Tercer semana fund comm csf english

Introduction to Organizational
Communication
Individuals in Organizations
Chapter Five
Prepared by Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

Objectives
n Describe work force diversity
n Describe intrapersonal and interpersonal
experiences of individuals in organizations
n Describe theories of motivation
n Relate motivation to communication
behaviors

Objectives
n Understand communication preferences for
organizational life
n Understand how perceptions of
communication competencies affect work
satisfaction
n Describe the importance of trust for
interpersonal relationships

Objectives
n Describe workplace emotion, balance, and
interpersonal relationships
n Describe technology and interpersonal
relationships

Objectives
n Understand cultural intelligence
n Value diversity
n Practice active listening skills
n Practice analysis capabilities

Objectives
n Relate individual communication experiences
to organizational identification, work
performance, communication, and job
satisfaction
n Identify personal needs in work settings
n Relate valuing diversity to interpersonal
effectiveness

Individuals in Organizations
n An individual’s organizational experiences
result from
q The attitudes, beliefs, preferences, and abilities
the individual brings to the organization
q How the organization seeks to influence the
individual
q What types of organizational relationships the
individual develops
q Relationship with his or her supervisor and peers

Primary Communication Experiences of Individuals in
Organizations as it Relates to Organizational Outcomes; Figure
5.1
Organizational Influences
Organizational Goals and Culture
Task Requirements
Policies and Procedures
Reward Systems
Individual
Personal Needs
Predispositions
for Behavior
Communication
Competencies
Expectations
Skills
Small-Group
Experiences
Work Groups
Problem-Solving
Groups
Social Support Groups
Roles
Expectations (Norms
Information
Identification
Innovation
Power
Interpersonal
Experiences
Peers and Supervision
Information
Support
Identification
Expectations (Norms)
Evaluation
Power
Organizational Outcomes
Organizational Identification
Job Performance
Communication Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction

Key Terms
n Intrapersonal experiences - comprises our
personal needs, predispositions for behavior,
communication competencies, and
expectations.
n Motivation - term to describe intrapersonal
experiences that influence behavior.

Intrapersonal Experience
n The intrapersonal experience is based in part
on self-concept, which in turn is influenced by
a variety of past experiences, including
various group affiliations.
n Our intrapersonal experience is composed of
our personal needs, self-concept,
predispositions for behavior, communication
competencies, and expectations

Intrapersonal Experience
n Abraham Maslow
q Behavior is influenced by internal needs such as safety and
security, prestige and self-actualization
n Frederick Herzberg
q Described behavior as a result of both internal and
external motivators
n B. F. Skinner
q Viewed reinforcement from the external environment
as the primary influence for behavior
n Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer
q Workers’ job attitudes are a function of their
communication activities.

Key Concept
n Hierarchy of needs - Maslow’s description of
human behavior based on an ascending
order of physiological, safety and security,
love and social belonging, esteem and
prestige, and self-actualization needs.

Self Actualization
Esteem and Prestige
Love & Social Belonging
Safety and Security
Key Concepts
FIGURE 5.2
The Need Levels in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
FIGURE 5.2
The Need Levels in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009, 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. Arilgl hritgsh rtess reersveerdv ed

Key Concepts
n Motivation- the term used to describe
intrapersonal experiences that influence
behavior. We don’t see the motivation, but
we see behavior. We infer unseen internal
reactions have motivated that behavior.

Key Concepts
n Motivation-Hygiene theory - Herzberg’s
description of human behavior based on the
influence of both internal and external
factors. The theory proposes that satisfaction
and dissatisfaction are not polar opposites,
and what produces dissatisfaction with work
when corrected will not necessarily produce
motivation.

BF. Skinner
n Rewards Theory
q Human behavior can be motivated and is
influenced by rewards in the individuals’
environment
q Behavior reinforced through positive
feedback or tangible rewards will be
perpetuated, whereas behavior that does
not receive positive reinforcement will be
unlikely to continue

Gerald Salancik and Jeffery Pfeiffer (1978)
n Social Information Processing Theory
q The individual’s perception of the job or task
characteristics
q Information the social environment provides to
the individual about what attitudes are
appropriate (i.e., social information)
q The individual’s perception of the reasons for his
or her past behaviors
q Needs are the results or outcomes produced by
an individual’s perceptions and by the social
information available in the work environment

Gerald Salancik and Jeffery Pfeiffer (1978)
n How Social Information Influences Attitudes
q Overt, evaluative statements of coworkers directly
shape individual worker attitudes
q Frequent talk among coworkers about certain
dimensions of the job and work environment
focuses attention on what is considered to be
important or salient in the work setting
q Information from coworkers, or social information,
helps an individual worker interpret and assign
meaning to environmental cues and events in the
work setting; and finally
q Social information influences the way an individual
interprets his or her own needs

Predispositions for Organizational
Communication Behaviors
n Personally held preferences for particular types
of communication situations or behaviors. These
preferences are a result of intrapersonal needs
(motivation), personal self-concept, past
experiences, current information, and self-perception
of communication competency.

