Victim Intrusive Recollection

Victim Intrusive Recollection
Intrusive recollections can take the form of flashbacks whereby "victims find themselves reliving
the traumatic event, often to the point of being completely unaware of their current surroundings"
(Vitelli, 2014 pg. 61) Intrusive images are a result of cue–dependent memory where sounds, sights
or any other sense that may have been connected to the traumatic event triggers these images
(Brewin, 1996 as cited in Crane & Hannibal, 2009). Images are defined as: "contents of
consciousness that possess sensory qualities as opposed to those that are purely verbal or abstract"
(Hackmann, 1998, p. 301 cited in Brewin, Gregory, Lipton & Burgess, 2010). It is these vivid
sensory qualities of the images that appear more distressing to the victim ... Show more content on
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Initially, most of the details are held in the Situationally Accessible Memory system (SAMs). This
system contains sensory and spatial imagery that are accessed involuntarily. Subcortical pathways
are used to deliver messages to the amygdala, responsible for fear conditioning. Information travels
rapidly and is analyzed only by areas of the brain involved in perception rather than higher order
cognition. The lack of involvement of the hippocampus results in the memories not being
contextualized and as being experienced as occurring again in the present. On the other hand, the
Verbally Accessible Memory system (VAMs) can be accessed voluntarily and contains records of
conscious experience, which support reappraisal of the details of the traumatic event. In PTSD, the
trauma is stored in the SAMs without any involvement of the VAMs. This results in the retrieval of
the SAMs to be triggered involuntarily without any retrieval of the autobiographical
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Inattentive Adhd Research Paper
Inattentive Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder interferes with the brain; therefore, the
condition should be medicated. This disorder is diagnosed by a certified psychiatrist, whose job is to
evaluate and diagnose symptoms of a mental illness. In this case, the condition is Inattentive
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Inattentive ADHD can and should be medicated because
of the severe detriments it causes to the human brain. Inattentive Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder is a " persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity–impulsivity that interferes with
functioning or development" (ADHD Educational Institute). There are three subsets of ADHD:
predominantly hyperactive–impulsive, predominantly inattentive, and ... Show more content on
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In most cases, all the patient's affected skills again the skills of planning, organizing, priority setting,
deciding what's important when reading, retaining information, and interpreting verbal directions. A
functioning cognitive state is returned to functioning condition and the impediment of the mental
disorder is rectified. Medication for Inattentive Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder corrects the
deficiencies in the brain chemistry; therefore, restoring a normal cognitive function. Medication for
this disorder can greatly increase achievement in academia. Along with restored functioning,
stimulant medication for Inattentive ADHD is "associated with a reduction of the core symptoms of
ADHD and increased academic productivity" (Loe). Stimulants have also been proven to increase
"academic productivity as indicated by improvements in the quality of note–taking, scores on
quizzes and worksheets, the amount of written–language output, and homework completion" (Loe).
Medication greatly improves the chances of succeeding when diagnosed with Inattentive ADHD.
Inattentive ADHD is a detriment to patients diagnosed with the condition. Patients are affected
because they lose skills necessary to function: planning, organizing, priority setting, deciding what's
important when reading, retaining information, and interpreting verbal directions. This is because of
a chemical deficiency of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain. Inattentive Attention
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder interferes with brain chemistry; therefore, the condition should be
medicated to decrease the influence of the disorder on the

Smooth Muscle Contraction Research Paper
Noradrenaline is chemical transmitter at the post–ganglionic sympathetic nerve ending and also
adrenaline from the medulla of the adrenal gland. This happens from the stimulation of the
sympathetic nervous system. Combined actions of both adrenaline and noradrenaline you get these
major physiological responses to sympathetic stimulation;
Contraction of the smooth muscle (example. Blood vessels, pupil of the eye) – actions of both
adrenaline and noradrenaline effects result in stimulating alpha (A)–receptors located on the smooth
muscle cells. The most important action is on the vascular smooth muscle; large arteries and veins as
well as arterioles are constricted, from this it results in decreased vascular compliance, increased
central venous pressure and increased peripheral resistance. These all contribute to an increase in
systolic and diastolic arterial pressure. (a)–receptors involved in smooth muscle contraction are
mainly a1 in type, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The twitch tension of fast–contracting fibres (white muscle) is increased by adrenaline, particularly
if the muscle is fatigued. Whereas the twitch of slow (red) muscle is reduced. These effects depend
on an action on the contractile proteins, rather than on the membrane and the mechanism is poorly
understood. In humans, adrenaline and other b2–agonists cause a marked tremor: shakiness that
accompanies fear, excitement or the excessive use of b2–agonists (example: salbutamol) in the
treatment of asthma examples of this. This results from an increase in muscle spindle discharge,
coupled with an effect on the contraction kinetics of the fibres, these effects combining to produce
an instability in the reflex control of muscle length. Beta–receptor antagonists are sometimes used to
control pathological tremor. The b2–agonists also cause long–term changes in the expression of the
sarcoplasmic reticular proteins that can control contraction of skeletal

Inotropics
selected demographic variables with total knowledge and total practice scores among the studied
sample.
Table (7) presents Comparison of total mean knowledge and practice scores regarding
administration of inotropics among the studied subjects by their educational categories and work
area. It revealed that there is high significant statistical difference among the means of the
knowledge and practice scores of the studied subjects by their educational level where f =19.5, p=
0.001&f= 7.30;P=0.00 respectively. As the participants who carrying baccalaureate degree has got
higher means in both knowledge and practice when compared to participants carrying technical and
diploma degree. On the other hand, there is no significant statistical difference ... Show more
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In addition, This finding is agreed with Altun, et al (2010) who Conducted a study to determine if a
structured workshop on best practice technique for the administration of injection for the nurses
results in an improvement in knowledge on the subject. Lecture based practice technique of
administration of injections helped to improve nurses knowledge and helped to overcome
deficiencies in nurses training. Also this findings are congruent with Scarlet(2006) who stated that
the infusion nurse specialist need to have knowledge and skills necessary to recognize and respond
appropriately, when anaphylaxis occurs. Nurse's insufficient drug calculation skills contribute to 1.5
– 4.9% of error rate in infusion preparation task (Parshuram, et al 2008). Research has demonstrated
that an educational programme can raise nurse's awareness– about medication errors. and other
medication related safety issues (Elnour, et al 2008& Schreiber, et al (2007) ).Research findings
warn that more than half of life threatening errors are related to rapid infusion of high alert
medications such as inotropics (Glandstone,1995(. From

The Pathology Of A Newly Diagnosed Cancer Patient Than The...
It would be better to include the poorly differentiated cancer cells in the pathology report of a newly
diagnosed cancer patient than the well–differentiated ones. Differentiation of cells means their
specialization in the work that they are intended to do. For example, breast cells are different from
liver cells. Hence, they are differentiated to perform the functions of the breast, while liver cells are
specialized so as to accomplish tasks of the liver in the human body. Therefore, well–differentiated
cells are those that are close to the normal cells of the body part in which they appear. On the other
hand, poorly differentiated cells are those that are completely different, immature and do not
perform tasks of the body part in which they appear (Shibata, 2012). The poorly differentiated cells
are more likely to divide and replicate at a very high rate. The fact that they are disorganized implies
that they will also spread uncontrollably and to any part of the body that they can grow to. The well–
differentiated cells spread at a much slower rate. Both types of cells may be cancerous but the well–
differentiated ones represent cancer in its early stages, and that is spreading slowly. The poorly
differentiated ones point to cancer that has the potential of spreading at a very high rate. As such, it
is important for the new doctor and patient to identify the poorly differentiated cancer cells that have
the potential of spreading fast. This early recognition of this type of

