This document summarizes a chapter from the book "Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime" which discusses legal issues surrounding online content including definitions of obscenity, child pornography laws, and internet gambling legislation. It covers landmark Supreme Court cases that have established and challenged laws around these topics. Key topics discussed include the Miller test for obscenity, New York v. Ferber which established that child pornography is not protected speech, and the PROTECT Act which addressed issues with previous child pornography laws. The chapter also discusses tensions between free speech and protecting children from illegal online content as technologies advance.

1. Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Learning ObjectivesObtain information concerning the legal
perception of indecency and obscenity.Overcome the difficulty
in defining child pornography.Learn of the contradictions in the
court system on the topic of child pornography.Gain knowledge
of legislation that is geared directly toward technology and the
Internet.Discuss in full detail the subject of Internet gambling.
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Introduction and General PrinciplesProtections against
censorship of text and images, including available on a
computer, exist in the First Amendment's right of free speech.
These protections pose problems; for example:Courts differ on
whether material is protected by the First
Amendment.Technology-specific criminal legislation has
included intentionally vague descriptions of forbidden text and
images so that content delivered via emerging technologies will
be included in its scope.
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz

2. Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Introduction and General PrinciplesThe US Supreme Court has
not ruled on many such problems of law, depriving law
enforcement officials and the public of guidance regarding the
applicability and appropriateness of such laws.
Also, ambiguous public policies do not provide guidance for
officers.
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Obscenity in GeneralIt is difficult to define what is obscene: “I
can’t define it, but I know it when I see it.”Community
standards, which matter here, generally vary regarding what is
considered obscene.This variation is further confounded by:The
existence of a worldwide community, the Internet, when trying
to determine what is obscene.The fact that virtual (i.e., not
actual) images may be different than real images.
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Traditional Notions of Decency
Consider historical views regarding decency and obscenity:
Regina v. Hicklin (1868): British case trying to determine what
was obscene when evaluating the immorality of Catholic priests;
ruling was vague, ambiguous

3. Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Traditional Notions of DecencyRoth v. United States (1957):
U.S. Supreme Court declared that obscene material was not
protected by the First Amendment
Court evaluated material from perspective of a "reasonable
person," and by applying community standards, but this
subsequently proved to be impossible to use
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Traditional Notions of DecencyMiller v. California (1973): U.S.
Supreme Court came up with a three-prong test to strike a
balance of protecting those who would look at material with
dangers of censorship:Use the perspective of an average person
who is capable of applying community standards.That person
would determine whether a work depicts or describes, in a
patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by
the applicable state law. As a whole, the material lacks serious
literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.Also recognizes
different categories of individuals (i.e., children)
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

4. Traditional Notions of DecencyFCC v. Pacifica Foundation:
Court ruled that new media of communication must be
scrutinized as they develop; different media vary in protection
Difference between indecent and obscene speech Indecent
speech, even if it does not reach the level of obscenity, cannot
be broadcasted (radio, television) during times when children
may be presumed to be part of an audience; so, accessibility to
children results in reduction of protection
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Traditional Notions of DecencySable Communications, Inc. v.
FCC; Turner Broadcasting system, Inc. v. FCC Telephone
communications and cable TV enjoy heightened levels of
protection because they are not as pervasive or accessible, since
they require affirmative actions to use and do not reach captive
audiences. The court recognized a compelling interest in
protecting children, but to censor entire categories of speech is
an unacceptable infringement.
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Emerging Statutes and the Availability of Obscene Material to
Children
Telecommunications Reform Act of 1996, aka Communications
Decency Act (CDA)

5. Designed to regulate the previously untamed frontier of
cyberspace Criminalized harassment, stalking, annoyance, or
abuse of any individual in an electronic medium Criminalized
any obscene communication to a minor or the transmission of
information that was prima facie, offensive
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Emerging Statutes and the Availability of Obscene Material to
Children
Telecommunications Reform Act of 1996, aka Communications
Decency Act (CDA)
Struck down for overbreadth, encompassing speech protected by
First Amendment and vagueness, failing to define with
sufficient clarity what was subject of law
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Traditional Attempts to Criminalize Child Pornography
Started with enactment of Protection of Children Against Sexual
Exploitation Act (1977)
Directly tied to principles articulated in Miller, with its three-
prong testProhibited depictions without redeeming social
valueDid not require scienter (specific level of knowledge) on
the part of the violator as to age to secure a conviction; lack of
scienter requirement led to ruling of unconstitutionality

6. Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Traditional Attempts to Criminalize Child Pornography
Child Protection Act (1984) (CPA) Eliminated obscenity
requirement established in Miller Subsequently aimed to expand
CPA with enactment of Child Protection Restoration and
Penalties Enhancement Act of 1990
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
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Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography Statutes
New York v. Ferber: most important case regarding
criminalizing child pornography
Bookstore proprietor convicted of selling films depicting young
boys masturbatingArgued that a NY statute prohibiting the
promotion of sex by children under 16 through distribution was
overbroad, censoring protected speech under the First
Amendment, because the law also prohibited material on
adolescent sex, depicted in a realistic but not otherwise obscene
manner, so that it failed the Miller test
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
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Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography
StatutesUS Supreme Court ruled that states are granted more

7. leeway in the regulation of pornographic depictions of children
than in the regulation of obscenity because:
The use of children as subjects of pornographic materials is
harmful to the physiological, emotional, and mental health of
the child.The standard of Miller v. California for determining
what is legally obscene is not a satisfactory solution to the child
pornography problem.
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
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Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography
StatutesThe advertising and selling of child porn provide an
economic motive for (and are thus an integral part of) the
production of such materials, an activity illegal throughout the
nation.The value of permitting live performances and
photographic reproductions of children engaged in lewd
exhibitions is exceedingly modest, if not "de minimus."
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography
StatutesRecognizing and classifying child porn as a category of
material outside the First Amendment’s protection is not
incompatible with this Court’s decisions dealing with what
speech is unprotected. When a definable class of material, such
as that covered by the NY statute, bears so heavily and

8. pervasively on the welfare of children engaged in its
production, the balance of competing interests is clearly struck,
and it is permissible to consider these materials as without the
First Amendment’s protection.
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
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Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography
StatutesWhat makes this opinion unique:Court relied on
statistics, opinions from various sources (i.e., scholars,
practitioners, etc.) Blanket prohibition of all child pornography
Stated that any literary, artistic, political, scientific value of
child porn does not ameliorate potential harm to childrenDid not
specifically address issue of scienter
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
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Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography Statutes
Osborne v. Ohio
Specifically defines scienter, here, as involving at least a degree
of recklessnessUpheld the standards originally established in
FerberUpheld an Ohio statute which prohibited the possession
and viewing of child porn

9. Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Applying Case Law to Traditional Child Pornography
StatutesUpheld the notion of the generalized victim, noting that
the market for child pornography must be destroyed, because
child porn continues to build demand for creation of more child
pornographyReiterated the potential for harm to all children
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Technology-Specific Legislation – Contention in the Courts
Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA)Intended to
criminalize virtual child pornography on the grounds that it
increases child molestation and pedophilia, regardless of
whether an actual child is used to generate itExpansion of the
CPADid the Ferber and Osborne decisions demonstrate
compelling state interest to protect all children, and not only
those used in production of child pornography?
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
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Technology-Specific Legislation – Contention in the CourtsDid
virtual child pornography stimulate child molesters, increasing
their dangerousness?Struck down by the Court in Ashcroft v.
Free Speech Coalition

10. Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Technology-Specific Legislation – Contention in the Courts
Ashcroft v. Free Speech CoalitionU.S. Supreme Court
invalidates CPPA, that the threat of injury to children is not
enough to suppress protected speechIf upheld, it was overbroad,
and would criminalize work such as Shakespeare’sOmitted link
between prohibition and affront to community standardsSo,
virtual pornography is protected since there has to be proof of
identity, that the images are real and not computer generated
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Technology-Specific Legislation – Contention in the Courts
Prosecutorial Remedies and Other Tools to End the Exploitation
of Children Today Act (PROTECT) Enacted in wake of
AshcroftMade illegal virtual images "indistinguishable from"
that of actual child pornography Effectively incorporated Miller
test for obscenityAlso incorporated provisions from Truth in
Domain Names Act, regarding innocent-sounding names used
for tricking children into seeing obscene material
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved

11. Technology-Specific Legislation – Contention in the Courts
U.S. v. Williams
Upheld efforts by PROTECT Act to address weaknesses in the
CPPA
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
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Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Internet Gambling
Old Wire Act of 1961 language not enough to respond to
dramatic increase in online sports betting and bookmaking
activitiesUnlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006
(UIGEA) aimed to regulate payment systems, lifeblood of
gambling activities
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Case Law on Internet Gaming StatutesCentral Hudson Gas and
Electric v. Public Service Commission of New York produced a
four-prong test regarding commercial speech, which applied to
Internet gaming:Is the commercial speech concerning lawful
activity and not misleading?Is the government’s interest in
restricting the speech in question substantial?Does the
regulation directly advance the governmental interest
asserted?Is the prohibition more extensive than is necessary to
serve that interest?

12. Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Case Law on Internet Gaming StatutesPosadas de Puerto Rico
Associates v. Tourism Co. of Puerto Rico
The court used Central Hudson Gas and Electric’s four-prong
test by recognizing government's interest in protecting residents
from the harmful effects of excessive gambling
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Internet Gambling44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island suggested
a skepticism from the U.S. Supreme Court about a state's
interest in protecting citizens, when it came to First Amendment
protections
Lack of international cooperation and the WTO
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
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Internet Gambling
Regarding international, online gaming:
Online casino gambling flourishes, appealing to U.S.
citizensComplaint about U.S. laws, when presented to the WTO,
apparently limits them to their original scope, so would not

13. apply beyond those original circumstances/situations
Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime, 3rd ed.
Marjie T. Britz
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Future Issues and ConclusionsTension between providing for
free flow of information, protected by First Amendment, and
compelling interest to protect childrenHowever, questions
remain about protections and technologically-generated or
technologically-altered images
5/15/2020 Draft CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Scoring
Guide
https://courseroomc.capella.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/PSY-
FP/PSY-
FP5201/191000/Scoring_Guides/a02_scoring_guide.html 1/2
Draft CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Scoring Guide
CRITERIA NON-PERFORMANCE BASIC PROFICIENT
DISTINGUISHED
Describe an area of
research.
Does not
describe an
area of
research.

14. Identifies, but
does not describe
an area of
research.
Describes
an area of
research.
Describes an area of research and justifies
the choice.
Describe the
significance of the
chosen topic.
Does not
describe the
significance
of the chosen
topic.
Identifies, but
does not describe
the significance of
the chosen topic.
Describes
the
significance
of the
chosen
topic.
Describes the significance of the chosen

15. topic and supports statements with the
literature. Explains and justifies the
implications of the new knowledge for
stakeholders (for example, members of the
community, individuals, and professionals
that serve the population.)
Summarize sources
applicable to the
theoretical
background of the
chosen topic.
Does not
summarize
sources
applicable to
the theoretical
background
of chosen
topic.
Cites, but does
not summarize
sources
applicable to the
theoretical
background of
chosen topic.
Summarizes
sources
applicable to
the
theoretical
background

16. of chosen
topic.
Summarizes sources applicable to the
theoretical background of chosen topic.
Connects common themes and discusses
counter opinions. Considers theory in light of
seminal works by theorists.
Summarizes
sources applicable
to the history of the
chosen topic.
Does not
summarize
sources
applicable to
the history of
the chosen
topic.
Cites, but does
not summarize
sources
applicable to the
history of the
chosen topic.
Summarizes
sources
applicable to
the history
of the
chosen
topic.

17. Summarizes sources applicable to the
history of the chosen topic.Sheds light on
the historical context and dominant themes
in the evolution of the topic; connects
common themes and discusses counter
opinions.
Summarize sources
applicable to the
best practices for
engaging in
research.
Does not
summarize
sources
applicable to
the best
practices for
engaging in
research.
Cites, but does
not summarize
sources
applicable to the
best practices for
engaging in
research.
Summarizes
sources
applicable to
the best
practices for

18. engaging in
research.
Summarizes sources applicable to the best
practices for engaging in research.
Connects common themes and discusses
counter opinions. Describes data collection
strategies, research procedures, and
approaches for conducting and reporting
research.
Summarize sources
that add
significance and
relevance to the
knowledge base of
psychology.
Does not
summarize
sources that
add
significance
and relevance
to the
knowledge
base of
psychology.
Cites, but does
not summarize
sources that add
significance and
relevance to the
knowledge base
of psychology.

19. Summarizes
sources that
add
significance
and
relevance to
the
knowledge
base of
psychology.
Summarizes sources that add significance
and relevance to the knowledge base of
psychology. Connects common themes and
applies the relevance and significance to
real work examples in the field. Indicates
how the chosen sources help investigators
identify topics that are well understood and
other topics that represent gaps in the
knowledge base and the need for further
study. Creates scenario that illustrates the
need for new research.
5/15/2020 Draft CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Scoring
Guide
https://courseroomc.capella.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/PSY-
FP/PSY-
FP5201/191000/Scoring_Guides/a02_scoring_guide.html 2/2
CRITERIA NON-PERFORMANCE BASIC PROFICIENT
DISTINGUISHED

20. Identify practices
and research
guidelines that
address respect for
individual
differences and
diversity.
Does not
identify
practices and
research
guidelines
that address
respect for
individual
differences
and diversity.
Identifies
practices and
research
guidelines that
address respect
for individual
differences and
diversity, but the
connection to
respect for
individual
differences and
diversity is
unclear.
Identifies
practices