Key Concepts
n Communication apprehension -
predisposition for behavior described as an
individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated
with either real or anticipated communication
with others.
n Interpersonal experiences - descriptions of
important one-on-one organizational
relationships such as supervisors and
subordinates and peer-to-peer.

n Leadership and Conflict Preferences
q Individuals differ in their desire to lead others and in their
perception of what is effective leadership.
q Individuals differ in how they approach conflict.
q Leadership and conflict preferences have been theorized to
influence choice of communication strategies and tactics in
leadership and conflict situations. leadership and conflict
predispositions and preferences are an individual’s
combined concern for tasks or goals and people
relationships.
q These two concerns combine with past experiences and an
assessment of the present situation to influence behavior

n Communication Competency
q Individuals’ perceptions of their communication competencies—
knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values—influence their organizational
experiences.
q When individuals believe their competencies are lower than those of
others, they accept limited responsibilities.
q Individuals who assess their competencies as comparable to those of
others may willingly accept new responsibilities as challenging and
worthwhile.
q Perception of competency is related to communication apprehension,
leadership, conflict preferences, past experiences, the presence or
absence of particular skills, and deliberate attempts to improve
competencies.
q As such, perception of competency can be described as a summing up
of preferences and predispositions for organizational communication
behavior.

Interpersonal Experiences
n Interpersonal relationships in organizations
are formed for important task and social
considerations. Unlike our personal
relationships, the organization actually
structures for us many interpersonal
encounters necessary for task
accomplishment.

Interpersonal Experiences
n People are more comfortable with those who
are “like” themselves and with whom they
share values
n We form positive impressions of those who
have complementary rather than similar
characteristics

Supervisors and Employees
n The primary interpersonal relationship structured by the
organization. Because it is formed to support task and job
requirements, almost everyone in an organization
n The interaction of their characteristics influences the
satisfaction each person feels with the other and helps
determine the overall effectiveness of the relationship
n A supervisor who thinks an employee shares similar values is
more likely to view that employee as competent. Employees
are more likely to be satisfied with both work and supervision
if they perceive a high degree of communication competency
in the relationship.
n Employees’ satisfaction with their supervisors also has been
found to be directly related to their perception of their own
personal communication competence

n Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Theory)
n Leaders have limited time and resources and share both
their personal and positional resources differently with
their employees.
n In-group exchange is a high quality relationship
characterized by high levels of information exchange,
mutual support, informal influence, trust, and greater
negotiating latitude and input in decision influence.
n Out-group exchange, a low quality relationship in which
the opposite is observed (e.g., more formal supervision,
less support, and less trust and attention from the
superior)” (Jaesub Lee 1997, p. 269).

n Lee (2001)
q “Pelz effect” - The supervisor’s upward LMX with his or her own boss
q Individuals in high-quality LMX relationships were more likely than those in
low-quality relationships to believe supervisors distributed resources fairly
and used fair procedures and processes.
q These perceptions influenced how much employees reported sharing
information, ideas, and resources with work group peers. In other words, the
less favourable the relationships with the supervisor, the more likely
individuals were to withhold information even from their peers.
q The quality of LMX also influences the continuing socialization of
newcomers. The exchange influences the degree to which individuals
identify or not with the organization. It is possible to say LMX can be
characterized by both trust and doubt.

n Nature of Communication Between Supervisors and Employees
q Supervisors who are high in communication apprehension are not as well
liked as those lower in apprehension
q Relationships between supervisors and employees are influenced by a wide
variety of communication behaviors; the predispositions, preferences, and
abilities of both supervisors and employees; and overall work environments.
q Supervisors may spend from one-third to two-thirds of their time
communicating with employees. Employees want and seek interaction
with their supervisors
q The effectiveness of these message exchanges contributes to
employees’ job satisfaction, quality of work performed, commitment,
creativity, and overall communication satisfaction.

n Communication from Employees to Supervisors
n Paul Krivonos (1982) – Upward Communication
q Employees tend to distort upward information, saying what they think
will please their supervisors
q Employees tend to filter information and tell their supervisors what they,
the employees, want them to know
q Employees often tell supervisors what they think the supervisor wants to
hear
q Employees tend to pass personally favorable information to supervisors
while not transmitting information that reflects negatively on themselves.

n Communication from Employees to Supervisors
n Janet Fulk and Sirish Mani (1986) – Downward
Communication
q The perception of supervisors’ downward communication, or the
extent to which supervisors are perceived as actively withholding
information, influences the accuracy of upward messages.
q The more the supervisor withholds, the more employees withhold
and distort.
q If trust levels between supervisors and employees are low, and if
employees have mobility aspirations they believe their
supervisors can influence, there is likely to be a positivity bias
that distorts upward communication.

n Supervisor Influence
n Markku Jokisaari and Jari-erik Nurmi (2009)
q Levels of supervisor support were directly related to employee
role clarity, job satisfaction, and changes in salary levels.
q Employees reporting high perceived supervisor support also
reported role clarity and job satisfaction that was greater than
employees perceiving lower supervisor support.
q Employees reporting high supervisor support enjoyed rates of
salary increases that were higher than employees with less
supervisor support.

n Performance Expectations and Feedback
n Frequent gap in information and understanding between what the
supervisor perceives and what an employee believes to be true.
Supervisors and employees frequently differ on such important
issues as basic job duties, performance expectations, amount and
quality of communication exchange, and desirability of employee
participation in decision making
n Donald Campbell (2000) - common supervisor expectations
important for employees:
q Job and task competence
q Interpersonal effectiveness
q Organizational orientation
q Enterprising qualities
q Personal integrity

n Mentors/Mentee Relationships
q The mentor engages in coaching and advice extending beyond
immediate job requirements to include information on how to be
viewed as a successful contributor to the organization and how to
make decisions likely to result in favorable organizational
recognition
q Mentors are most likely to select for mentoring those individuals
who are similar to the mentor.

