“Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” is the case chosen by Özge Kavas, Management Engineering student, for final project of Engineering Ethics class. This case is studied in terms of ethics theories listed hereinafter: I) Traditional Ethical Theories i) Egoism ii) Utilitarianism iii) Ethics of duties iv) Rights and justice II) Contemporary Ethical Theories i) Virtue ethics ii) Feminist ethics iii) Discourse ethics iv) Post-modern ethics

1. FINAL PROJECT
of
ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING ETHICS
SPRING 2016
Prepared by
ÖZGE KAVAS
070140313

2. NAZI MEDICAL EXPERIMENTS
During World War II, a number of German physicians conducted painful and often deadly
experiments on thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent.
Unethical medical experimentation carried out during the Third Reich may be divided into three
categories.
The first category consists of experiments aimed at facilitating the survival of Axis military
personnel. InDachau, physicians from the German air force and from the German Experimental
Institution for Aviation conducted high-altitude experiments, using a low-pressure chamber, to
determine the maximum altitude from which crews of damaged aircraft could parachute to
safety. Scientists there carried out so-called freezing experiments using prisoners to find an
effective treatment for hypothermia. They also used prisoners to test various methods of making
seawater potable.
The second category of experimentation aimed at developing and testing pharmaceuticals and
treatment methods for injuries and illnesses which German military and occupation personnel
encountered in the field. At the German concentration camps of Sachsenhausen, Dachau,
Natzweiler, Buchenwald, and Neuengamme, scientists tested immunization compounds and sera
for the prevention and treatment of contagious diseases, including malaria, typhus, tuberculosis,
typhoid fever, yellow fever, and infectious hepatitis. The Ravensbrueck camp was the site of
bone-grafting experiments and experiments to test the efficacy of newly developed sulfa
(sulfanilamide) drugs. At Natzweiler and Sachsenhausen, prisoners were subjected to phosgene
and mustard gas in order to test possible antidotes.
The third category of medical experimentation sought to advance the racial and ideological tenets
of the Nazi worldview. The most infamous were the experiments of Josef Mengele at Auschwitz.
Mengele conducted medical experiments on twins. He also directed serological experiments
on Roma (Gypsies), as did Werner Fischer at Sachsenhausen, in order to determine how different
"races" withstood various contagious diseases. The research of August Hirt at Strasbourg
University also intended to establish "Jewish racial inferiority."
Other gruesome experiments meant to further Nazi racial goals were a series of sterilization
experiments, undertaken primarily at Auschwitz and Ravensbrueck. There, scientists tested a
number of methods in their effort to develop an efficient and inexpensive procedure for the mass
sterilization of Jews, Roma, and other groups Nazi leaders considered to be racially or genetically
undesirable.

3. “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” is the case chosen by Özge Kavas, Management
Engineering student, for final project of Engineering Ethics class. This case is studied in terms of
ethics theories listed hereinafter:
I) Traditional Ethical Theories
i) Egoism
ii) Utilitarianism
iii) Ethics of duties
iv) Rights and justice
II) Contemporary Ethical Theories
i) Virtue ethics
ii) Feminist ethics
iii) Discourse ethics
iv) Post-modern ethics