21. and
research
guidelines
that address
respect for
individual
differences
and
diversity.
Identifies practices and research guidelines
that address respect for individual
differences and diversity. Addresses
individual variation and diversity within and
across groups.
Adhere to APA style
and formatting
guidelines; writing
is concise and well
organized.
Does not
adhere to
APA style and
formatting
guidelines;
writing is
concise and
well
organized.
Adheres to APA
style and
formatting
guidelines

22. inconsistently;
writing is
frequently not
concise or well
organized.
Adheres to
APA style
and
formatting
guidelines;
writing is
concise and
well
organized.
Adheres to APA style and formatting
guidelines; writing is concise and well
organized in a way that enhances the
message and supporting points; writing
reflects the quality and expertise expected
for academic work.
OVERVIEW
Synthesize conceptual information pertinent to the research
question; this is information that you extract from the articles
selected for this review. Submit a draft literature review.
Note: Developing a research proposal requires specific steps
that need to be executed in a sequence. The assessments in this
course are presented in sequence and must be completed in
order. You may only turn in one assessment at a
time. Subsequent submissions should include highlighted
changes.
Literature Review
A literature review is a classification and evaluation of what

23. scholars and researchers have written on a topic, organized
according to a guiding concept, application, or practice, such as
the topic that you have selected to develop your Integrative
Project (Research Proposal): Chapters 1–5. Your objective is to
demonstrate your ability to recognize significant and integral
information, to synthesize and evaluate that information, and to
provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each
work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant
literature published on your topic. The process of finding,
reviewing, synthesizing, and writing the literature review
provides greater definition to the theoretical framework and
gives you a strong foundation from which to work when
developing your actual application or intervention.
Your Literature Review (CHAPTER 2) should include a
conceptually organized synthesis of the results of the review
that clearly delineates what is known, what is not known, and
what is controversial regarding your topic or area of practice.
The process will also give you a strong foundation from which
to work when developing your methodology in CHAPTER 3.
It may be helpful to use the following questions as you review
the literature:
· What findings are pertinent to your specific issue?
· Are the concepts key to the research as you prepare the
Literature Review?
Analyze the relationships among the related studies instead of
presenting a series of seemingly unrelated abstracts or
annotations. "The introduction should motivate the study. The
reader should understand why the problem should be researched
and why the study represents a contribution to existing
knowledge" The study should be motivated by its scientific
importance.
By successfully completing this assessment, you will
demonstrate your proficiency in the following course
competencies and assessment criteria:
· Competency 1: Determine the scientific merit of the
professional literature. Evaluate sources applicable to the

24. history of the chosen topic.
. Summarize sources applicable to the theoretical background of
chosen topic.
. Summarize sources applicable to the history of the chosen
topic.
. Summarize sources applicable to the best practices for
engaging in research.
. Summarize sources that add significance and relevance to the
knowledge base of psychology.
· Competency 2: Apply theoretical and research findings from
the discipline of psychology to professional and academic
activities.
. Describe an area of research.
· Competency 4: Embrace, respect, and respond to individual
differences and diversity in the practice of psychology.
. Identify practices and research guidelines that address respect
for individual differences and diversity.
· Competency 5: Communicate psychological concepts
effectively using the professional standards of the discipline.
. Describe the significance of the chosen topic.
· Competency 6: Communicate in a manner that is scholarly,
professional, and consistent with expectations for members of
the psychological profession.
. Adhere to APA style and formatting guidelines; writing is
concise and well organized.
APA Resources
Because this is a psychology course, you must format this
assessment according to APA guidelines, since it is the writing
style of the profession. Use the following resources to guide
your work. Additional resources about APA can be found in
the Research Resources in the left navigation menu of your
courseroom.
· American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication
manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.).
Washington, DC: Author.
. Chapter 7, "Reference Examples."

25. . Chapter 6, "Crediting Sources."Required Resources
The following resources are required to complete the
assessment.
· Qualitative Integrative Project Template [DOCX].
· Quantitative Integrative Project Template [DOCX].
Suggested Resources
The resources provided here are optional. You may use other
resources of your choice to prepare for this assessment;
however, you will need to ensure that they are appropriate,
credible, and valid.
Project Guide
· PSY-FP5201 – Integrative Project for Master's Degree in
Psychology Library Guide.
Drafting a Literature Review
· Literature Review Process.
· Locating Common Themes in a Literature Review.
· Purdue Online Writing Lab. (n.d.). Literature reviews.
Retrieved from
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/teacher_and_tutor_resources/teachin
g_resources/writing_workshops_for_graduate_students/graduate
_writing_workshops_literature_reviews.html
· Center for Research Quality. (2015). Literature reviews:
Common errors made when conducting a literature
review [Video]. | Transcript. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NiDHOr3NHRA
Writing Resources
The resources listed below are relevant to the topics and
assessments in this course and are not required unless noted
otherwise.
· Bui, Y. N. (2014). How to write a master's thesis (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing.
· Galvan, J. L., & Galvan, M. C.
(2017). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the
social and behavioral sciences (7th ed.). New York, NY:
Routledge.
. Chapter 4, "General Guidelines for Analyzing Literature."