Peers
n Peers are all organizational members of approximately the same
organizational structure, role, and responsibility levels
n Relationships with peers are characterized by both task and social
interaction: peers communicate job information, advice, evaluation
of performance, and personal feedback
n Peer Advice Networks and Performance Evaluations
q Peers are central to the advice networks in which most individuals participate.
Advice networks form around information transfer, communicate professional
values, and contribute to both retarding and stimulating innovation
n Peer Friendships
q provide overall positive benefits for organizational members including: improved
workplace performance, reduced stress, favorable perceptions of personal
support, a positive work environment, and the ability to engage in change and
innovation.

Peers
n Negative Peer Relationships
n Patricia Sias and Tara Perry (2004) Five primary factors contributing
to poor peer relationships and actual relationship deterioration:
q Problem personality
q Distracting life events
q Conflicting expectations
q Promotion
q Betrayal

Customers, Clients and Vendors
n Relationships are based on exchanges of information about products, services,
timing, delivery, quality, and cost. These relationships often are established through
telemediated channels but remain important to the goals of all the parties involved in
the relationship
n Clarity of expectations among these parties is critical
n Network Links and Network Roles
q Liaisons
n Link or connect groups with common information without being members of either group
q Bridges
n Link groups together by having membership in two or more groups.
q Gatekeepers
n Routinely receive information and determine whether to transmit that information to the next link or
links in the chain
q Participants
n Individuals who participate in linked communication behaviors but who are not usually in liaison or
bridge roles – not influential
q Nonparticipants
n Formal members of groups but do not affiliate with others in the group to the extent that participants do
q Isolates all function differently in communication networks
n An individual with few or no communication links throughout the organization

Key Terms
n Valuing diversity - ability to understand and appreciate the
contributions that differences in people can make to
organizations.
n Diverse people bring different intrapersonal attitudes,
experiences, expectations, and competencies to
organizations. These differences can contribute to
organizational effectiveness when those with different styles
and values work together in interpersonal relationships
characterized by mutual understanding, respect, and
satisfaction.
n Differences can produce conflict, tension, stereotyping,
harassment, discrimination, abusive control, and exclusion, all
of which contribute to a variety of negative organizational
outcomes.

Trust and Interpersonal
Relationships
n Trust can be viewed as positive expectations about the
behavior of others based on roles, relationships,
experiences, and interdependencies

Workplace Emotion, Balance
and Interpersonal Relationships
n Understanding the various types of workplace emotion
and how they relate to balance between the personal
and professional contributes to our abilities to
understand complex organizational environments.
n The issue is not whether emotion at work is relevant to
our interpersonal relationships but how emotion impacts
work and relationships.
n E-mail exchanges routinely feature punctuation marks to
assist with the lack of nonverbal cues such as smiles or
frowns to express emotion

Technology and Interpersonal
Relationships
n The virtual work environment is creating new challenges
and experiences. Technology has changed and is
changing literally all types of relationships in which we
engage
n We work across time zones, different languages, cultural
differences, and geographic locations.
n We work with people without extensive information about
their backgrounds, values, or experiences.
n We are expected to work effectively with others, using a
variety of communications technologies

Increasing Interpersonal Effectiveness
n Cultural Intelligence
q An individual’s ability to understand the behaviors of other people
in terms of three classifications: those that are universally human,
those that are specific to an individual, and those that are rooted
in culture

Increasing Interpersonal Effectiveness
n Barriers to Valuing Diversity and Positive Approaches
q Preconceptions and Beliefs That Foster Inaccurate Information
and Confusion between Perceptions of Behaviors and Actual
Behaviors
n Positive Approach: Personalize Knowledge and Perceptions
q Stereotypes That Limit the Potential Contributions of Individuals
Based on Their Membership in a Group or Class
n Positive Approach: Tolerance for Ambiguity
q Prejudices That Produce Negative Emotional Reactions to Others
n Positive Approach: Nonjudgmentalness
q Stylistic Differences in Personal Communication That Inhibit
Interpersonal Relationships
n Positive Approach: Display of Respect

Brenda Allen (2004) Mindful and
Proactive Interactions
q What preconceived notions do I have about this person based on
social identity characteristics (whether we seem different or similar)?
q Are those notions positive, negative, or neutral?
q What’s the source of those preconceptions?
q Will my preconceptions facilitate or impede communication?
q Am I open to learning about this person and myself during this
interaction? Why or why not?
q Am I willing to be changed as a result of this interaction or
experience?
q What communication tools can I use to try to create genuine
communication?
FIGURE 5.5
Brenda Allen’s Checklist for Mindful and Proactive Interactions
Based on Brenda Allen, Difference Matters: Communicating Social Identity, 2004, p. 202.

Key Terms
n Active listening - processes of hearing,
assigning meaning, and verifying our
interpretations. Increases the accuracy of
message reception, enabling responses
based on what was said, not on what might
have been said.

