history of forensic medicine

1. H I S T O R Y
o f
FO R E N S IC ME D I C I N E
Speaker- Dr. A. Haricharan
Moderator- Dr.Th. Meera Devi
Professor and
Head Department of Forensic Medicine
&Toxicology
RIMS, Imphal.

2. INTRODUCTION
We can never be fully in possession of a science
until we know the history of its development. The
history is the key to the past, explanation of
present & signpost of future.(Charles Greene
Custom)
“WITHOUT HISTORY, THERE WOULD BE NO FUTURE”

3. Law-Medicine problems are found in the written records in
Egypt, Sumer, Babylon, Assyrian histories, India and China
dating back 4000-3000 B.C.
OBJECTIVES:
To know the history of Forensic
Medicine in different countries.
To know the milestones in the history
of Forensic Medicine.

4. The word “Forensic” came from Latin “Forensis”
which means “The Forum” or “The market
Place”.
In Rome, “Forum” was the meeting place where
civic & Legal matters were discussed by those
with public responsibility.
History behind the name -“Forensic Medicine”

5. Origin of Forensic Medicine in
different countries

6. EGYPT
2900 BC – IMHOTEP- Chief Justice and Physician
to king Zozer of Egypt, the first ever medico-legal
expert , personified medico-legal relation
The Egyptians were very proficient in the art of
preserving the dead body by Mummification.
3300 BC -- Earliest known Egyptian mummy,
nicknamed “Ginger” for its hair colour, found in a
cemetry at Gebelein, Egypt.
Menes Pharohs I (3000 BC) is said to have studied
many poisons.

7. IMHOTEP- 2900BC

8. Cont.

9. BABYLON
2200 BC – HAMMURABI, King of Babylon formulated
oldest known law code, code of Hammurabi. Which
includes provisions regarding rights and duties of
medical practitioner and laid down punishment for
physician’s negligent fracture.

10. GREECE
460-370 BC Hippocrates the physician of antiquity&
the father of western Medicine for all the times to
come, dealt in his teachings with medical ethics,
lethality of wounds, causes of sudden death etc.
Hippocratic Oath includes the promise not to
administer poisons or to procure abortions.
Hippocrates also added a number of poisons in Greek
medicine.

11. Cont.

12. Cont.
384 -322 BC – Aristotle, the Father of Modern Family
Medicine, advocated population control by inducing
abortion before animation of foetus. And postulated
upper age limit for procreation in males around 70
years, age of menopause in females around 50
years.

13. Cont.
Pedanius Dioscorides (40-90 AD) a Greek physician,
in the court of Emperor Nero, in his book “De Materia
Medica” attempted at a classification of poisons which
remained a standard for sixteen centuries.

14. ROME
753-673 BC Numa Pompilious ordered that bodies of
all women dying during confinement should be
immediately opened to save child’s life.

15. Cont.
138-78 BC Sulla issued the Lex Cornelia(law) in
Rome which appears to be the first law against
poisoning(As). He made it illegal to poison people
including prisoners, also made it illegal to buy or
sell poisons.
Lex Cornelia of Sulla, states that 5 midwives should
prove the pregnancy.

16. Cont.
44 BC - Roman physician “Antistius” examined body of
Julius Caesar & found 23 stab wounds over his body.
After the post-mortem examination, he concluded that
only one wound- “one in the chest between 1st and 2nd
ribs” – was fatal

17. Cont.
23 –79 AD Pliny the Elder - wrote about suspended
animation, superfoetation, sudden natural death,
sign of maturity in fetus,& age of menopause. He
wrote men’s corpses in water float on their backs but
women’s face downwards

18. Cont.
483-56 AD Emperor Justinian (Justinian Code)
states “physicians are not ordinary witnesses but
they give judgment rather than testimony”
Justinian law called medico-legal experts to testify
in cases of rape, criminal abortions and murder.