26. . Chapter 8, "Synthesizing Literature Prior to Writing a
Review."
. Chapter 9, "Guidelines for Writing a First Draft."
. Chapter 10, "Guidelines for Writing a Coherent Essay."
· Use the free Smarthinking tutoring service to receive feedback
on your writing.
Assessment InstructionsPreparation
For this assessment, you will submit the current draft of your
literature review for feedback and grading.
Do not organize the paper by referencing each article in order
one by one. Your task is to synthesize conceptual information
pertinent to the research question; this is the information that
you extract from the articles selected and thematically review
and summarize.
Plan to identify articles and research that:
· Describe an area of research.
. Describe the area of research chosen and justify the choice.
· Summarize sources applicable to the theoretical background of
the chosen topic.
. Provide information about theoretical underpinnings such as
empirical or behavioral or constructivist and humanistic
orientations of the literature reviewed.
· Summarize sources applicable to the history of the chosen
topic.
. Shed light on the historical context and dominant themes in
the evolution of the topic; connect common themes and discuss
counter opinions.
· Summarize sources applicable to best practices for engaging in
research.
. Describe data collection strategies, research procedures, and
approaches for conducting and reporting research.
· Summarize sources that add significance and relevance to the
knowledge base of psychology.

27. . Indicate how the chosen sources help investigators identify
topics that are well understood and other topics that represent
gaps in the knowledge base and the need for further study.
. Create a scenario that illustrates the need for new research.
· Identify practices and research guidelines that address respect
for individual differences and diversity.
. Address individual variation and diversity within and across
groups.
· Organize and summarize sources thematically.
Your task is to present current considerations important to
investigators and to indicate ramifications for stakeholders that
rely on the current knowledge base. Use illustrative examples to
explain and highlight key concepts. Good reviewers share with
their audience evidence-based assessments of the current state
of knowledge.
This assessment is one component of the integrative project. It
is expected that you will continue to refine this literature review
before submitting the final project.
Walkthrough: You may view the following walkthrough
video to help you complete the Draft Chapter 2 Literature
Review assessment:
· Draft Chapter 2 Literature Review Walkthrough.Instructions
Use the appropriate template (qualitative or quantitative) to
complete this assessment. You are required to use the entire
template each time you submit your assessment, but only the
sections identified in the assessment instructions will be graded
for that submission. Anticipate multiple revisions of each
chapter.
Please note: It is important to keep in mind that paragraphs are
not comprised of two sentences and paragraphs should be
indented. Additionally, refrain from quoting unless
paraphrasing disrupts the integrity of the original quote. If
direct quotation is used, it should be in the proper APA
format.Additional Requirements
· Font and spacing: Times New Roman, 12-point font, double-
spaced pages.

28. · Style and format: Follow the current APA guidelines for style
and format.
Running head: ABBREVIATED TITLE OF YOUR PAPER 1
ABBREVIATED TITLE OF YOUR PAPER 2Full Title of
Your PaperNameCapella UniversityAbstract
Leave this blank until Chapter 4.
It is necessary to complete the abstract after the entire project
has been developed. The abstract contains an abbreviated
overview of the entire project. This overview will reference the
following elements of the project:
The Research Question_________________________________
The Research Problem:
_____________________________________
The Significance of the Study:
_______________________________
Theory or theories that apply to the concepts associated with the
RQ: ________________
A Narrative describing the qualitative approach planned,
implications for stakeholders, significance to the scientific
community, and a description of expected results. The abstract
is one concise paragraph.
Keywords: [Add keywords here.]
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 1
Purpose of the Study 1
Significance of the Study 1