Key Terms
n Descriptive messages - messages
characterized by ownership of perceptions
and conclusions and language which
presents facts, events, and circumstances all
parties to communication are likely to
observe or experience personally.

Key Terms
n Message ownership - attempts to verbally
communicate individual perceptions and
feelings without attempting to establish blame
or find unnecessary corroboration.
n Descriptive language - language choice
based on facts, events, and behavior as
opposed to language choice describing
attitudes, blame, or other subjective and
vague concepts.

Discussion Question #1
n Describe an organization of which you have
been a part. Outline your intrapersonal and
interpersonal experiences.

n If you were the head of a large organization,
what theory or approach to motivation would
you use? Why?

n If you were the head of a large organization,
what kind of superior-employee and peer
relationships would you encourage?

n Describe an occasion when an individual
communication experience affected your
sense of: organizational identification, work
performance, trust, communication, or job
satisfaction.

n Describe an occasion when either valuing
diversity, active listening, verbal ownership,
or descriptive language contributed to
organizational communication.

Fundamentals of
Organizational Communication:
Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values
9th Edition
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Fundamentals of Organizational
Communication
Strategic Organizational Communication:
Professional Applications of Organizational
Communication
Chapter Eleven

Objectives
n Describe strategic organizational
communication
n Define the role of the professional
communicator in strategic organizational
communication
n Describe crisis communication

Objectives
n Understand the complexity of strategic
organizational communication
n Develop an awareness of professional
responsibilities for strategic organizational
communication
n Utilize analysis capabilities to select options
for case problems

Objectives
n Assess personal skills related to
professional communication responsibilities
n Relate strategic communication to ethical
and value issues faced by organizations
n Understand value dimensions of
professional communication responsibilities

Perspectives on Strategic and
Organizational Communication
n Strategic organizational communication is
dynamic and influenced both within and without
the organization. It is strategic, proactive and
reactive. Strategic communication is closely
related to organizational excellence and the
ability of any organization to meet
environmental challenges.
n Planning frequently begins with an analysis of
the organizational environment

Key Terms
n Strategic organizational communication -
transactional processes in which
organizational messages are deliberately
generated, are based on environmental
data, analysis and strategy selection, and
are guided by organizational objectives.

Key Terms
n Stakeholders - individuals and groups who
have an interest in the organization and are
able to influence the organization’s ability to
meet its goals.
n Publics - small or large group of stakeholders
with interests and needs relative to a
particular organization.

Communication Strategy vs.
Tactics
n Strategy involves choice
q What issues are most important? What issues can or
should be ignored? Who should present what? Why
should it become a major theme? When is the best
timing for communication?
n Involves anticipating the reactions of others and
planning with those reactions in mind. Strategy
becomes the basis for action
n Communication tactics are the actions—both
planned and otherwise—that determine whether the
strategic objective is realized.

Key Concepts
n Environmental scanning - acquisition and use
of information about events and trends in an
organization’s external environment.
q Eric Eisenberg and H. L. Goodall (1997) pointed
out that boundary spanners, or organizational
members who have direct contact with the public
(such as salespeople or customer service
representatives), can play an important role in
gathering external data.

Key Concepts
n Environmental scanning - Should encompass all
factors likely to influence the organization, now
and in the future
q Identifying internal and external stakeholders and their
interests and needs.
q Point out trends and events in the competitive,
economic, technological, political, social, cultural,
ecological, and demographic arenas.
q These data may be used to forecast and strategize for
the short and long term.
q Environmental scanning increasingly is conducted with
interactive technologies.

Key Concepts
n The global environment – customers, clients,
donors, service users are literally everywhere
—networked with sophisticated technologies,
spanning diverse cultures and needs,
challenging past understanding of multiple
publics and environmental data

Key Terms
n SWOT - strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats identified for
strategic planning (Kenneth Andrews and C.
Roland Christensen, 1971)
q Strengths
q Weaknesses
q Opportunities
q Threats

Positioning Strategy
n Strategic organizational communication, the
focus is on the development of positioning
strategy.
q “a (competitive) strategy is a clear statement of
why customers should choose a company’s
products or services over those of competing
companies.” (Eisenberg and Goodall, 1997)

Positioning Strategy
Most of the models are still based on the SWOT
analysis and contain, in some form or another, the
following phases:
1. Scanning and interpreting the internal and external
environments
2. Formulating a mission, or vision for the future, and
transforming it into specific objectives
3. Developing strategy and implementing supporting
programs
4. Monitoring, reviewing, and revising the plan and its
implementation.

Strategic Organizational
Communication
n Phillip Clampitt, Robert DeKoch, and Thomas
Cashman (2000)
q Effective communication strategy as having the
following characteristics:
n Linking to organizational goals
n Legitimizing certain issues and delegitimizing others
n Shaping organizational memory
n Making sense of the confusing and ambiguous
n Providing a proper point of identity
n Continuously evolving

Key Terms
n Public relations - strategic organizational
communication involving an organization’s
image, internal communication, public affairs
and issues management, media relations,
and crisis management.