Stress Induced Cardiomyopathy : Takotsubo Disease
Stress Induced Cardiomyopathy – Takotsubo Disease Stress–Induced Cardiomyopathy has earned
many names since being described in 1990. Takotsubo, a Japanese term for an octopus's trap,
describes the systolic apical ballooning of the left ventricle in the most common form of the disease.
Broken–heart syndrome alludes to the common strong emotional trigger which seems to initiate the
disorder. The patient, typically an elderly or post–menopausal woman, presents with symptoms
typical of an acute myocardial infarction but there is an absence of angiographic evidence for
obstructive coronary artery disease or plaque rupture. While this disease typically resolves on its
own, without complication, it is important to understand the secondary effects of the abnormal
ventricular function. Epidemiology Takotsubo cardiomyopathy was first described in Japan in 1990.
It is much more common in women than in men. In the International Takotsubo Registry (a
consortium of 26 centers in Europe and the United States) of 1750 patients with stress–induced
cardiomyopathy, about 89.9% of patients are post–menopausal females with a mean age of 66.4
years. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute estimated that in 2007 in the United States,
about 1.2 million people would have a myocardial infarction. Of those, Takotsubo would account for
about 1% of cases presenting with troponin–positive suspected Acute Coronary Syndrome or ST–
elevation myocardial infarction. (CCN, 2009) Studies have

High Intensity Interval Training
There is a current obesity epidemic in the United States. More and more Americans, both men and
women, are turning to exercise as a means of weight loss. Participating in an exercise program can
help facilitate weight loss by increasing caloric and fat expenditure. Many people begin an exercise
regime with hopes of gaining muscle and losing fat at the same time; however, often times it is more
complicated than that. Different modes of exercise have various effects on the body. For example,
hormonal responses vary with type of exercise training and gender. Men tend to have more
testosterone, which contributes to higher levels of fat free mass, compared to women. Resting
metabolic rate is also lower in women. These factors result in women having lower energy
expenditure during activity than men, and often have a harder time losing weight and body fat. So
what modes of exercise are best to promote fat loss and preserve lean body mass? It was once
believed that regular steady state low intensity exercise such as walking and jogging at a moderate
intensity was most effective to induce fat loss. Unfortunately, these types of protocols have failed to
produce significant weight reduction. More recently, many studies have examined the effects of high
intensity interval training on weight loss and body fat reduction. High intensity interval training is a
highly controversial exercise method that is argued to promote a lean body. This type of training
involves intermittent

Phaeochromocytoma Case Study
Pheochromocytoma is a catecholamine–producing tumor that originates from cromaffin cells of the
adrenergic system, most commonly in the adrenal medulla. There are two main steps in the
diagnosis of pheochromocytoma: biochemical demostration of excessive catecholamine secretion
and radiological localization of the causative tumor.
Patient with phaeochromocytoma may come to medical attention due to their hypertension (which is
paroxysmal in aproximately one–thirdof patients, but can also be sustained) or because of the
clinical features that stem from the increased secretion of catecholamines (i.e. epinephrine and
norepinehprine).
In any case, the diagnosis should be suspected in patients with one or more of the following: onset
of hypertension ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
False positive results can arise due to the presence of other medical conditions (most notably
obstructive sleep apnea) and medications (such as selective serotonin–reuptake inhibitors or SSRIs)
that can cause the elevation of metanephrines, hence patients should stod taking all medications that
can possibly interfere with the results prior to testing.
Chromogranin A is a major secretory protien present in the cormaffin granules and a very effective
tumor marker that can improve the sensitivity of diagnostic testing and long–term follow–up for
pheochromocytoma. Clonodine suppression and glucagon stimulation tests have been studied, but
are seldom required and have not been validated in the diagnosis of childhood pheochromocytoma.
Radiographic

Furtebrate Stress Response
Stress can be broadly defined as any stimulus that disrupts homeostasis, with the stress response
referring to physiological and behavioral reactions to such a stimulus (Selye, 1950).In vertebrates
the stress response is an evolutionary conservative process mediated by the HPA axis that allows
organisms to respond rapidly to unpredictable changes in their environment. It is initiated when
higher brain centers perceive endogenous or exogenous noxious stimuli that threaten homeostasis
and culminates in the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. Elevated levels of
circulating glucocorticoids exert a variety of catabolic, antireproductive, anti–growth, and
immunosuppressive effects that mobilize and repartition under detailed organisms ... Show more
Researchers tend to focus more intensely on perturbations resulting from aversive events. (Novak et
al 2013). A stress response can be describe physiologically as a result of discovery of metabolic,
immunological and neuroendocrine mechanisms. Several hormones including ACTH, glucorticoid,
catecholamines, and prolactin are involved in a stress response. Adrenal glands are essential to
hormonal stress responses because they are involved both hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical
axis and the symphatho–adreno– medullary system. The most salient physiological responses to
stress include activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) as well as the hypothalamic–
pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. Accu– rate measurement of the catecholamines (i.e., epinephrine and
norepinephrine) released as a result of SNS activation is dif– ficult because these substances are
only available for transient periods of time (Reeder and Kramer, 2005). Thus, evaluation of the HPA
axis, most commonly by measurement of its end–prod– uct glucocorticoids, has traditionally been
the primary means to make inferences about the stress response in animals. (Otovic & Hutchinson

Endocrine Gland Research Paper
There are many factors that work harmoniously to keep the body working correctly, various
endocrine glands (glands that secrete things inside the body) work in time with each other, the brain,
and organs, to maintain balance in the body. These endocrine glands secrete a large variety of
hormones that travel throughout the body to distribute their specific chemicals for the necessary
reactions. One endocrine gland that is incredibly important in the body is the adrenal gland, as it is
essentially responsible for the 'fight or flight' response by secreting Epinephrine, Norepinephrine,
and maintaining bodily homeostasis by secreting Aldosterone and Cortisol, although Cortisol also
contributes to the stress response. However there is a lot of minuscule ... Show more content on
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As it's responsible for balancing the water balance, and therefore the secretion and re–absorption of
Sodium and Potassium in the renal tubules, Aldosterone binds onto mineralcorticoids receptors and
this complex moves to the nucleus, which then results in specific mRNA being synthesized and
increases or inhibits specific proteins necessary to balance the water levels in the body (Feher 2012).
Cortisol is also quite specific in it's actions , for example, it works to increase blood glucose, and
therefore strongly targets the liver, muscles, and fat, to metabolize necessary glucose storage's
(Nussey & Whitehead 2001). Cortisol travels through the bloodstream while binded to Cortisol
Binding Protein and diffuse across the outer membrane of the target cells as it's lipid soluble
(Jameson & Groot 2015), and binds to specific receptors, otherwise known as glucocorticoid
receptors, in the cytoplasm which are already associated with heat shock proteins; as the cortisol
attaches to the receptor, the heat shock protein is released (Nussey & Whitehead 2001). This
receptor complex is then transported into the nucleus using energy, and cortisol then attaches to
Glucocorticoid Response Elements in the DNA helix, which initiates RNA synthesis for the specific
proteins needed to carry out each specific response (Nussey & Whitehead 2001). Due to the similar
receptor