29. Research Question 1
Definition of Terms 1
Research Design 1
Summary 1
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 1
Theoretical Orientation for the Study 1
Review of the Literature 1
Synthesis of the Research Findings 1
Critique of Previous Research Methods 1
Summary 1
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 1
Purpose of the Study 1
Research Question 1
Target Population 1
Recruitment Strategy 1
Sampling Design (purposive for qualitative) 1
Procedure 1
Analysis 1
Ethical Considerations 1
CHAPTER 4. EXPECTED FINDINGS/RESULTS 1
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION 1
Implications 1
Methodological Strengths and Weaknesses 1
Suggestions for Future Research 1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The debate on whether reading moral stories build characters
has been an incessant one. This is the question that will be
answered in this paper. The purpose of this paper is the study
the above-mentioned claims. This paper involves the use of
qualitative research methods. Multiple forms of data will be
gathered (Narvaez, 2001). There exists a long-standing
assumption that children raise their moral literacy level through
the consuming content that are moral in nature is highly
questionable in light of what is currently known concerning all
the relevant fields, moral comprehension plus text

30. comprehension. The assumption pushed concerning traditional
character educators that children curate their moral literacy
from hearing and reading moral stories is challenged by several
research findings. Firstly, research regarding text
comprehension shows that readers do not necessarily process
texts the same way because of differences in reading skill as
well as background knowledge. Moreover, moral comprehension
research shows that moral arguments are processed in a
different manner due to differences in moral schema
development. Additionally, moral texts that are provided with
moral reasoning are understood and modified in a different
manner by readers who possess varying moral schemas. Lastly,
children do not derive the same moral story themes that were
intended by the writer. However, before delving into the
relevant research one must first examining what the traditional
character educators said about this topic. This is covered below
(Nash, 1997).
Background of the Study
What do we know so far about the area of the literature that you
reviewed?
Character education as an independent area of research
emanated from early studies carried out in the 1960s. It was
spurred by repeated incidences of bullying and violence in
schools (Bellous, 2009). The proposal into the study of
character education led to the in-depth analysis of how
character can be developed through different means. The late
1980s showed a development of the programs that were initiated
to ensure character development. In the 21st century, states as
well as district schools have implemented character building
curriculums in their studies.
The world has experienced a degradation of character over the
past years (Bohlin, 2005). The extents of the degradation in
youths have led to demands of three fundamental aspects in
relation to character development. Firstly, human beings need
good character, secondly, schools are the appropriate
surroundings where character education can take place and

31. lastly, construction of ethics in the society is dependent on the
actualization of character education.
For some morality ministers, interest in character education is
pushed by a general perception that cultural values are
decreasing in society and youth disorders are on the rise. Robert
Nash even branded traditional character education advocates as
declinists. According to his view, America is on its way to a
catastrophe of grand proportions if nothing is done to modify
the erosion of the country’s fundamental values. According to
supporters of traditional character education, the consumption
of virtue stories is one of the crucial pillars of moral education.
These advocates contend that visibility and exposure to virtue
stories possesses a formative impact on one’s moral character.
Nash (1997) elaborates how declinists point out the importance
of inspiring books and virtuous stories due t the fact that these
texts contain the aspirations and motivations of moral heroes
who are plagued with a wide array of moral conflicts. When
children read these texts, they begin to learn and understand
traditional moral values. This in turn leads them to latch onto
these heroes and start to emulate them (Narvaez, 2001).
What do you think we need to know to advance the knowledge
base?
Modern research has basically disconfirmed the theory of the
passive reader. Readers have actually been discovered to be
active learners. They tend to use their prior knowledge to allow
for the strategic construction of meaning from a text. Simply
put, whenever a child reads and recalls text, he/she will try to
devise a coherent understanding of the text through the
integration of text information with prior knowledge about the
environment/world (Gill, 2009). Reading theorists have
contended that schemas which are basically generalized
knowledge structures that are relevant to the discourse lead the
construction of the mental form of the text when one is reading.
A good example of this is when someone reads the following
text, “Owen looked both ways before he crossed the road”. In
order for one to understand this text, the reader has to first infer

32. several things from the common knowledge about the real
world. These inferences begin with the fact that cars are driven
on roads; Owen is crossing a road that has traffic on both sides;
there is a high likelihood that Owen is walking; cars can be
hazardous to pedestrians; Owen is crossing the road in order to
get to the other side, among other types of inferences. If one did
not possess such knowledge of the world then it would be hard
to understand them passage and it would be even more difficult
to imagine what was taking place. The set of inferences that are
taken from world knowledge can be linked in the reader’s mind
through a schema or an overall knowledge structure that
represents “crossing a road.” The schema is activated by a
stimulus configuration that is similar to previous stimuli or
one’s own personal experiences (Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez,
1999).
How will this new knowledge serve the stakeholders (scientists,
care providers, families, patients, institutions) that may in turn
be served by implementation of new developments?
Stakeholders should take into account all the points that have
been made with the new research and relinquish their simplistic
understanding concerning the reading of moral stories to build
character. In addition to this, they should also reconsider their
view concerning character itself as a collection of traits to be
nurtured and developed. Such a way of viewing things does not
match with the current conceptualizations that personality has
or the new approaches to character education. The stakeholders
have to attend to the following points:
· Themes can be made up by the reader but not in an easy or
automatic manner.
· Active reading is a given.
· Reader acquire different types of information from a text
based on their specific background e.g. expertise.
· Readers do not technically understand the information or
message in the way the author intended it to be perceived.
· Moral messages are a specific kind of theme that the reader
put together. They are influenced by one’s reading skills as well