Image Communication
n The planned building and maintaining of an
organization’s reputation
n The image or reputation of an organization
is central to the ability of the organization to
meet its overall goals or objectives To many,
however, the term image building carries
mixed connotations based on a skepticism of
whether or not planned, communicated
images reflect organizational reality

Key Terms
n Internal communications - planned and formalized
communication prepared and disseminated by
communication professionals to internal
organizational members.
q Seeking input from employees through surveys, interviews,
meetings, or other methods; communicating the organization’s
mission, objectives, strategies, and programs through training
activities or the preparation and dissemination of newsletters,
manuals, pamphlets, and other publications; establishing
formalized structures to improve the quality and flow of
organizational communication; creating Web sites for internal
use; determining which social media will be utilized with
employees; and in general managing all communications
designed to help the organization achieve its strategic objectives.

Key Terms
n Public affairs and issues management –
shaping of public opinion regarding social
and political issues important to an
organization
n Media relations - working with the media on
behalf of the organization.
n Risk communication – communication
prepared to educate about potential risks and
provide information about how to reduce
potential harm.

Raymond Ewing (1997)
Seven-step model of the issues management
process:
1. Issue identification, or scanning the social and
political environments for emerging issues
2. Issue analysis, or projecting how an issue will
affect the organization
3. Development of a corporate/non-profit policy
position on an issue
4. Development of specific action plans to deal
with issues

Raymond Ewing (1997)
Seven-step model of the issues management
process:
5. Implementation of action plans and
communication of the organization’s positions on
issues
6. Review of the results, including public
reactions, objections, negotiations, and
organizational adjustments
7. Continued focus on the issue until it no longer
influences the organization.

Key Terms
n Marketing - strategic organizational communication
which is directed at bringing about an exchange
between an organization and a customer.
n Integrated marketing communications - process of
managing all sources of information about a product
which behaviorally moves the customer toward a
sale and maintains customer loyalty.
q The Marketing Mix
n Product decisions
n Pricing decisions
n Place decisions
n Promotion decisions

Key Terms
n Advertising—planned messages which are part of
the promotional marketing mix which utilize media to
reach intended audiences to stimulate a desired
impact such as product purchase or behavior
change.
n Branding – process of developing product or service
naming and identity statements which distinguish
products or services from competitor products or
services.

Key Terms
n Crisis communication – communication
response in emergency situations designed to
minimize harm to the organization and assist
in understanding and responding to the
emergency.
n Crisis management - Use of public relations
to minimize harm to the organization in
emergency situations that could cause
damage.

Risk and Crisis Communication
n The production of messages for the
organization’s various publics with regard to
potential risks and their consequences.
n Risk messages often include information on how
the organization is assessing or monitoring the
risk, what preventive measures—if any—are in
place, how the organization will respond if a
perceived risk becomes a reality, and what
individuals can do (self-efficacy) to reduce their
personal or environmental risks.

Kathleen Fearn-Banks (2008) concluded a crisis
has five stages:
1. Detection
2. Prevention/preparation
3. Containment
4. Recovery
5. Learning.” The stages are not linear, with
several stages potentially occurring at once.
Communication professionals most often are
involved in all stages.

Strategic crisis communication
1. Informs publics
2. Acknowledges events with both empathy and a
desire to establish credibility
3. Helps publics understand risks and current
state of information; and
4. Honestly examines problems and resolution to
problems.

6 Common Crisis Communication Mistakes
1. Failing to develop a crisis plan and failing to identify a
core crisis response team.
2. Denying the serious nature of the event.
3. Attempting to block the public and media from essential
information about the event.
3. Communicating only partial information
4. Failing to understand and respond to the differing needs
of differing publics, stakeholders, or audiences.
5. Failing to express concern.
6. Blaming others without adequate support for the
assertion.

James Lukaszewski (1997)
n Establishing communication priorities:
q Those most directly affected
q Employees
q Those indirectly affected such as neighbors, customers, families,
suppliers, government, regulators, and so on
q The media and other channels of external communication.

Key Terms
n Social media—Information created by
organizations and individuals using highly
accessible mostly interactive communication
technologies

Key Terms
n Technology and strategic organizational
communication – the website as a staple of
strategic communication, increasing
presence of social media, emerging use of
enterprise social media (EMS)

George Cheney and Lars Christensen (2001)
n Identified seven issues with ethical, moral, and even legal
implications resulting from planned communication:
q The posited character or integrity of the source of the
message
q The defensibility of a particular message
q The legitimacy of a pattern or campaign of messages
q The practical impact of a message or the cumulative
effect of a series of messages
q The openness of the structure of communication
between an organization and its publics/audiences
q The articulation/representation of genuine public
interests
q The question of shared responsibility.

n Distinguish between strategic
organizational communication and other
forms of organizational communication.
What special skills might be required to
fulfill professional responsibilities in the
field of strategic organizational
communication?

n Describe the relationship between the
development of strategy and the
communication functions of public relations
and marketing. What are some
communications activities public relations and
marketing professionals might use to help
carry out overall business strategy?

n Give examples of ethical issues that a public
relations or marketing professional might
face. What possible behavior choices or
solutions are available to the professional,
and what are their implications?

n Consider the importance of the organizational
environment in the context of strategic
organizational communication. Give an example of a
professional communication responsibility or
problem, and describe an approach or solution that
utilizes two-way communication between the
organization and its environment to improve the
chance of a successful outcome.

n Describe some strategic educational activities
that a communication professional might use
to help an organization improve adaptability,
coping processes, and problem solving.
Which activities do you deem most valuable
and why?