19. 3000 BC – Chinese materia medica gave information of
poisons including aconite, arsenic & opium
220 BC- First descriptions of injuries were fond carved on
pieces of bamboo dating back to the Qin dynasty in China.
CHINA

20. Cont.
200 BC – Hashish used as narcotic in surgery
1248 AD – Chinese doctor Hsu Chichtsi wrote :- Hsi
Yüan Lu (collected cases of injustice rectifie)
Contents are mainly the instructions to coroners.
Discusses the problem of whether dead bodies
found in water is antemortem or postmortem
drowning & also whether a body was burned before
or after death .

21. ITALY
1302 AD- Bartholomeo Devarignana of Bologna
Performed 1st Medico legal autopsy. (It was a case
of suspected poisoning)
1557 AD-Paulus Zacchias
Published “Quaestiones medico-legales” He is
considered as Father of Legal Medicine as well as
Father of Forensic Psychiatry.
1602 AD- Dr. Fortunato Fedele of Sicily
Published 1st book on Forensic Medicine.

22. Cont.
1682-1771 AD Italian anatomist Battista Giovanni Morgagni
had begun dissecting the bodies of the dead and comparing
the alterations with the symptoms of diseases
1761 AD Published a book on the 640 post-mortem dissections
he had conducted.
He wrote the famous sentence “Let conversation cease; let
laughter flee”. This is the place where death delights to help
the living”

23. FRANCE
1545 AD- Ambroise Paré ( French Barber Surgeon in army)
Published his first book “The method of curing wounds caused
by arquebus and firearms”
He wrote, Reports in Court, a procedure on the writing of legal
reports in relation to injury. He is considered by many to be the
‘Father of Forensic Pathology’.

24. Cont.
1818 –1879 AD Auguste Ambroise Tardieu
Subpleural spots of ecchymosis, that follow the death of a
newborn child by strangulation or suffocation, were first
described by Tardieu in 1859, and were so named in his honor-
“Tardieu’s spots”

25. GERMANY
150 AD -Galen (Galen of Pergamon) described
difference between lung tissue before & after birth.
1532 AD – Emperor Charles v declared
(“Constitutio Criminalis Carolina”) murder,
manslaughter, robbery, homosexual, witchcraft were
defined as severe crimes.
•Opening of dead bodies are allowed for legal
investigation.

26. Cont.
1689 AD- Johannes Bohr distinguished antemotem
– postmortem wound.
1782 AD- 1st Medicolegal Journal published at
Berlin by Uden & Pyl.
1796-1864 AD - Johann Lugwig Casper, Published
“Forensic Dissection” in 1850 & “Practical Manual
of Forensic Medicine” in 1856 . The book
contained some lithographic plates

27. Cont.
1787-1853 AD - Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila,
Spanish born French toxicologist & chemist created
new techniques and refined existing techniques in
his treatise, “Traité des poisons” greatly enhancing
their accuracy especially in case of Arsenic poisoning

28. Cont.
In 1840, Marie LaFarge tried for the murder of her
husband(Charles LaFarge) using (As). Arsenic
available to killer & found in food, not found in body.
Orfila was asked by the court to investigate
He discovered the “ Marsh Test”, was performed
incorrectly & that there was arsenic in the body &
LaFarge found guilty

29. Cont.
He is one of the first people to use a microscope to
assess blood and semen stains
Orfila is known as Father of Toxicology he was the
first to attempt a systemic correlation between the
chemical and biologic information of the poison.

30. GREAT BRITAIN
1788 AD-Samuel Farr wrote 1st book on medical
jurisprudence in English, published in London.
(Elements of Medical Jurisprudence)
1836 AD- 2 acts passed due to the effect of West Port
Murders case(Hare and Burke Murder case) in 1828.
- Birth & Death Registrations act.
-Act to provide attendance & remunerations of
Medical Witness at coroner’s inquest.
1843 AD- McNaughten rules enacted.

31. AMERICA
1647 AD- General Court of Mssachusetts Bay
Authorised to hold an autopsy every 4 years for the
benefit of medical students, the subject being a
criminal.
1877 AD- Boston
Coroner system replaced by Medical Examiner
system.