33. as their moral development.
Statement of the Problem
Identify the gap in research or the need for additional research
in your area.
The research done on the character development as a result of
reading has been an extensive one. The relationships of
handling the problems related to issues of character have been
fundamentally expounded in the research. Current existing
research has affirmed the premise that reading moral stories
does develop characters. However, there still remains a gap in
the explanation of how specific character traits can be
developed from reading (Almerico, 2014). Much is unknown
concerning how students derive specific themes, such as
honesty and integrity from reading moral stories. Additionally,
how the implement them in their daily live and whether they
succeed or fail is significantly a major hiatus in the research.
Researchers have to examine the specific elements that are
required for the extraction of the moral theme and the manner in
which student use can be facilitated. If armed with such
knowledge then they will be able to study whether or not moral
theme extraction is a matter that can be taught (Lickona, 2004).
Purpose of the Study
The late 1980s saw two researchers Kohlberg and Erikson
delving into the study of the adolescent mind as well as the
need of such a mind to function in the society (Bohlin, 2005).
The character development programs that were later developed
were inspired by the results of these studies which did not focus
on specificity (Bellous, 2009). The result of this was that the
programs were intended to address general character
development and therefore, could not be used in aligning with
the specific character development.
Reading is one of the ways through which individuals gain
knowledge. While it has been established that reading of moral
stories can help in the development of character, the detachment
of the specific character trait as a theme from the moral stories

34. is a problem (Almerico, 2014). This problem deserves new
research since researchers and traditional characters educators
do not know how to make sure that children end up with the
proper moral message of the stories they read. An inconsistency
pushed by traditional educators on this matter needs to be
resolved (Seefeldt, 2013). These individuals are able to
advocate for teaching character and even emphasize its crucial
characteristics but they are quiet on how it can be properly
taught (Froh & Bono, 2014). There is an assumption that if
readers are exposed to morality by way of an inspiring book
then they will latch onto the concept off contact alone.
While further research has evidenced the fact that reading moral
stories develops moral character, there is little research which
addresses the issue of moral comprehension, text comprehension
and knowledge of relevant fields. The research existing with
regard to the comprehension of texts proves that not everyone
will understand a text in a similar manner. The differences arise
because of the skill of interpretation as well as the background
knowledge. For example, not every child will retain knowledge
and make connecting inferences from the story they have read.
Additionally, moral comprehension argues that the development
of morals is understood with much reference to the development
of moral representations. Therefore, what one person may
construe to be morally upright, another person will construe it
to be wrong. The research to answer the question of effect of
reading on the established moral schemas is not sufficient.
Declinists of the theory have also pushed forward the
assumptions which are used by the proponents of the theory and
which are not substantially proven by the research. Some of
these assumptions include the fact that reading tends to be
passive, that every reader will get similar information from the
text, that every information intended to be received by the
author will be gotten by each individual, as well as themes
present in the text are easily accessible to the reader. Research
asserting these assumptions are still inexistent or insufficient in
augmenting the premise of the proponents of the theory that

35. reading moral character builds morals.
Significance of the Study
This study will be instrumental in the development of different
types of moral development stages. It is prudent to note that
research has proven that while reading is one way of teaching
character development, it is not efficient as it limited by the
retention capabilities of the students (Almerico, 2014).
Understanding theme extraction does not encompass only how
themes are lifted from moral stories but also entails how they
aligned with the life of the individual. This will significantly
influence the relevant stakeholders to come up with stages that
aim to ensure that the students achieve character development
gradually.
The results of this study promise to advance the scientific
knowledge base demystifying theme extraction. This is matter
of particular difficulty for children and strategies that will help
children learn to generalize from a story need to be examined.
Researchers are still unaware of what happens at the most
fundamental levels. The elements that are used by a reader to
generalize a lesson are still not fully known (Bebeau, Rest, &
Narvaez, 1999).
This study will also be instrumental in establishing the role of
moral sensitivity and reasoning. Addressing these major themes
will be answering the question of what can be done as well as
the question of what if with regard to the question. Another area
where this study will be significant will be moral motivation
since this study shall focus on the personal identity of subjects
and how such identities affect moral extraction. The main
question with regard to this theme will be the personal
conviction that led to the choice of the specific choice or action.
Deductively, this study will be significant in establishing in-
depth research in moral extraction, moral sensitivity and
reasoning as well as moral motivation and their relationship to
the research question.
Research Question
The research question, “Does the reading of moral stories build