Discussion Questions # 6
n Discuss the challenges organizational
professionals face when strategically
planning the use of social media. How can
organizations know which media should be
utilized and which should be avoided?
Provide rationales for your choices.

Communication
Career Options for Organizational Communication
Chapter Twelve

Objectives
n Describe influences for career decisions
n Identify career option areas and educational
preparation for organizational communication
n Describe 21st century careers

Objectives
n Identify personal influences for career
decisions
n Understand employment matching
n Assess individual career development needs

Objectives
n Practice analysis capabilities for career
decisions
n Relate personal and organizational values to
the employment match
n Understand continuous change as important
for careers

Choosing a Communication
Career n All careers are communication careers
n Careers are the sum total of job experiences
over time
n Employment Match
q Knowledge for Employment Matching
q Sensitivity for Employment Matching
q Skills for Employment Matching
q Values for Employment Matching

Key Terms
n Employment match - when individual
competencies match organization
competencies and the individual becomes a
working member of the organization.

Employment Match
n Knowledge for Employment Matching
q Develop knowledge about the functional requirements needed in
specific occupational categories.
n Sensitivity for Employment Matching
q Know what expectations you have
q Self-awareness
q Know what sensitivities the organization has
n Skills for Employment Matching
q Know your technical qualifications
n Values for Employment Matching
q Evaluate your values versus those of the organization

Key Terms
n Internal communication careers - work within
an organization to assist management in
employee and management communication,
coordinate a variety of training activities,
coordinate internal communication media,
facilitate team building, and develop
numerous other communication activities.

Internal Communication Careers
1. Provide consultation, assistance, and guidance to management on
matters relating to employee and management communication;
coordinate employee communication pro-grams and activities;
coordinate publishing of regular employee media including social
media; advise, coordinate, and conduct attitudinal and other polls
among employees; provide editorial and publishing services; and
produce, edit, and distribute special publications.
2. Develop and maintain informational units to serve the needs of
senior management and the communication department.
3. Develop, coordinate, and implement small-group, face-to-face
communication programs to facilitate team building, problem
identification, and problem solving.

Key Terms
n External communication careers -
responsibility for external public relations
activities; corporate advertising; community,
shareholder, financial and government
relations; corporate literature, sales
promotions, and special productions.

External Communication
1C. Gauidree aned drevselo p a full range of external public relations activities
including advertising; crisis communication; community, shareholder, financial,
and government relations; and the production of corporate literature, sales
promotions, marketing, and special productions.
2. Direct and coordinate all activity in the development, implementation, and
administration of an organizational identification system, covering all aspects of
visual communication, materials, and media.
3. Evaluate, direct, and coordinate uses of new media including social media
for all types of organizational communication and e-commerce.
4. Have administrative responsibility for public relations and development
departments.
5. Have responsibility for risk and crisis communication.

Key Terms
n Sales careers - representing products and
services to potential customers.
n Human services careers - responsibility for
fund-raising, grant writing, and other formal
budget justification processes. Human service
professionals engage in counseling, design,
administration, and evaluation of programs;
they also engage in responsibilities similar to
internal communication careers.

Key Terms
n Careers in education- teaching in high
schools, junior colleges, and universities and
curriculum development including for on-line
programs.

Key Terms
n Research and information management
careers - responsibility for the design and
development of research programs to
support the ongoing activities of the
organization or to chart a course of change;
responsibility for the acquisition and the
interpretation of information and the
selection of technologies to support decision
making and e-commerce.

Key Terms
n Management careers - responsibility for
planning, coordinating, supervising, and
controlling many of the activities of the
organization.
n Consulting careers - work as an external
adviser to organizations to identify
problems, evaluate performance, find
solutions, and implement a wide variety
of change activities.

Educational Preparation for Organizational
Communication Careers
n Broad liberal arts background with emphasis on
combination of theory and practical courses
n Overview of the human communication process, an
introduction to basic concepts and theories in
organizational communication, and an
understanding of how theories of organizations
relate to human communication
n Development of oral skills for interpersonal, small-group,
and public settings.
n Basic research methods and statistics are essential
for evaluating and collecting data, a responsibility of
many communication positions

The Employment Search
n Informational interview - Interview to gather data for
problem solving and decision making
n Employment interview - An exchange of questions
between an individual seeking employment and the
individuals responsible for evaluating job applicants
q Effective employment interviewing involves preparation
and practice
q Prepare to provide concise but descriptive answers to a
variety of questions about you
q Role playing is a valuable method for improving your
interviewing skills
q Ask informed questions of the interviewer about the job

Old School vs. New School
n Michael Arthur, Priscilla Claman, and Robert DeFillippi (1995)
n The old career paradigm
n Implied mutual loyalty between employees and organizations.
n Employee compliance was rewarded with job security.
n Job rewards were deferred to the future, and
n Career opportunities were mostly standardized and prescribed by the firm.
n Employees often expected to stay with one organization for an entire career and relied
on the organization to specify jobs and their associated occupational skill base.
n Employees were expected to identify with their particular firm and forgo general
development in favor of firm-specific learning.
n Management set strategic direction and defined competitiveness, and
n The corporate agenda generally discouraged independent enterprise.
n There was little identification with other regional firms, which were generally viewed as
competitors.
n Corporate allegiance meant that project goals were subordinated to corporate policy
and organizational constraints.
n Loyalty to the work group was expected, and the organization formed a distinct
boundary within which careers were expected to be pursued.