4. I) Traditional Ethical Theories
Information about the ‘traditional ethical theories’:
Traditional ethical theories generally offer a certain rule or principle which one can apply to any
given situation; hence, they are absolutist in intention. These theories are normative because they
start with an assumption about the nature of the world, and more specific assumptions about the
nature of the human beings. The main advantage of these theories is the fact that they normally
provide us with a fairly unequivocal solution to ethical problems.
i) Egoism
Information about the ‘egoism’:
Following the theory of egoism an action is morally right if the decision-maker freely decides in
order to pursue either their (short-term) desires or the their (long-term) interests. Egoism focuses
individual desires or interests, and rules maximization of desires/self-interest, based on Adam
Smith, contributor of egoism theory. Concept of human beings in egoism is that man is an actor
with limited knowledge and objectives.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in egoism perspective:
If the Nazi’s human medical experimentations are viewed from egoism perspective, the case
should be studied in terms of Nazi scientists. Nazi scientists did those human experimentations
in order to facilitate the survival of Axis military personnel, to develop and test pharmaceuticals
and treatment methods for injuries and illnesses of German military and personnel, and to
advance the racial and ideological tenets of Nazi worldview. In this case, the decision-makers
-Nazi scientists- freely decides to pursue their desires and interests; therefore, Nazi human
medical experimentations are morally right in terms of Nazi scientists in egoism perspective.
ii) Utilitarianism
Information about the ‘utilitarianism’:
According to utilitarianism, an action is morally right if it results in the greatest amount of good
for the greatest amount of people affected by the action. Utilitarianism focuses collective welfare,
and rules greatest happiness principle, based on Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill,
contributors of utilitarianism theory. Concept of human beings in utilitarianism is that man is
controlled by avoidance of pain and gain of pleasure – hedonist.

5. Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in utilitarianism perspective:
The scope of utilitarianism theory is greatest amount of people, where the number of camp
prisoners is a lot more than the Nazi scientists. Thus, when the Nazi human medical
experimentations are looked from utilitarianism standpoint, the case should be considered in
terms of humans which are camp prisoners captured by Nazis. Utilitarianism has hedonist view
that aims to avoidance of pain and gain of pleasure. Hence, Nazi human medical
experimentations are morally incorrect because of the fact that camp prisoners had pain
abundantly, and there was no collective welfare during the experimentations.
iii) Ethics of duties
Information about the ‘ethics of duties’:
According to ethics of duties, humans are rational actors who could decide moral principles for
themselves; therefore, humans could also be regarded as independent moral actors who made
their own rational decisions regarding right and wrong. Ethics of duties focuses duties, and rules
categorical imperative, based on Immanuel Kant, contributor of ethics of duties theory. Concept
of human beings in ethics of duties is that man is a rational moral actor.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in ethics of duties perspective:
Ethics of duties theory explains that humans are rational actors and they can decide moral
principles for themselves. As a consequence, when the Nazi human medical experimentations are
looked from ethics of duties angle, the case should be studied with regard to Nazi scientists,
because subjects are captured, meaning that they can know what right and wrong is for
themselves, but they cannot act in accordance with their decisions. In this case, Nazi scientists
behaved toward their mind which was true for them; thus, Nazi human medical
experimentations are morally right in terms of Nazi scientists in ethics of duties perspective.
iv) Rights and justice
Information about the ‘rights and justice’:
According to ethics of rights and justice, natural rights are certain basic, important, inalienable
entitlements that should be respected and protected in every single action. Rights and justice
focuses rights, and rules respect for human beings, based on John Locke and John Rawis,
contributors of ethics of rights and justice. Concept of human beings in rights and justice is that
man is a being that is distinguished by dignity.

6. Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in rights and justice perspective:
Natural rights are fundamental privilege that should be, even must be, respected and protected
in every single action, according to rights and justice view. Hence, if the Nazi human medical
experimentations are looked from rights and justice standpoint, the case should be studied as to
camp prisoners. In this case, natural rights of subjects were ignored and subjects were under
gross circumstances, which is totally disrespectful; therefore, Nazi human medical
experimentations are morally incorrect in terms of camp prisoners in rights and justice
perspective.
II) Contemporary Ethical Theories
Information about the ‘contemporary ethical theories’:
Contemporary ethical theory is concerned with two areas of inquiry that are largely independent
of one another: meta-ethics and normative ethics. Meta-ethics is concerned with the nature of
morality and moral judgments. In contrast, normative ethics is concerned with right and wrong,
along with other evaluative concepts such as good and bad, and virtuous and vicious.
i) Virtue ethics
Information about the ‘virtue ethics’:
Virtue ethics contends that morally correct actions are those undertaken by actors with virtuous-
characters; thus, the formation of a virtuous character is the first step towards morally correct
behaviour. Virtue ethics focuses character of decision-maker, and rules that good actions come
from good persons. Virtues can be differentiated into intellectual virtues – wisdom being the
most prominent one - and moral virtues which comprise a long list of possible characteristics
such as honesty, courage, friendship, mercy, loyalty, patience, etc.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in virtue ethics perspective:
Virtues, especially moral virtues, focus the character of decision-maker; thus, when the Nazi
human medical experimentations are looked from virtue ethics view, the case should be studied
in terms of Nazi scientist –because the decision-makers are Nazi scientists, based on virtue ethics
theory. ‘Good actions come from good persons – in this sense, Nazis are not good persons’ and
Nazi scientists do not honor moral virtues; therefore, Nazi human medical experimentations are
morally incorrect in terms of Nazi scientists in virtue ethics perspective.