32. History of Forensic Medicine
in
Indian Scenario

33. Ancient India
3250-2000 B.C.– Indus Valley Civilization was much more
ancient than the written chronicles of Indian History.

34. 3102 BC code of Manu – “DHARMASASTRA “ –
contain medicolegal principles – 1st legal code of
India
oThe drunk, insane, hungry and thirsty, the fatigued
& with defective sense organs were not permitted to
be witnesses in court
oStatements of children, old men, diseased persons
& weak minded persons were not to be relied
oDamaging medicinal plants were punishable
oChild marriage were not allowed

35. Cont.
oPunishments were mentioned for Adultery,
Seduction, Incest, Unnatural sexual offences
oKilling of Brahmin was greatest crime

36. Vedic Age( 2000-1000 BC)
o Marriage between brother & sister was prohibited,
only persons having knowledge were allowed to treat
patients.
o Marriage before puberty was not allowed.
o Brunahatya & Atmahatya were punishable.
1500 BC - Atharva veda gives details about
remedies for injuries due to arrows, stab wounds,
snake bite and insanity. Dissections of dead animals
were done during this period for the sake of
knowledge.

37. Cont.
700 BC –“Agnivesa Charaka Samhita”
An elaborate code for training, duties, privilege & social
status of physician. Has a detailed descriptions of various
poisons, their sign-symptoms & treatment.
5th- 4th Century BC-(Buddha era) King Ashoka
established Hospitals, roadside clinics for treatment
of ailing patients and cases of poisoning at different
parts of his kingdom
350 BC – “Arthasasthra” by Kautilya (Mauryan period)
states that death can be caused by four ways of
stopping the breathing (strangling, hanging,
asphyxiation or drowning) two ways of physical injury
(by beating or by throwing from a height) or
poisoning (by poisons, snake or insect bite or
narcotic drugs).

38. Cont.
If death is suspected to be due to poisoning, the
undigested parts of the meal were tested by feeding
it to birds.
Cases of suicide by hanging were investigated to
rule out the presence of ante-mortem injuries.
Similarly, on finding the murdered body of a stranger,
his personal belongings such as cloths, dress and
ornaments were examined.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra describes the necessity of
autopsy in establishing the cause of death after
smearing the body with oil to bring out bruises,
swellings and other injuries.

39. Cont.
250 AD- Charaka
(Physician Hipocrates of India and the father of State
Medicine) in his Charaka Samhita lays down an
elaborate code regarding the training, duties, privilege
and social status of physicians. The Samhita gives a
detailed description of various poisons, symptoms,
signs and treatments of poisoning.

40. Cont.
200 - 300 AD– Shushruta (father of plastic surgery )
Shushruta Samhita contains a separate chapter on
toxicology. Poisons were classified into:
(1) Plant products (2) Animal products, and
(3) Artificial
Not only were the symptoms signs and treatment of
poisoning described in detail, but also modes of
administration of poisons, character of the poisoner
and examination of suspected poisonous materials.

41. Cont.

42. By.Dr.Santanu Mandal
1000-1600 A.D.–
– Because of invasion of Various foreign powers like
Turks, Pathans, Moghuls , law and order was not
proper and adequate during this era.
No improvement in teaching or training of
physicians.
Unani system was introduced.
Self immolation practices (Sati) by Hindu females.

43. British India
1678 AD- 1st Death Certificate issued by Dr John Waldo &
Bezaliel Sherman in Madras. [Death of soldier Thomas Savage]
1693 AD- 1st Medical certificate issued by Dr Edward
Bulkley & Samuel Browne. [Patient John Nicks, 16/08/1693]
1693 AD- 1st Medical Autopsy done by Dr Edward Bulkley.
On the afternoon of 28 August 1693. When Mr Wheeler,
member of council, Sea Customer and Chief Justice of
Choultry in Chennai, died on 28 August 1693. [Death of
suspected Arsenic poisoning].
1695 AD- 1st Wound certificate by Edward Buckley. [ Lieutenant
Seaton 09/08/1695]
2nd post-mortem was held at Kolkata by Dr. Hamilton (1725).
1835 AD - Medical college Kolkata (1st Medical college ) instituted in
INDIA.
[Dr. C.T.O.Woodford- 1st Professor]