Old School vs. New School
n Michael Arthur, Priscilla Claman, and Robert DeFillippi (1995)
n The new career paradigm
n The concept of discrete exchange means explicit exchange of specified
rewards in return for task performance
n Basing job rewards on the current market value of the work being performed
n Engaging in disclosure and renegotiation on both sides as the employment
relationship unfolds, and exercising flexibility as each party’s interests and
market circumstances change
n Occupational excellence means performance of current jobs in return for
developing new occupational expertise
n Employees identifying with and focusing on what is happening in their
adopted occupation
n Emphasizing occupational skill and development over the local demands of
any particular firm
n Getting training in anticipation of future job opportunities; and having
training lead jobs

Key Terms
n Networked organization - partners or
alliances across groups and organizations to
leverage the best possible resources for a
given project.
n Cellular organization - collaborative but not
considered permanent association of
professionals working together for a specific
project or service.

Allred, Snow, and Miles
n Core competencies for the networked
organization (p. 21)
n Referral skills rely on the ability to analyze a problem and prescribe
a solution within the network firm and across its partners.
n Partnering skills refer to the capacity to conceptualize, negotiate,
and implement mutually beneficial outcomes.
n Relationship management involves giving high priority to the needs
and preferences of key customers and partners. In dynamic
multifirm networks, in which company participation may be periodic,
relationships among past, present, and potential customers and
partners must be carefully maintained

n Are most individuals aware of the influences
that impact their career decisions? How might
awareness of such personal influences be
enhanced/used?

n Review and add to the list of professional
responsibilities of communication
professionals. How are these responsibilities
affected by advances in technology and the
rapidly changing and competitive business
environment? What are the implications for
careers in the 21st century?

Fundamentals of
Organizational Communication:
Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values
9th Edition
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copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:
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any image over a network;
• preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in
whole or in part, of any images;
• any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Communication
Leadership and Management Communication
Chapter Seven

Objectives
n Describe leadership from trait, style,
transformational, discursive, and situational
approaches
n Distinguish between leadership and
management
n Clarify a personal “theory” of leadership

Objectives
n Understand leadership styles, strategic
objectives, and tactics
n Assess leadership strategies and tactics
n Practice analysis capabilities and skills using
cases, transcripts of meetings, and group
activities

Objectives
n Relate leadership to organizational
excellence
n Understand the need for leadership from all
organizational members
n Describe principled and ethical leadership

Key Terms
n Leadership - process for guiding individuals,
groups, and entire organizations in
establishing goals and sustaining action to
support goals.
n Management - responsibility, specifically
assigned by the organization, to direct and
evaluate the work of others.

Key Terms
n Trait approach - theory of leadership that
assumed that leaders possessed innate traits
that made them effective; commonly referred
to as the “great man” theory.
q Early theories of effective leadership assumed leaders had innate
traits that made them effective. That is, great leaders were
considered to be born with the ability for leadership. This theory
of the “great man” first surfaced in the writings of the early
Greeks and Romans and is prevalent today among those who
believe that leadership cannot be developed, that you either have
leadership qualities or you don’t.

Key Terms
n Style approach - theories which attempt to
identify a range of general approaches
leaders use to achieve goals. The
approaches are thought to be based on the
leader’s assumptions about what motivates
people to accomplish goals.

Key Terms
n Autocratic - style of leader or manager who
makes decisions with little influence from
others.
n Democratic - style of leader or manager who
involves followers in decision making.

Key Terms
n Laissez-faire - style of leader or manager
who behaves as a nonleader. Individuals and
groups are expected to make their own
decisions based on a “hands off” approach
from the leader.
n Impoverished management - leadership style
characterized by a low concern for
interpersonal relationships and task
accomplishment.

Key Terms
n Middle-of-the-road management - style of
leader who balances task and people
concerns; commonly referred to as
compromise management or leadership.

Key Terms
n Country-club management - style of leader or
manager who emphasizes interpersonal
relationships at the expense of goal
achievement.

Key Terms
n Task management - style of leader or
manager who is concerned with goals or task
achievement while exhibiting little concern for
personal relationships; commonly referred to
as autocratic leadership.

Key Terms
n Team management - team leadership or
management is the theoretical ideal. Team
leaders exhibit high concern for both task and
interpersonal relationships by emphasizing
goal accomplishment while supporting
people.

Key Terms
n Situational approaches - leadership theories
that explore how leaders interact with
followers and the requirements of a particular
environment.
q Fred Fiedler (1976) The approach or style an
effective leader chose depended on a combination
of task, relationship, power, and situational
contingencies

Situational Approaches
n Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard (1977)
q Effectiveness of a particular leader was related to
the leader’s selection of behavior appropriate to
the maturity level of the follower group. Maturity
was based on achievement, motivation, ability,
education, experience, and the willingness to
participate responsibly in goal-oriented activities

Key Terms
n Transformational approaches - leadership theories that
explore how leaders motivate followers by personal
example, through appeals to higher level needs, and by
the establishment of vision.
n Hackman & Johnson (2009)
q “The transactional leader is most concerned with
the satisfaction of physiological, safety, and
belonging needs. To meet these needs, a
transactional leader exchanges rewards or
privileges for desirable outcomes…”
q Transformational leaders are creative, interactive,
visionary, empowering, and passionate

Key Terms
n Empowerment - process of giving employees
the maximum amount of power to do a job as
they see fit; includes both responsibility and
accountability for work performed
n Warren Bennis (1992)
q “Today’s leader must create an organizational culture
where ideas come through unhampered by people
who are fearful. Such leaders are committed to
problem-finding, not just problem-solving. They
embrace error, even failure, because they know it will
teach them more than success. . .”

