal, but with the condition of not
converting it into a Castilian province.
However, a nationalist feeling remained in
Portugal, which recovered independence in
1668.
All the Portuguese colonies in Africa,
America and Asia were added to Philip II’s
crown.
António, Prior of Crato,
candidate to the
Portuguese throne
Fernando Álvarez de Toledo
y Pimentel, 3rd Duke of Alba
Philip II became Philip I of
Portugal
The Portuguese arms were added
to Philip II’s emblem

36. DISTURBANCES IN ARAGÓN (1590-1591)
Antonio Pérez, Philip
II’s
State secretary and spy
Anna of Mendoza,
princess of Eboli
Assassination of Juan de Escobedo, ordered
by Antonio Pérez
Discontent in Aragón mixed with a dark
episode of espionage, conspiracies , royal
authoritarianism and the use of the
Inquisition with political purpose:
Antonio Pérez, Philip II’s State secretary
between 1566 and 1579, sold State secrets
to other countries in collusion with the
Princess of Eboli and conspired against John
of Austria, Philip II’s stepbrother. Pérez
spread the rumour that John of Austria was
trying to betray Philip II. When Juan de
Escobedo, John of Austria’s secretary,
travelled to Madrid to refute Pérez’s lies,
the latter hired some criminals and ordered
to kill him (apparently with Philip II’s
consent). Philip II initially protected Antonio
Pérez, but later, when he discovered his lies,
he ordered his imprisonment in 1579.

37. In 1590 Antonio Pérez escaped from jail and took
refuge in Aragón, where he was from, and asked
for protection there. Philip II asked Juan de Lanuza,
the Justicia Mayor of Aragón, to hand Pérez over,
but as the fueros of Aragón had to be respected,
Lanuza rejected to obey immediately.
As a consequence of this, Philip II used the
Inquisition (only common institution in Castile and
Aragón) to try to chase Antonio Pérez, accusing
him of heresy. Lanuza rejected to hand Pérez over
again and when the Inquisition ordered his
transfer from the prison of the Justicia to the
Inquisition jail, a popular revolt stopped it
(disturbances of Aragón). Philip II ordered the
invasion of Aragón, violating their fueros. Antonio
Pérez escaped to France, but the main leaders of
the revolt against Philip II were executed,
including Pedro de Lanuza. From then on, the
power of the Aragonese Cortes was reduced
considerably and the king got the right to appoint
Castilian people to hold posts in Aragón too.
Antonio Pérez freed by the Aragonese people,
painting by Manuel Ferraán y Bayona (1864)
Execution of Juan de Lanuza

38. PRESERVATION OF HEGEMONY IN EUROPE
Although Philip II didn’t move much from
the Peninsula, he tried to preserve his
father’s heritage and hegemony in Europe.
All the conflicts the Monarchy was involved
in caused several defaults (1557, 1575,
1596). Despite the big amount of precious
metals arriving from the Indies, they were
not enough to satisfy the demand for
money for the wars. The Hispanic
Monarchy hegemony could be sustained
for this only reason.
Some conflicts were inherited from
Charles I’s reign (wars with France and the
Muslims), but others were new, like the
revolt in the Low Countries and the
confrontment with England, former ally.
Europa Regina, Europe as a queen, dominated by the Habsburg
dynasty (the Iberian Peninsula is the head and Bohemia is the
heart). Map made by Sebastian Münster in 1544

39. WARS AGAINST FRANCE
Philip II started his reign with another war against France. After the tercios victories in the battles
of Saint Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558), the Peace of Cateau- Cambrésis was signed in 1559.
But Philip II continued to interfere in France, supporting the Catholics in the religion wars that
devastated this country in the 2nd half of the 16th century. The definitive peace was signed at
Vervins in 1598.
Engraving of the Battle of Saint Quentin
Signature of the Peace of Vervins, painting made by
Gillot Saint-Evre in 1837.

40. REVOLT IN THE LOW COUNTRIES
Duke of Alba
Execution of Egmont and Horn
Discontent in the Low Countries had several
causes:
- religious intolerance
- tax burden
Protests against Philip II’s government
increased and he decided to send the Duke of
Alba there in 1567. The Duke developed a
repression policy, with the creation of the
Council of Troubles (also known as the Council
of Blood), which dictated hundreds of death
penalties, including the leaders of the protest,
the nobles Egmont and Horn, decapitated in
Brussels.
Malaise against the Duke of Alba’s
government increased the support to the
Calvinists, who started a generalized revolt in
1568. The uprising succeeded in the Northern
provinces and got the support of the
Protestants of other countries (German
Lutheran States, English Anglicans, French
Huguenots…) and the religious fight mixed
with the national vindication of independence.

41. Isabel Clara Eugenia
and Archduke Albert
of Austria
William of Orange, leader of
the revolt, later continued by
his son Maurice of Nassau
Flag of the revolt of
the Low Countries.
Philip II replaced the Duke of Alba for Luis of
Requesens first and his stepbrother John of
Austria later, looking for an agreement, but
religious intolerance made it impossible and
the revolt continued under William of
Orange’s leadership.
In 1581 the Northern Provinces proclaimed
their secession from Philip II’s crown (Act of
Abjuration) and the United Provinces were
created. The Southern provinces continued
under the Hispanic Monarchy rule and war
also continued until 1648 (Eighty Years’ War).
In 1595 Philip II appointed his daughter Isabel
Clara Eugenia and her husband, Albert of
Austria, as governors of the Low Countries,
with the idea of separating this territory from
the rest of the Monarchy if they had children.
But has they didn’t have any successors, the
Low Countries came back to the Hispanic
Monarchy in 1621.