44. Cont.
1857 AD- The first chair of professor of medical
jurisprudence was established at Madras Medical
College. Dr.Urquhart
1858 AD- Most outstanding contribution of India to legal
medicine during British period is modern dactylography.
It was Sir William Herschel of the Indian Civil Services,
who first used this method of identification.
1860 A.D The Indian Penal code was promulgated.
1861 AD- police inquest introduced in India.

45. Cont.
1861 A.D Criminal procedure code came into
existence.
1871 AD- Coroner’s inquest started in presidency
towns of Bombay & Calcutta.
1872 A.D. Indian Evidence Act.
1897 AD- 1st Finger print Bureau was established in
Calcutta.
1900 AD- Major J L Vangeyzel states that white arsenic is
most commonly used poison in India in cases of homicide
poisoning.
Indian Medical Council was established in 1933.

46. Milestones
in
History of Forensic Medicine

47. MILESTONES
1847 – 1st Code of Medical Ethics was adopted by
American Medical Association in Philadelphia
1882 – Alphonse Bertillon (a French police officer)
1st system of anthropometric identification adopted by
Parisian police.

48. MILESTONE
S
1892 - Francois Galton English Anthropometrist
introduced Systemic fingerprint identification records.

49. MILESTONES
1921 –John Larson in Berkeley, USA, invented
polygraph (Lie
detector)
1929 – 1st forensic medicine laboratory was
established in Chicago.
1930 – EDMOND LOCARD known as Sherlock
Holmes of France formulated a principle “ Locard’s
exchange principle” which states “The exchange of
materials between two objects occurs whenever
two objects come into contact with one another”

50. MILESTONE
S
EDMOND LOCARD

51. MILESTONES
1958 --The term ‘Psychological autopsy’ was coined
by
Edwin Shneidman, Norman Earberow, and Robert
Litman, directors of the Los Angeles suicide
prevention center (LASPC)
Psychological autopsy” is a “procedure for
investigating a person’s death by reconstructing what
the person thought, felt and did preceding his or her
death.” This reconstruction is based upon information
gathered from personal documents, police reports,
medical and coroner’s records and face to face
interview with families, friends and others who had
contact with the person before the death.

52. 1962 – Dr.Thomas Noguchi known as Coroner of the
stars did the Psychological Autopsy of Marylene
Monroe.

53. MILESTONES
1985 – Prof Alec Jeffrey (Leicester University) British
geneticist developed techniques for DNA finger
printing & profiling which are now used worldwide in
forensic science to assist police detective work and to
resolve paternity and immigration disputes.

54. MILESTONES
1990- Centre of DNA fingerprinting and diagnostics (CDFD)
established at Hyderabad. Operated by Dept. of Biotechnology.
Ministry of science and Technology Govt. of India.

55. MILESTONE
S
2001 –Lawrence Farwell invented brain
fingerprinting and the first EEG based brain
computer interface. He discovered the P-300
MERMER brain response and applied it in Forensic
neuroscience.

56. MILESTONES
2005 – Started Virtopsy project, by Prof. Richard
Dirnhofer of the Institutes of Forensic Medicine,
Diagnostic Radiology & Neuroradiology at the
University of Bern, Switzerland.

57. 2021- All India Institute of Medicine Sciences , New
Delhi recently started its first virtual autopsy.
The first in South East Asia.

58. Few Historical Events of
Toxicology.

59. Poisons
 In the past, the study of poisons were a
practical art utilized by murderers and
assassins.
Natural Poisons (Antiquity)
Primitive man used natural poisons from animals
and plants as weapons, hunting, and
assassinations
Toxicon a poisonous substance into which an
arrow head was dipped.