7. ii) Feminist ethics
Information about the ‘feminist ethics’:
Feminist ethics is an approach that prioritizes empathy, harmonious and healthy social
relationships, care for one another, and avoidance of harm above abstract principles. Feminist
ethics focuses on process rather than results, unlike male approach, and rules co-operation and
compromise.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in feminist ethics perspective:
If the Nazi’s human medical experimentations are viewed from feminist ethics perspective, the
case should be studied in terms of camp prisoners or subjects. According to feminist ethics
theory, empathy and healthy social relationships and avoidance of harm are crucial points. In this
case, Nazi scientists did not point out empathy or something like this sense, also injured subjects
terribly; hence, Nazi human medical experimentations are morally incorrect in terms of camp
prisoners in feminist ethics perspective.
iii) Discourse ethics
Information about the ‘discourse ethics’:
Discourse ethics aims to solve ethical conflicts by providing a process of norm generation
through rational reflection on the real-life experience of all relevant participants. Discourse ethics
argues that ethical reflection has to start from real-life experience rather than belief systems
which could be too diverse; moreover, it focuses on the peaceful settlement of conflicts.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in discourse ethics perspective:
According to discourse ethics theory, ethical problems should be solved by using real-life
experiences rather than belief systems, also discourse ethics bases focusing on the peaceful
solution of conflicts. There was no peace during experimentations; therefore, if the Nazi’s human
medical experimentations are studied in terms of both Nazi scientists and camp prisoners, they
are morally incorrect in discourse ethics perspective.
iv) Post-modern ethics
Information about the ‘post-modern ethics’:
Post-modern ethics is an approach that locates morality beyond the sphere of rationality in an
emotional ‘moral impulse’ towards others. It encourages individual actors to question everyday

8. practices and rules, and listen to and follow their emotions, inner convictions, and ‘gut feelings’
about what they think is right and wrong in a particular incident of decision-making.
Post-modern ethics is against the universal ethical code; therefore, it rules that ‘think local, act
local’.
Studying the “Nazi’s Human Medical Experimentations” case in post-modern ethics perspective:
As stated in post-modern ethics theory, persons should listen and follow their emotions and
instincts about what they think is right or wrong –it is up to decision-maker. If the Nazi’s human
medical experimentations are viewed from post-modern ethics perspective, the case should be
studied in terms of Nazi scientists, which were the decision-makers. In this case, Nazi scientists
had purposes such as facilitating the survival of Axis military personnel, developing and testing
pharmaceuticals and treatment methods for injuries and illnesses of German military and
personnel, and advancing the racial and ideological tenets of Nazi worldview; and they acted
what they think was right. Thus, Nazi human medical experimentations are morally right in
terms of Nazi scientists in post-modern ethics perspective.

9. Resources
i) University of Kansas, Fall 2009, Philosophy 670: Contemporary Ethical Theory, Ben
Eggleston—eggleston@ku.edu, September 25, 2009.
ii) Martin, M. W. and R. Schinzinger, 2000, Introduction to Engineering Ethics, Boston:
McGraw Hill.
iii) Resource of the ‘Nazi Medical Experiments’ article:
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Nazi Medical Experiments” Holocaust
Encyclopedia, https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005168
Accessed on [04.05.2016].