Genetics: The Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) Gene Essay
In the field of genetics, the study of the effect of various genes is imperative in translation and
interpretation. As genetic coding influences phenotypic expression, the analysis of specific genes
and any polymorphisms are relevant in a clinical setting. One such example is that of personality
traits, which are believed to be influenced by specific neurotransmitters, known as catecholamines.
Catecholamines are chemicals released by the adrenal glands in response to stress, and operate
dually as hormones and neurotransmitters within the body. Commonly, catecholamines mediate
functions within the central nervous system, including those of emotional responses and motor
control. Inclusive of dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine, the ... Show more content on
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Val158Met (G/A), the next possible genotype, is the result of this valine to methionine mutation and
individuals with this polymorphism commonly express a relatively more introverted personality
type than those with the Val158Val COMT variation. The final possible genotypic expression,
Met158Met (G/G), has a further decreased level of enzyme activity and is thought to increase the
susceptibility to a variety of psychiatric conditions (reference). These polymorphisms and the
resulting phenotypic expressions have been investigated in the scientific world due to their
relevance in modern medicine. Not only do those with the methionine allele have a reduced level of
extraversion, they likely have an increased risk of depression and inclination toward other mental
illnesses. One such study (Hoth, et. al), examined 486 individuals through genetic testing and a
personality assessment in order to ascertain any correlation between the gene and extraversion
levels. The findings of this study showed that those who had the methionine mutation scored
substantially lower on the Neo–Five Factor Inventory (NEO–FFI). This personality assessment is a
self–reported questionnaire on the five broad factors of human personality that are thought to most
indicate individual differences– Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and
Neuroticism. In order to test for specific genetic mutations in an individual, such as the Val158Met
variation, the COMT gene itself needs to be

Pheochromocytoma Essay
Pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PCC/PGL) are sporadic neuroendocrine catecholamine
secreting tumors derived from the chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla or extra adrenal ganglia,
respectively (1). The tumors are rare, having low incidence rate of two to eight per million people
with a high occurring in third to fourth decade of life. Mostly, PCC/PGL is benign, however
sometimes associated with high morbidity and mortality due to mass effect and high circulating
catecholamines. The classical hallmark of the secreting PCC/PGL includes episodic headaches,
palpitations, diaphoresis and anxiety. Hypersecretion of catecholamines can lead to hypertension,
stroke and even death. Nevertheless, these symptoms may not appear in all patients ... Show more
In patients with a positive family history of non–syndromic PCC/PGL and those with head and neck
PGL, this number can be as high as 79% and 54% respectively (7). Ten known susceptibility genes
have been identified for PCC/PGL to date. Including von Hippel–Lindau disease (vHL) (VHL),
Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1) (NF1) and Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2 (MEN2) (RET).
These three genes are well known cancer susceptibility syndromes; the Succinate Dehydrogenase
(SDH) complex subunits genes (SDHA, SDHB, SDHC & SDHD); The SDH complex cofactors
(SDHAF2); TMEM127 and MAX (table 1). Thus, the occurrence of PCC/PGL although
infrequently but associated with an inherited mutation more commonly than other cancer disease.
Based on transcription profile revealed by microarray analysis, hereditary pheochromocytomas and
paragangliomas can be divided into two clusters. One cluster is the VHL and SDHx mutant genes
while the other are RET, NF1, TMEM127 and MAX mutant genes. Surprisingly, sporadic tumors
were represented in both clusters

Walter Cannons: The Fight Or Flight Response
Have you ever been in a situation when you thought you were going to be attacked or where you
thought your life was in danger? You likely either ran away from the threat or fought the threat off.
If you have been in this type of situation, you have possibly experienced the fight or flight response.
The fight or flight response discovered in the early 1900s, triggers bodily changes and can be very
beneficial to your survival, but in today's world, it can also be very harmful to you if you do not
know how to manage stress. The fight or flight response was discovered by Walter Cannon. He was
an American psychologist, professor, and chairman of the Department of Physiology at Harvard
Medical School. According to the article, Walter Cannon's Fight or Flight Response, it states that "in
1915, he coined the term fight or flight... The flight–or–flight response (also called the fight, flight,
freeze, or fawn response [in PTSD], hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) is a physiological
reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival" (Walter).
Walter Cannon discovered what your body does when under high amounts of stress. The fight or
flight response occurs ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the article, The Fight or Flight Response, it states, "the natural conclusion of fight or flight is
vigorous physical activity. When we exercise, we metabolize excessive stress hormones, restoring
our body and mind to a calmer, more relaxed state" (Fight). You do not need to exercise for an hour
each day. Any form of activity where you begin to sweat will help prevent the excessive buildup of
stress hormones. Even just doing simple activities like 30–70 push ups, 30–70 sit ups, or 40–80
jumping jacks. The more exercise you do, the less stressed you will feel. If you cannot or do not
want to exercise, then you could also just relax. If you are feeling stressed, take a deep breath and

Psychological And Sociological Factors Of Stress
Introduction
Stress is defined as 'any situation which tends to disturb the equilibrium between a living organism
and its environment'1. Equilibrium is restored through biological actions such as hormone secretion
which lead to physiological changes that prepare one for the fight or flight response. As a junior
doctor, Mark is exposed every day to many stressors such as death, suffering and long hours. There
are also many psychological and sociological factors in the work environment which can further
impact Mark's stress. It is therefore vitally important for new junior doctors like Mark to be able to
manage their stress and ask for help if they are unable to cope.
Major hormones of the stress response and their actions on the body
The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
CRF is the main regulator of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and is secreted by the
paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus4. It is released into the anterior posterior gland
where it binds to receptors on pituitary corticotropes which stimulate the release of ACTH. ACTH
mainly targets the adrenal cortex where it stimulates production of glucocorticoids5 by increasing
RNA, DNA and protein synthesis3.
The second wave is slower and involves steroid hormones, such as glucocorticoids2, more
specifically cortisol in humans5. Glucocorticoids bind to glucocorticoid receptors which are found
in the majority of tissues3. Thus they have a wide range of targets and actions, and so regulate
metabolic, cardiovascular, immune and behavioural processes2. One which is relevant to responding
to stress is the target of the adrenal medulla which when targeted increases PMNT expression and
activity which stimulates epinephrine synthesis3. Another important target is the liver where the
effect is an increased expression of gluconeogenic enzymes3 which helps to increase metabolic
activity. The heart is also a target where the effect is increased contractility3.
Acute stress can also lead to secretion of other hormones. Vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone, is
rapidly released from the PVN of the hypothalamus1. Its role is to help