60. •Ebers Papyrus (1500 B.C.)
•Earliest collection of medical records with
references and recipes for poisons
•Egyptians distilled prussic acid from peach
kernels.
•Cyanogenic compound Prussic acid is a potent, rapidly
acting poison.
•Book of Job (speaks of poison arrows).

61. Chinese medicine (900 B.C.). Shen Nung the father of
Chinese medicine is noted for tasting 365 herbs and he died
of a toxic dose and wrote treatise on ‘Herbal Medical
Experiment Poisons’.
Hippocrates (400 B.C.)
(400 BC) showed that the ancient Greeks had a professional
awareness of poisons and of the principles of toxicology
Nicander (150 B.C.)
Used condemned criminals as subjects to experiment
with poisons.
•Write books on “antidotes to poisons”.

62. Mithridates VI- king of Pontus (135 BC)
•He ingested mixture of chemical to protect himself against poisons
•Used criminals to search for antidotes to venom and poisonous
substances.
•Mithridatic means antidote
•Dioscorides( A greeK physician) 90 AD- wrote book: De Materia
Medica
•Classification of poison (animal, plant, mineral)
•Emetics in the treatment of poisons.

63. Socrates
•Committed suicide with hemlock
•Guilia Tofana( 1600 AD)- Italy.
•Aqua tofana- mixture of arsenic and lead and belladonna.
•Prepared cosmetics containing arsenic..
•Removed enemies, husbands, etc
Th-SA

64. Catherine de Medici (1519-1589) AD- Wife of King Henry II of
France
• Tested poisons on poor and sick of France
•Keep a record of clinical signs and symptoms

65. Paracelsus (Most Important Concept of Toxicology) (1400s) AD -
Switzerland
“All substances are poisons, there is none which is not a poison.
The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.”
•Understood chemistry
•Poison in the body would be cured by a similar poison
(dose important).
•Salts as treatments.

66. Orfila (1800s) AD.
Professor of chemical and legal medicine at Paris.
•Forensic toxicology- considered FATHER OF MODERN
TOXICOLOGY.
Claude Bernard (1813-78)- Paris
 Effects on biological systems and Site of action of curare.

67. Modern Toxicology - late 1850s
- Anesthetics and disinfectant.
 During this period the world witnessed an explosion in
science that paved way for the beginning of the modern era
of various aspects of science.
 The introduction of ether, chloroform, and carbonic acid led
to several iatrogenic deaths.
 Introducing governmental laws and bill.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
FDA opened the India Office in New Delhi in 2008, to ensure
that food and medical products exported from India to the U.S.
are safe, are of good quality, and are effective. FDA’s goals in
India are to obtain information to help make better regulatory
decisions about the products from India that are being
developed and exported for the U.S. market

68.  Public Awareness (after WWII) 1939-1945 AD.
 Rachel Carson- wrote book ‘Silent Spring’
•Description of the devastating effects of pesticides on the
environment.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

69. The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that
occurred on Saturday 26 April 1986, at the
No. 4 reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near
the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR.
•Bhopal tragedy in 1984, INDIA.
•One of the worst industrial disasters
•Methyl isocyanate

70. CONCLUSION:
Medicine & Law have intermingled from the earliest era and
the bonds were religion, superstition & magic.
Science being incompetent to help in those times, so,
-Law adopted miracles as explanation,
-Superstition as proof &
-Confession as admission of guilt.
As the wheel of time rotates, thought process becomes
more clear and more scientific approaches take upper
hand.

71.  Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology. 26th
Edition,2018.
 The Essentials of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology; by
Dr. K.S. Narayan. Reddy, 34th Edition,2020.
 Forensic Medicine and Toxicology; by
Prof.J.B.Mukherjee,2nd edition,1994.
 Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology-Principles
and Practice; by Dr. Krishan Vij,5th edition 2011.
 Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology; by
Dr. Nageshkumar G Rao, 2nd edition,2010.
Website http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed on 23rd March
2021.
REFERENCES:-

72. Thank you