Key Terms
n Dispersed leadership - leadership responsibilities broadly
distributed throughout the organization.
n SuperLeadership
q The art of leading others to lead themselves.
q SuperLeaders create SuperFollowers, who become skilled self-leaders
q The fundamentals of SuperLeadership include
n Establishing a vision
n Defining goals for the leader and for the followers
n Reinforcing individuals for good performance
n Using constructive contingent reprimands
n Managing and facilitating change
n Enhancing the self-efficacy of followers
n Using models to teach desired and appropriate behaviors.

Key Concepts
n Discursive approaches—examine leadership
processes through discourses which
influence the accomplishment or lack of
accomplishment of tasks and goals.

Leadership Vs. Management
n Distinction between leadership and formal
authority
n Bennis and Nanus (1985)
q The vision leaders provide is the clearest of all
distinctions between leaders and managers
q “Great leaders often inspire their followers to high
levels of achievement by showing them how their
work contributes to worthwhile ends. It is an
emotional appeal to some of the most
fundamental human needs.”

Leadership and Management Challenges
n Confronting Ethics and Failures
n Changing Organizational Forms
n Global and Multicultural Changes
n Chaos, Flux and Speed
n Inclusive-Participation Processes
n Building Trust

Determinants of Leadership Effectiveness
n Communication Competencies
q Knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values must all be understood and
developed for both individuals and entire organizations to be effective in
our emerging information era
n Predispositions for Leadership Communication
q The knowledge, sensitivity, skills, and values we bring to particular
situations
n Strategic Communication Objectives for Leadership
q The general game plans leaders employ for conducting communication
based on personal preferences or predispositions and on assessments
of the probable outcomes within particular contexts
n Communication Tactics for Leadership
q Communication behaviors used to support authoritarian, participative, and
avoidance preferences as well as to establish vision, manage meaning, generate
trust, and communicate regard and success orientations

Key Terms
n Power bases - influence an individual has
over another as a result of dependency on
the powerful person. Power bases are
commonly identified as legitimate, reward,
coercive, referent, expert, and connection.

Key Terms
n Legitimate power - power emerging from the
positions, titles, or roles people occupy.
n Reward power - power based on the leader’s
control and distribution of tangible and
intangible resources.
n Coercive power - power based on the
sanctions or punishments within the control of
the leader.

Key Terms
n Referent power - power based on others
identifying with the leader.
n Expert/information power - power based on
information the leader knows as a result of
organizational interaction or areas of
technical specialty.

Key Terms
n Connection power - power resulting from who
the leader knows and the support he or she
has from others in the organization.

Key Terms
n Principled leadership - leadership that
provides a consistent message, has a
perspective for unleashing talent, practices
ego suppression, and creates leaders.

Team Leader Principles
1. Avoid compromising the team’s objective with political
issues.
2. Exhibit personal commitment to team goals.
3. Do not dilute the team’s efforts with too many
priorities.
4. Be fair and impartial toward all team members.
5. Be willing to confront and resolve issues associated
with inadequate performance by team members.
6. Be open to new ideas and information from team
members.

n Team Leader Principles
7. Provide help to other team members when
needed and appropriate.
8. Demonstrate high standards of excellence.
9. Stand behind and support team decisions.
10. Demonstrate courage of conviction by directly
confronting important issues.
11. Demonstrate leadership in ways that
contribute to the team’s success.
12. Respond constructively to feedback from
others.

n Team Leader Behaviors for Decision Making
n 1. Trust team members with meaningful levels
of responsibility.
n 2. Give team members the necessary
autonomy to achieve results.
n 3. Present challenging opportunities that stretch
the individual abilities of team members.
n 4. Recognize and reward superior performance.
n 5. Stand behind the team and support it.

Identifying Constructive Communication
Behaviors for Leadership
n Task Responsibilities
q Leaders have task, procedural, and interpersonal
responsibilities
n Procedural Responsibilities
q responsible for procedures such as goal setting, agenda
making, discussion clarification, and both consensus and
disagreement identification
n Interpersonal Responsibilities
q Leaders make significant contributions to the interpersonal
dynamics of groups

n Of the five approaches to leadership (trait,
style, situational, transformational, or
discursive), which, in your opinion, best
describes leadership? Why?

n Describe your own personal “theory” of
leadership.

n Think about a group or organization of which
you have been a member. Outline the impact
of leadership style, strategic objectives, and
communication tactics on the group or
organization’s effectiveness.

n Describe differences between leadership and
management.

n How is excellence in leadership related to:
vision, meaning, trust, positive self regard,
and success orientation?

n Discuss the implications of identifying guiding
principles for leadership.

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