Tobacco Essay
Tobacco
Tobacco is one of the leading preventable causes of death in the United States.
Nicotine, which is an alkaloid derived from the tobacco plant, is a potent chemical that has powerful
effects on the human body, especially when administered rapidly or at high doses. Prenatal exposure
to nicotine is associated with adverse reproductive outcomes, including altered neural structure and
functioning, cognitive deficits, and behavior problems in the offspring (9). At least 20% – 30% of
pregnant women are estimated to smoke cigarettes, although smoking is associated with low birth
weight, prematurity and infant mortality. In the United States, smoking accounts annually for
estimated fetal deaths ranging from 19,000 to 141,000, for 1,900 ... Show more content on
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A similar study by Lauren S. Wakschlag, on maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of
conduct disorder in boys, revealed that mothers who smoked more than half a pack of cigarettes
daily during pregnancy were significantly more likely to have offspring who met DSM–III–R
diagnostic criteria for Conduct Disorder during the preadolescent or adolescent years than women
who did not smoke or smoked only occasionally during pregnancy. These findings support previous
work showing that maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with increased rates of
preschool and school–age behavior problems and delinquency in the offspring.
The relationship between smoking and low birth weight, prematurity, and miscarriage has been well
established. The effects of nicotine are seen in every trimester of pregnancy, from increased
spontaneous abortions in the first trimester to increased premature delivery rates and decreased birth
weights in the final trimester. In 1957, Simpson first noted in an observational study of 7,499
patients that the incidence of premature delivery, as defined by a birth weight less than 2,500g, was
twice as great for the smoking mother as compared with the nonsmoking mother (5). A similar study
by Walsh concluded that the smoking mother is at two–fold increased risk for delivering a low birth
weight infant than her nonsmoking

Dopamine In The Human Body
Dopamine or 3,4–dihydroxy phenethylamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter that plays several
important roles in the human body (Figure 1.16). In the central nervous system, the primary function
of dopamine is a local chemical messenger that is released by neurons to send signals to another
nerve cell. Dopamine is commonly used in the treatment of low blood pressure and slow heart rate,
which may be caused due to heart attack, surgery, heart failure, trauma, and other serious medical
conditions. The hemodynamic effects of a dopamine injection on the human body are dose–
dependent. Low–dose of dopamine (0.5 to 3 μg/kg/min), lead to activation of dopamine–specific
receptors in the renal system, increasing the urine output and renal blood flow. ... Show more
High–dose of dopamine (>7.5 ug/kg/min), can stimulate α receptor and may increase the risk of
tachyarrhythmia. The dopamine reference range in human plasma for age 3–15 years is <60 pg/mL
[133]. HO NH2 HO Figure 1.16 Dopamine structure. Dopamine can be detected with
electroanalytical methods; Since its oxidation potential of dopamine, (+0.2 V Vs Ag/AgCl) lies in
potential limits for carbon nanotubes [134]. Dopamine oxidation to dopamine quinone in CNTs
involves a two–electron transfer mechanism. A dopamine quinone molecule can undergo an
intermolecular addition, which results in a cyclization reaction, generating leucodopaminechrome.
Leucodopaminechrome can be further oxidized via another two electrons transfer to
dopaminochrome. However, it was reported that the dopaminochrome can be further oxidised to
indolic–o–quinone to generate the film insoluble melanin polymer, which fouls and poisons the
electrode [135]. P a g e | 33 It was reported that the dopamine oxidation to dopamine quinone on
CNTs is reversible in cyclic voltammetry [136]. The heterogeneous electron transfer between the
electrode and the catecholamine is strongly affected by adsorption of the catecholamine on the
electrode surface [137].

Catecholamines Lab Report
The oxidation of catecholamines can be monitored using various different techniques.
Figure 4 shows typical kinetic UV–Vis profiles for the interaction between Cu2+ (final
concentration 0.03mM), EPI (final concentration 0.5mM) and CS C (final concentration 2.5mg/mL)
at RT. The result shows faster reaction in the presence of CS C and Cu2+. As observed in earlier
work performed in the lab, polysaccharides can enhance the chemical reaction between
catecholamines and cations like Cu2+.
3.1.2 RP–HPLC
Figure 5 shows a typical RP–HPLC profile for the reaction between CARRA, Cu2+ and EPI as
studied at RT. The RP–HPLC profile for the signal at 275nm shows the peak with retention time
around 5.8 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
3.3.2 Studies involving Fe(III)
The effect of the Fe3+ on the oxidation of EPI in the presence of different POLs was briefly studied
using RP–HPLC. The graph below shows the amount of EPI remaining after overnight reaction at
RT between 0.5mM EPI, 0.05mM Fe3+ and 6.5mg/mL CS A, 2.5mg/mL ALG or 2 mg/mL CARRA.
Figure 14 :
The results indicate that under the conditions thus tested, Fe3+ appeared to have a minimal effect on
the oxidation of EPI.
3.4 Large scale reactions with purification and analysis of pigments
Large scale experiments involving the oxidation of DOP in the presence of various POLs or other
compounds were set up. DOP (about 30mg) was dissolved in 10mL water and about 100mg test
compound or POL was added as a powder to dissolve in the mixture inside the wells of a cell–
culture dish. The polysaccharides use in this experiments were FUCO, chitosan (CHITO), CARRA,
XYL, CMC, GUM, CS A, HA, PEC, DEX, DEX_S and CS C. Other substances tested in this
experiment were sodium acetate (NaOAc), sodium glucuronate (NaGlcA) and L–ascorbic acid (L–
ASC). No cations were added to these mixtures. Figures 15, 16 and 17 show pictures taken of these
experiments after three days of reaction at room

Summary Of Activation Of Mtorc1
In the paper "Activation of mTORC1 is essential for β–adrenergic stimulation of adipose browning"
by Dianxin Liu et al, the authors sought to learn about the relationships between the opposing
hormone regulating systems of adipocytes, Insulin and catecholamines, and their effects on the
protein mTOR and its regulatory protein RAPTOR. These interactions may lead to discoveries that
can ultimately help us enhance energy expenditure and combat metabolic disease. Adipose tissue
depots perform a wide range of functions in the human body and consists mainly of two varieties,
white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). WAT stores extra caloric energy in the
form of triglycerides, while BAT in direct contrast, rapidly converts oxidative energy into heat for
survival in the cold. In addition, adipose depots also secrete proteins and other factors that are a part
of energy metabolism and glucose homeostasis. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The catecholamines consist of norepinephrine and epinephrine, and their role is activate B–
adrenergic receptors (βARs) to increase cAMP levels and cAMP–dependent protein kinase A (PKA)
activity. This phosphorylation stimulates the release of adipose energy stores due to lipolysis (the
hydrolysis of triglycerides) and the liberation of free fatty acids. Insulin is the opposing metabolic
regulator that antagonizes the action of catecholamines to stimulate lipolysis by activating
phosphodiesterases that degrade cAMP and by using the protein kinase AKT to activate lipid
synthesis pathways to promote energy