42. CONFRONTATION WITH THE OTTOMAN TURKS
The Holy League, a Catholic coalition led by the Hispanic Monarchy,
defeated the Ottoman Turks in Lepanto (near Greece) in 1571.
The Turks threatened the
Mediterranean and conquered
almost all the places in the North
of Africa (Tripoli in 1551, Bugía in
1555, Tunis in 1574). This
advance led to the creation of the
Holy League, a Catholic coalition
formed by the Pope, Venetia and
the Hispanic Monarchy. The Holy
League armada, commanded by
John of Austria, defeated the
Turks in the Battle of Lepanto in
1571 and stopped their advance
in the Mediterranean Sea
Miguel de Cervantes fought as a soldier
in the Battle of Lepanto, where he was hurt
in his left hand

43. CONFLICT WITH ENGLAND
England had been an ally since the Catholic
Monarchs’ rule. Philip II’s second wife was
Mary Tudor, queen of England between
1553 and 1558 (Mary I, known as Bloody
Mary for her persecution to the Anglicans).
But when Elizabeth I became queen,
Anglicanism was restored.
The English supported the revolt of the
Low Countries, their corsairs (Francis Drake
mainly) attacked the West Indies fleet and
they smuggled black slaves in the Indies.
In 1588, when the Catholic Mary Steward,
queen of Scotland, was executed by
Elizabeth I, Philip II decided to invade
England to overthrow Elizabeth I’s
monarchy.
Francis Drake
Queen Elizabeth I of England

44. A big navy, the Great and Fortunate
Armada (known as the Spanish
Armada or the Invincible Armada),
was prepared, commanded by the
Duke of Medina Sidonia, and formed
by 130 ships and 30,000 men.
But most of the ships sunk before
reaching their objective due to a
storm: some ships sunk in the English
Channel and others were wrecked on
the coasts of Scotland and Ireland.
Around 1/3 of the ships didn’t return
and more than 20,000 died.
The following year England prepared
another armada (the Counter-
Armada) to invade the Peninsula,
commanded by Drake and Norris,
with 120 ships and 24,000 men, but
they also failed, with around 12,000
losses and 40 ships captured or sunk.
The Spanish Armada
The Armada Portrait. Elizabeth I
was represented as the master of the
world

45. All these wars were very expensive and ruined the economy. Philip II was forced to declare defaults
in 1575 and at the end of his reign, in 1596. At that moment, half of the incomes of the crown were
destined to pay the interests of the public debt (juros).
Philip II’s reign has been considered to be
the origin of the Black Legend, but what
happened in the Hispanic Monarchy wasn’t
different from the other European
countries, where those considered heretics
were also chased and killed. For example,
Miguel Servet was burn at the stake by the
Calvinists in Geneva, the French Catholics
killed hundreds of Huguenots in the
massacre of Saint Bartholomew’s Day or
Mary Steward of Scotland was executed to
Elizabeth I of England’s orders. Writings
against Philip II were examples of
propaganda and criticism against the
Hispanic hegemony in Europe, but there
wasn’t an organized plan to discredit the
Hispanic Monarchy.
The Duke of Alba eating children
Miguel Servet, Aragonese
scientist executed by the
Calvinists in Geneva due
to his rejection of the Holy
Trinity and his defense of
baptism in adulthood,

46. Mary I Tudor,
his aunt
Anna of Austria,
his niece
María Manuela
of Portugal
Elisabeth of Valois
PHILIP II´S WIVES
Philip II had four wives and twelve children, but only
three survived. His wives came from the traditional allies
from the time of the Catholic Monarchs, except for the
third one:
- In 1543 he married his cousin María Manuela of
Portugal. Their son, Prince Charles, was mentally
unstable and died in 1569.
- In 1554 he married his aunt Mary Tudor, queen of
England, eleven years older. They didn’t have children
- In 1559 he married Elisabeth of Valois, a French
princess, as a result of the Cateau –Cambrésis
agreements. She was his most beloved wife. They
had six children, but only two daughters survived:
Isabel Clara Eugenia, governor of the Low Countries,
and Catalina Micaela
- In 1570 he married his niece Anna of Austria, with
whom he had five children, but only one survived:
Philip III, who was Philip II’s heir.

47. Prince Charles.
Mentally unstable, deformed
and imprisoned by his father in
1568 due to his conspiracies
with the Dutch rebels. He died
in 1569 from an eating
disorder, after a year of
solitary confinement.
Isabel Clara Eugenia,
Duchess of Luxemburg,
Sovereign of the Spanish
Netherlands in the Low
Countries
Catalina Micaela
Philip III, heir of the
Empire
PHILIP II´S CHILDREN

48. DEMOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY IN THE 16th CENTURY
The 16th century was a period of expansion, both demographically and economically:
-Population increased, especially in Castile, and
there was bigger demand for alll type of products.
- In economy there was a sharp inflation of the
prices of agricultural and manufactured products
(Price revolution), not only due to the arrival of
precious metals from the Indies, but also as a
consequence of bad harvests.The exclusion of the
Crown of Aragón from business in the Indies and
the insufficient production in Castile obliged
merchants to buy foreign products to satisfy the
increasing demand.
- The precious metals from the Indies and the
numerous taxes the underprivileged had to pay
were insufficient to cover all the expenses of the
Monarchy. The Crown got into debt with foreign
bankers, tax burden increased and the sale of
public posts in the administration and nobility
titles started. However, this wasn’t enough and
there were three defaults: 1557, 1575 and 1596.
Revenues and expenses in the 2nd half on the 16th
century