Sympathetic Paragangliomas
Paragangliomas are rare neuroendocrine tumors that arise from the extra–adrenal autonomic
paraganglia, small organs consisting mainly of neuroendocrine cells that are derived from the
embryonic neural crest and have the ability to secrete catecholamines (1). They are closely related to
pheochromocytomas, which are sometimes referred to as intra–adrenal paragangliomas (2). The
majority appear to be sporadic, but approximately one–third to one–half are associated with an
inherited syndrome (3, 4). The four genetic syndromes that are associated are: multiple endocrine
neoplasia 2A and 2B, neurofibromatosis type 1, von Hippel Lindau, and the Carney–Stratakis dyad.
The male–to–female ratio is approximately equal among patients with hereditary paraganglioma, ...
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Patients can become hypertensive during induction, positioning, or tumor resection (12). Chronic
catecholamine excess causes volume contraction and patients can become severely hypotensive, as
in this case, if adequate volume resuscitation is not performed (12). It is prudent to evaluate for
adverse events following hypertensive and hypotensive episodes. Serial neurological evaluations,
CT brain, electrocardiograms, or serial cardiac enzymes may be warranted. Complications of
surgery are primarily due to severe preoperative hypertension, high secretion tumors, or repeat
intervention for recurrence (13). In one study, adverse perioperative events occurred in 32 percent of
cases (14). The most common adverse event was sustained hypertension in 25 percent of the
patients. There were no perioperative deaths, myocardial infarctions, or cerebrovascular events.
Despite premedication of most patients with phenoxybenzamine and a beta–blocker, varying
degrees of intraoperative hemodynamic lability occurred

Cardiac Surgery With Cardiopulmonary Bypass Essay
Introduction
Cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is one of the most widely recognized major
surgical procedures worldwide. Renal failure is a noteworthy cause of morbidity and mortality after
cardiac surgery.1,2 Acute kidney injury (AKI) occurs in about 20–40% of patients3 and is associated
with a mortality rate of 8% compared with 0.9% in patients without AKI. AKI requiring
hemodialysis in the postoperative period is uncommon (~ 1% to 5%), yet associated with a
remarkably high mortality rate of 30% to 60%.4 (11–13). AKI increases the risk for ensuing chronic
kidney disease and kidney failure, with its associated morbidity and mortality.5
Clinical prediction tools have been developed to estimate the possibility of cardiac surgery–
associated AKI (CSA–AKI).8–10 These have recognized female gender, impaired left ventricular
function, insulin–requiring diabetes, emergency surgery, and abnormal baseline renal function as
independent predictors of requirement for dialysis.23 Pathophysiological mechanisms of CSA–AKI
include decreased renal perfusion, lack of pulsatile flow, oxidative stress, hypothermia,
atheroembolism, and inflammation 23. The main mechanism of injury is thought to be intraoperative
ischemia–reperfusion injury (IRI).20 Prolonged duration of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and its
inflammatory response, and prolonged aortic cross–clamping are the leading factors associated with
an increased likelihood of cardiac ischemia–reperfusion injury.22 Although

Angioedema Case Study
An 86 year–old–Hispanic lady with history of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, type 2 diabetes,
obstructive sleep apnea, and gastro esophageal reflux disease transferred from an outside hospital
due to concerns for acute coronary syndrome. She was recently discharged from the hospital to an
extended care facility (ECF) following the treatment of urinary tract infection and ACE'I induced
angioedema. She received a dose of Epinephrine 2mg injection at the ECF for respiratory distress
and stridor. Following this injection, she developed crushing sub–sternal chest pain that lasted for
ten minutes. The patient was transferred to the local emergency department and was noted to have
elevated troponin levels 3.59ng/ml (normal 0.00–0.034ng/ml) with no

Senior Speech Research Paper
Lucas Allara
DeHart
Ms. Jones
9 September 2016
Senior Speech
On April 9, 1982 in Anthony Vincent Cavallo II, a teenager at that time, has jacked up his 1964
Chevy Impala in the driveway to work on its suspension in Lawrenceville, Georgia. After he
removed the rear suspension spring, the jack slipped away leaving Anthony clamped between the
top of the rear wheel and the top of the fender of a 3,340 – 3,895 pound car. His 50 year old mother
Angela, who was 5–foot–8 and just barely over 120 lbs rushed to his aid. In this moment she
experienced the "fight or flight" situation and the adrenaline set in. She was able to lift the car that
weighed 30 times more than she did, nearly six inches off the ground for five minutes, allowing her
son to fight his ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and certain neurons. It is commonly used as a
medicine in a number of conditions such as cardiac arrest, anaphylaxis, and superficial bleeding. It
plays an important role in the fight–or–flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, output
of the heart, pupil dilation, and blood sugar. The fight–or–flight response is a physiological reaction
that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. In a stressful
situation you feel your heart start racing and your hands start to sweat. This triggers the fight–or–
flight response which opens up the adrenal medulla gland in response to your nervous system.
Epinephrine is then released into your system to prepare you for danger. It triggers the blood vessels
to contract to re–direct blood toward major muscle groups, including the heart and lungs. While this
process occurs the ability for ones' body to feel pain decreases and strength and performance
increases. Which is why some people are able to keep running or moving even after they have been
injured. After the situation has been dealt with the adrenaline will last up to an

Chemical Messenger Research Paper
A hormone is a type of chemical messenger that allows communication between cells. Hormones
are concealed by the glands of the endocrine system and they help to maintain homeostasis and to
regulate reproduction and development. Glands of the endocrine system secrete hormones right into
the extracellular environment. The hormones then diffuse to the bloodstream by capillaries and are
transported to the target cells. Hormones are molecules that generally apply effects at sites other
than that from which they were produced and secreted.
Hormone cells are typically of a particular cell type, residing within a certain endocrine gland, such
as thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Hormones exit their cell of origin through the process of
exocytosis ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Changes in the concentration of small molecules, called second messengers, constitute the next step
in the molecular information circuit. Particularly important second messengers include cyclic AMP
and cyclic GMP, calcium ion, inositol 1,4,5–trisphosphate, (IP3), and diacylglycerol. The use of
second messengers has several consequences. First, second messengers are often free to diffuse to
other compartments of the cell, such as the nucleus, where they can influence gene expression and
other processes. Second, the signal may be amplified significantly in the generation of second
messengers. Enzymes or membrane channels are almost always activated in second–messenger
generation; each activated macromolecule can lead to the generation of many second messengers
within the cell. Thus, a low concentration of the signal in the environment, even as little as a single
molecule, can yield a large intracellular signal and response. Third, the use of common second
messengers in multiple signaling pathways creates both opportunities and possible problems. Input
from several signaling pathways, often called cross talk, may affect the concentrations of common
second messengers. Cross talk permits more finely tuned regulation of cell activity than would the
action of individual independent pathways. However, unsuitable cross talk can cause second
messengers to be

Propranol Analysis
Recent discoveries have shown the possibility of using propranolol, a drug commonly used to treat
hypertension, to treat patients with autism. Inderal LA (propranolol hydrochloride) is manufactured
largely by ANI Pharmaceuticals Inc. (U. S. Food and Drug Administration). The IUPAC name for
propranolol is 1–naphthalen–1–yloxy–3–(propan–2–ylamino)propan–2–ol (National Center for
Biotechnology Information). Figure–1 shows the structure of propranolol hydrochloride, which is
the active component sold in pharmaceutical the industry. Propranolol's use is to provide a reduction
in "resting heart rate, cardiac output, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and reflex orthostatic
hypotension." Propranolol is able to do this because it "competes ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Starting from Naphthalene, the following synthetic strategy, Figure–5, was created using techniques
discovered by the national chemical laboratory. Step one is the addition of an alcohol group to
Naphthalene using Toluene and 4–monooxygenase (Copley, S. D). Once 1–naphthanol is the starting
material used by the nation chemical laboratory to synthesis propranolol. The following synthetic
strategy is used to create propranolol from 1–naphthol: "(a) 3–bromopropanol, 10% aq NaOH,
reflux, 6 h, 67%; (b) IBX, DMSO, rt, 2 h, 89%; (c) PhNO, L–proline, CH3CN, 20 °C, 24 h then
NaBH4, MeOH, 20 °C, 0.5 h; (d) 10% Pd/C, MeOH, H2, rt, 6 h, for two steps 79%; (e) PPh3,
DIAD, reflux, 6 h, 67%; (f) isopropylamine, CH2Cl2, rt, 12 h, 83%; (g) Et2O, HCl gas, 1 h, 86%"
(Panchgalle, S. P.). Some of the important steps in this synthetic strategy is using 1–naphthol
because it is a cheap and readily available starting material. Also this procedure produces high yields
and is not harmful to the environment (Panchgalle, S. P.). Figure–6 and 7 are mechanisms for the
conversion of naphthalene to 1–naphthol by toluene 4–monooxygenase, and the reaction labeled "a"
in

Metaastasis Research Paper
Metastasis causes the most deaths in cancer yet this process remains one of the most enigmatic
aspects of the disease. Metastasis has a two–phase process first phase is the physical translocation of
the cancer cell and the second encompasses the cancer cell to develop into a metastatic lesion.
Carcinogenesis is known as the formation of cancer, were normal cells transform into cancer cells.
This process is by changes at the cellular, genetic and epigenetic level. It reprograms the cell to
under go uncontrolled cell division by growing a malignant mass.
Psychological stress is when people are under mental, physical or emotional pressure. People who
have cancer or have just found out they have cancer can have more physical, emotional and social
effects of the disease that contributes to stress in there life. When that happens they try to manage
stress with bad behaviors with smoking, drinking and not seeing there life in a good way. Stress can
affect a tumor's ability to grow and spread. In reasearchers the Human cancer cell that they grown in
a laboratory have been found that the stress hormone norepinephrine, part of are bodies fight–or–
flight response system, may have promote angiogenesis and metastasis.
Cancer has a big change in metabolism, they get a higher ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
However, they difference in their actions are catecholamines have different outcomes on the heart,
blood vessels, kidney, liver. Are the opposite, effects such as increasing/decreasing glucose levels or
increasing/ decreasing heart rate or constricting/dilating blood vessels. Cortisol, has the most effect
on blood glucose, increasing it so its available for the body to use during stressful periods. Cortisol
also has other actions on white blood cells, water metabolism, and has been shown to be necessary
for catecholamines to exert their full

Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy: A Case Study
The people who are at a high risk of suffering from TTS are women especially those who are sixty
and above. However, younger men and women can also be affected. Majority of the Clinicians
usually suspect that hyper release of catecholamine is the actual reason as to why people suffer from
TTS. Furthermore, the pathophysiology that mainly causes cardiomyopathy is not well known;
however, under normal physiological environment anything that causes stress stimulates
sympathetic nervous system and it responds by triggering the release of noradrenalin and adrenaline
(catecholamine). This response result by increasing vasoconstriction and heart rate which makes the
blood pressure to rise (Hjemdahl, P., Rosengren, A., & Steptoe, A., 2012).
In ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The intracranial pathology usually produces similar myocardial histo–pathological findings to those
evidenced in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. The basal myocardium contains higher nor–epinephrine
content to some extent; this enables the basal to have greater sympathetic nerves density than the
myocardium apical. At first the cardiac sympathetic stimulation does not explain the major
characteristic of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy which is apical ballooning. However, this characteristic
occurs because the myocardial responsiveness produced after the adrenergic stimulation is generally
pronounced in the myocardium apical because of its greater adrenoceptors concentration.
Additionally, the cardiac sympathectomy usually prevents the brain mediated cardiac injury. Thus,
Takotsubo cardiomyopathy can reflect stunned myocardium basically from neurogenic source. A
study that was done with animals indicated that the inotropic response decreased in response to nor–
epinephrine in a laboratory set up that was meant to determine the effect of catecholamine induced
in cardiomyopathy in association with decreased myocardial beta adrenoceptors numbers. This
indicates that Takotsubo cardiomyopathy can reflect on a combination of decreased beta
adrenoceptors and myocardial

Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy Essay
Epinephrine Induced Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy Background: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy also
called as Stress–induced transient cardiomyopathy, apical ballooning syndrome, and broken heart
syndrome was first reported in 1991 [1 in Japan, and accounts for 1.2% of acute coronary
syndromes (ACS) that present with elevated cardiac biomarkers [1,2,3. The condition is often
associated with acute medical illnesses, catastrophic life events, and intense physical or emotional
stress [2, 3. Although the pathogenesis of stress–induced cardiomyopathy is not fully understood,
the hypothesis includes catecholamine excess [16, coronary vasospasm, micro vascular
dysfunction and dynamic mid cavity or left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Postmenopausal
women appear to be at a higher risk for developing the disease as about 80% of Takotsubo
cardiomyopathy occurs in postmenopausal women [3]. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cardiomyopathy can be classified into a left ventricular (LV) apical ballooning variant (classic
Takotsubo cardiomyopathy–most common), an inverted or reverse Takotsubo variant (basal akinesis
with hyper dynamic apex), or a mid–ventricular Takotsubo variant [1. In this paper, we are
presenting a case of epinephrine induced classic Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, which provides an
evidence to support the role of epinephrine in the pathogenesis of this

Physiological Effects Of Obesity
Research concentrated on both the physiological causes and the consequences of prolonged
adiposity has recently expanded as a result of the rising prevalence of obesity and related diseases.
New studies show that understanding the mechanisms of specific immune cells in adipose tissue, the
tissue responsible for storing excess fat, may be the key to understanding and treating the modern
obesity epidemic. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and their secreted type 2 cytokines have
been strongly linked to the metabolic regulation of adipose tissue and promotion of thermogenesis,
however the specific mechanisms of this pathway are unknown. The research presented here
outlines the examination of how ILC2s and related immune cells are ... Show more content on
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Adipose tissue is the specialized connective tissue which stores energy as fat, as well as being
responsible for generating heat within the body (9). The two types of adipose tissue, white adipose
tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), have distinct roles in fat storage and obesity. BAT is
a major source of thermogenesis, and its development has been implicated in suppressing diet
induced obesity (9). The brown adipocytes which make–up BAT contain many mitochondria and
express high levels of uncoupling protein–1 (UCP1), a protein which generates heat through
uncoupling of the respiratory chain and substrate oxidation (11). WAT performs the anabolic role of
storing energy, and has been linked to diseases such as type 2 diabetes in states of prolonged obesity
(1,9). More recently however, an additional subcategory of adipocytes has been discovered, known
as beige or brite (brown in white) adipocytes. These cells are similar to brown adipocytes as they
express high levels of UCP1 and stimulate thermogenesis, however their presence in WAT can
induce lipolysis of WAT stored fat (7,17). This WAT browning pathway is an area of active research,
as the energy expenditure presents a potential strategy for treating obesity. The differentiation of
brite adipocytes is unknown however, as

Compare And Contrast Glucoprivation And Of Manifestations...
glucoprivation, and of manifestations of emotional distress. In contrast with the view that the
sympathetic nervous and adrenomedullary hormonal systems function as a unit (the
'sympathoadrenal system') to maintain homeostasis in emergencies, across a variety of situations
adrenaline responses are more closely linked to responses of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐
adrenocortical system than of the sympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic noradrenergic
system is active even when the individual is at rest and maintains tonic levels of cardiovascular
performance. Adrenoceptors in the membranes of effector cells determine the physiological and
metabolic effects of catecholamines. Noradrenaline and adrenaline are catecholamines.
Noradrenaline is the

Respiratory Syndrome : Symptoms And Symptoms
TAKOTSUBO CARDIOMYOPATHY 1 Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy Introduction and Background
Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, also known as broken heart syndrome or apical ballooning syndrome,
was thought to have particularly affect men. Now it affects both elderly men and women–mostly
women in their 60s+. Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is generally perceived as a temporary
psychological disorder which happens to affect the individual physiologically as well (Mayo Clinic
Staff, 2011). Understanding Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is understanding the different names that are
given to it in different fields as well as the analytical diagnosis of the syndrome. Medically, the
syndrome is termed acute coronary syndrome. Psychologically or psychiatrically, it is called
Takotsubo cardiomyopathy and in layman's term, it is known as the "broken heart syndrome"
(heartbreak), stress–related cardiomyopathy, or even transient LV apical ballooning syndrome
(Komamura et al., 2014). It is a psychological disorder found in the American Journal of Psychiatry
that causes physical symptoms correlated to medicine (Can, Tanboga, Turkyilmaz, Akgun, Kaymaz,
2008) and in the journals of the US National Library of Medicine within National Institutes of
Health. The term is derived from the angiogram images which closely resembled a Japanese octopus
fishing pot with a narrow neck and round bottom. Tako meaning octopus and tsubo meaning pot. An
angiogram (left ventriculography) was taken of the heart which similarly demonstrates the

Patient Vasospasm Case Study
1. Wraparound LAD:
2. Transient vasospasm
3. Microvascular dysfunction–
4. Mid ventricular obstruction, apical stunning
Pathophysiology: The exact pathophysiology is unknown but it could be due to stress induced
catecholamine release. Apical portion of LV has highest concentration of sympathetic innervation
which may explain increase in catecholamine level affects LV function. Neuro hormonal stimulation
by catecholamine results in acute myocardial dysfunction may be triggered by multi vessel spasm,
thrombosis, epidural vessel occlusion, or direct myocardial injury.
Pertinent Findings:
Most patients present with complaint of acute substernal chest pain but some may present with
dyspnea or syncope. Some patients develop sign and symptoms of ... Show more content on
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ST depression less common findings.
Sometimes may present with QT interval prolongation, T wave inversion or abnormal Q waves.
Cardiac biomarkers: troponin typically moderately elevated while CK–MB normal or mildly
elevated in SICM
Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) or pro– BNP levels are elevated.
Mayo clinic diagnostic criteria, all four of which are required for the diagnosis:
– Transient hypokinesis, akinesis or dyskinesis of the left ventricular mid segments with or without
apical involvement.
– Absence of obstructive coronary disease or angiographic evidence of acute plaque rupture.
– New ECG abnormalities (either ST segment elevation and/or T wave inversion) or modest
elevation in cardiac troponin
– Absence of pheochromocytoma or myocarditis
Thus, a diagnosis of TCM generally requires coronary angiography, serial assessment of LV systolic
dysfunction, an ECG and cardiac troponin level.

Management with treatment:
– Overall treatment is supportive and conservative.
– Left ventricular function is treated with diuretics, beta blockers and ACEI as heart failure
management.
– Beta blockers may block catecholamine excess which is potential mechanism of

Dopamine And Norepinephrine Essay
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overall specific aims
Dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) are the major catecholamines in the mammalian brain and
play a critical role in the regulation of physiological and behavioral processes (Wise and Rompre
1989; Berridge and Waterhouse 2003; Aston–Jones and Cohen 2005; Aragona et al. 2008;
Weinshenker and Schroeder 2007; Owesson–White et al. 2008). The primary source of NE in the
brain, the locus coeruleus (LC), sends projections to both the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which
terminates in the vicinity of DA cell bodies (Jones and Moore 1977; Mejias–Aponte et al. 2009;
Simon et al. 1979; Weinshenker and Schroeder 2007). These noradrenergic afferents make synaptic
contact with VTA–DA neurons, which harbor several ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1993) whereas α2–receptor agonist, clonidine, regularized the firing pattern of the midbrain DA
neuron (Grenhoff and Svensson 1989). Additionally, idazoxan have been reported to either increase
or show no change in extracellular concentration of DA in the brain (Matsumoto et al. 1998; Devoto
et al. 2001). Thus, the effect of α2–receptor on DA neuronal activity and DA transmission is clearly
complex. Conversely, the role of desipramine (NET inhibitor) on DA transmission is also complex
since past studies have shown a conflicting role (Westerink et al. 1998; Linner et al.

Pheochromocytoma Case Studies
Pheochromocytoma (PCC) is a rare endocrine tumor involving the adrenal gland and is most
common in preadolescent boys and adolescent girls. It is caused by pheochromocyte (chromaffin
cells) neoplasms, which predominantly form in the adrenal medulla. However, they can also form in
the extra–adrenal spaces, within the sympathetic paraganglia in the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic
cavities. These neoplasms synthesize and secrete excess amounts of catecholamines, which produce
symptoms – specifically hypertension, sweating, abdominal pain and weight loss (Ciftci et al., 2001;
Estey and Diamandis, 2013). There have been improvements in the diagnosis and treatment of PCC
in recent years. Usage of plasma and urine testing for catecholamines and their

Cardiovascular Diseases
This first century of the third millennium has witnessed major switch in the framework of disease
despite noticeable improvement of life expectancy; this period was distinguished by intense changes
in diet and lifestyle which in turn have contributed to an outbreak of non–communicable diseases.
Currently, public health services of developing countries are overstretched by growing demands to
subsist with non–communicable disease (NCDs). Cardiovascular diseases are the main benefactor of
worldwide burden of disease among the NCDs. Mainly, with advancing age, detrimental changes are
followed by reduction of physiological activity with the increase of chances of disease and death.
Among them, one of the most debilitating phenomena is a loss of ... Show more content on
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The vast pharmacological properties of Aloe vera depends on its various chemical constituents
including, polysaccharide, anthraquinones, salicylic acid, saponins, amino acids, enzymes, minerals,
vitamins, etc. 31). The antioxidant activity of Aloe vera gel is because of the presence of α–
tocopherol (vitamin E), carotenoids, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), tannins and flavonoids 15). Aloe gel
is able to strongly scavenge the free radical including 2,2–diphenyl–1–picrylhydrazyl (DPPH),
hydroxyl and alkyl radical due to the presence of polysaccharide 32). A. vera gel also maintains free
radical scavenging enzymes or antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT)
and glutathione (GSH) level 33). Aloe vera contains aloe–emodin which is anthraquinone derivative
has well documented anti–inflammatory effect by decreasing the production of pro–inflammatory
cytokines: TNF–α, interleukin–1β 34). C–glucosylchromone, a potent anti–inflammatory compound
in Aloe vera gel helps to inhibit bradykinin (an inflammatory substance) activity due to the presence
of peptidase bradykinase 11). Also, previous studies showed that treatment with emodin or Aloe
vera gel significantly improves left ventricular function by maintaining normal myofibril structure
33, 34). Our research showed that treatment with Aloe vera gel helps to minimize oxidative stress,

Sympathetic Noradrenergic System Research Paper
The sympathetic noradrenergic system plays major roles in tonic and reflexive changes in
cardiovascular tone. Adrenaline is a major determinant of responses to metabolic or global
challenges to homeostasis. Adrenaline responses to stressors are more closely linked to responses of
the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenocortical system than of the sympathetic nervous system. The
sympathetic noradrenergic system is active even when the individual is at rest and maintains tonic
levels of cardiovascular performance. Adreno receptors in the membranes of effector cells determine
the physiological and metabolic effects of catecholamine. Beta‐adrenoceptors mediate stimulatory
effects of catecholamine on the rate and force of the heartbeat; stimulation of ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
1) Once action potential reach to the presynaptic terminal.
2) Depolarization of presynaptic terminal will open the Calcium ion channels and Calcium ions
diffuse into the axon terminal.
3) Synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane and open, Ca2+ triggers the release of Neurotransmitter
from vesicles.
4) Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to the receptor sites of postsynaptic

Epinephrine Experiment
In the lab, we investigated what effects an injection of epinephrine would have on a cockroach's
running speed and righting response. The righting response occurs when the cockroach is placed on
it's back; the cockroach will right itself to return to it's feet. Epinephrine is a hormone that is
involved in the fight or flight response. Epinephrine is also a catecholamine. When the body feels
threatened, epinephrine is released, allowing the body to have energy to respond to this threat. One
effect that the release of epinephrine has on the body is an increased heart rate. The increase in heart
rate allows the tissues to have an adequate supply of blood. The data we collected in the
investigation is showcased in the chart below. Righting Response Running ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
S., Chung, M. K., Ye, J. C., & Jeon, D. (2014). Tracing the evolution of multi–scale functional
networks in a mouse model of depression using persistent brain network homology. Neuroimage,
101, 351–363. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.07.040
Mo, C., Renoir, T., & Hannan, A. J. (2014). Ethological endophenotypes are altered by elevated
stress hormone levels in both huntington's disease and wildtype mice. Behavioural Brain Research,
274, 118–127. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.044
Sampath, D., Sabitha, K. R., Hegde, P., Jayakrishnan, H. R., Kutty, B. M., Chattarji, S., . . . Laxmi,
T. R. (2014). A study on fear memory retrieval and REM sleep in maternal separation and isolation
stressed rats. Behavioural Brain Research, 273, 144–154. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.034
Widmaier, E., Raff, H., & Strang, K. (2014). Vander's human physiology: The mechanisms of body
function. (13th ed.). Boston:

Epinephrine System
The preferable pathology report for a newly diagnosed cancer patient would be the well–
differentiated cancer cell. Well–differentiated cancer cells look like the specific tissue cells that it is
growing in or on. According to Huether & McCance those cells will retain some normal tissue
structure and will not spread to regional or distant locations. Unlike the poorly–differentiated cancer
cell that varies in sizes, grows and spreads very fast. They are determined from well–differentiated
cells by looking for specific alterations (anaplasia) under the microscope "Anaplasia, the loss of
cellular differentiation, irregularities of the size and shape of the nucleus, and the loss of normal
tissue structure." (Huether & McCance, p. 364)
Physicians ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Epinephrine is a (stress) hormone that has a short life that immediately responses to challenges in
the sympathetic nervous system and also acts as a neurotransmitter. Its side kick, norepinephrine is
known for regulating blood pressure. When the body is put into stress, the chromaffin cells of the
adrenal medulla will build catecholamines and when released will bind to the protein plasma
(albumin). Cortisol is also a hormone (glucocorticoid) produced by the adrenal cortex that is
activated during stress by ACTH, but has a long–term effector and half– life. Catecholamines and
cortisol are both (stress) hormones that are located in the adrenal gland/cortex. They both increase
glucose production and release, increase hormone–sensitivity, and has actions on most of the same
tissue / systems. In addition, together they can suppress the TH1 response causing Th2 to shift.
Catecholamines and cortisol have different actions as catcholamines controls the activity of existing
enzymes and cortisol controls the amount of an enzyme by increasing or decreasing it.
"Finally, cortisol is required for PNMT expression, and therefore for

Exercise-induced Asthma Essay
Exercise–induced asthma is an acute transient airway narrowing that occurs during and most often
after exercise. It is objectively defined as a 10% fall in forced expiratory volume in the first second
from baseline that may be measured up to thirty minutes following exercise (M&M). Exercise–
induced asthma occurs not only in elite athletes and asthmatics, but it can also be found in non–
asthmatics. The stimulation of exercise–induced asthma can range anywhere from inhaling allergens
to hyperventilation or intense exercise. The management and prevention of exercise–induced asthma
is a series of trials to reduce the effects of prolonged bronchoconstriction.
In some cases, exercise–induced asthma is referred to as exercise–induced ... Show more content on
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Mechanics
The nose protects the lower airways by filtering, moistening, and heating the inhaled air. However,
breathing through the nose alone cannot cover the oxygen demand, when elite athletes exercise, as
ventilation through the nose cannot exceed 30 L/min. Therefore, when ventilation exceeds this level
through the nose, concomitant ventilation through the mouth automatically appears. The combined
breathing can be harmful to the lower airways because they are now exposed to air with allergens,
other small particles, and unheated air (M&M). Theories
Two main theories have been proposed to explain the bronchoconstriction associated with
hyperventilation and airway cooling in the asthmatic patients: the first attributes a predominant role
to the vagus nerve, whereas the second emphasises the part played by mediator substance released
from mast cells in the airways (EIA & EO).
Water loss in the airway triggers exercise–induced asthma through the development of hypertonicity
of the liquid at the surface of the airways. As cool and/or dry air is inhaled, heat is transferred away
from the airway mucosa to air passing through the bronchial tree. When the inhaled cold air is
heated, the saturation with water vapor consequently drops, which results in the evaporation of
water from the mucosa, thus cooling of the respiratory tract. The evaporation of water results in

Epinephrine Concentration
In the middle of the 20th century, there were some reports about the dangerous association between
epinephrine injected by contaminated glass syringes and clostridial gas gangrene [17]. Strikingly,
the epinephrine in therapeutic concentrations can lead to a four log decrease in the infectious dose of
Clostridium perfringens [17,24]. The low infectious dose of C. perfringens in the presence of
catecholamines can worsen the infection caused by the highly toxigenic and rapidly growing
clostridial species. P. acnes is a part of the normal flora of the human skin, but may contribute to
acne exacerbation and can be involved in some opportunistic infections [33]. Interestingly, in P.
acnes, a growth increase was found in one of two strains using ... Show more content on
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Notably, an increase in the growth of some anaerobic species such as F. nucleatum, P. intermedia
and P. melaninogenica has been detected by relatively low (<1 ng/mL) catecholamine concentrations
[8,23]. For the species, evaluated in several studies, the results have shown some discrepancies, e.g.,
for F. nucleatum, the observations were contradictory, ranging from no effect on the growth in the
study of Pelz et al. [14] to growth suppression in the study of Roberts et al. [23] and to growth
enhancement in the publication of Jentsch et al. [8], while for other species such as P. gingivalis and
T. forsythia, there were either no effect or growth suppression [8,14,

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