36. character?” is a qualitative question. Research has shown that
children do not necessarily comprehend the theme of a story as
it was intended by the author. Although a large number of
children can generate and even select a theme after being
prompted; the choice is often wrong according to the author
perspective or an adult’s. This begs the questions, “What sort of
themes do children come up with/generate?”.
Definition of Terms
Readers are not passive adaptors or assimilators of textual data.
Rather, they are actively constructing meaning through the
application of their prior knowledge to the context of the text.
As a result of constructive and active, reader do not leave with
the same mental representation when they have read a text.
There exists no good reason to suppose that children will take
away the intended meaning from reading a story. Instead, it is
highly likely that children will devise the meaning of story
based on prior knowledge. This leads one to question whether or
not moral development research has any contributions to this
matter (Narvaez, 2001).
Reader- A person who reads or who is fond of reading (Lewis,
2005);
Passive Adaptors- A person who while reading, does not take
keen notice of the writings and the deep meaning associated
with the same ( Helterbran, 2009).
Assimilators- A person, and especially a child, who takes up
knowledge ( Helterbran, 2009).
Constructive Reading- This is reading while being cognizant of
the intended meaning of the author (Lewis, 2005).
Morals- the intentions and decisions of a person that influences
the actions of the person and which is derived from a sense that
may be either good or bad ( Helterbran, 2009).
Moral Development- This is the growth in the moral principles
as held by an individual ( Helterbran, 2009).
Research Design
The research will be a qualitative research. Findings will
be collected through a variety of ways or methods. Subjects of

37. the study shall be selected from a select group of individuals
with the ability to read. Content analysis will be used for
analysis purposes to look at how the words and images are used.
Additionally, the context in which these things are used to draw
inferences concerning the underlying culture. In-depth
interviews and focus groups will also be used too. All these
methods will be used in accordance with the APA code of
ethics. Notably, confidentiality is paramount and so is informed
consent. The researcher will choose the qualitative research
because it will be more elaborative of the probability of
character building as a result of reading moral stories.
Additionally, data from the research will be instrumental when
referring to previous data on the same.
The researcher while using the qualitative research will utilize
the grounded theory research design. This design is chosen so as
to divert away from the conventional research existing on the
development of character from reading and ensure a clear
understanding of the process to be able to come up with a better
explanation to the same. As it has already been established,
many researchers have affirmed the fact that readers do develop
character from reading stories. This theory shall, therefore, use
the existing knowledge on moral development to understand the
concept behind moral development while trying to find logical
explanations of the assumptions used by the proponents of the
theory.
Summary
The purpose of this paper is to study the claims made by
traditional educators concerning this matter. The assumption
that children grow their moral literacy through the reading of
moral stories is highly questionable in light of what is already
known concerning all of the relevant fields plus text and moral
comprehension.
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Note, this is typically the entry point for beginning the project.
It is important to understand that the project is iterative. You

38. will work on, change and refine all elements of the project. You
will begin by understanding and synthesizing what is known so
far in the Literature Review, (Chapter 2). Theoretical
Orientation for the Study
The Literature Review provides detailed information about
theory that applies to the research topic, theory that applies to
the research method, population(s) studied and key concepts
under review. Seminal and current sources are analyzed and
evaluated thematically. The research problem is identified.
Review of the Literature
It is essential that the literature review be organized with
reference to themes identified in articles that you have read. It
is not acceptable to organize the literature review article by
article or one article at a time. You need to include 5 or more
current research articles for your literature review and review
the research design, the research question, the research
hypothesis, the sample demographics, the methodology and
what instruments were given and how, the data collection and
process, the data analysis procedures and the findings, the best
practices and guidelines related to diversity and ethical issues.
This is not an annotated bibliography. Synthesis of the Research
Findings
Synthesize the research reviewed in the review of the literature
section. Critique of Previous Research Methods
Critique the research reviewed in the review of the literature
section.
Summary
Add a brief summary
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Study
The introductory paragraph addresses the research problem or
proposes to fill the gap in the literature. It includes the purpose
of the proposed research and presents formally the Research

39. Question. The purpose is to answer the research question.
State your Research Question in the form of a question in the
introductory paragraph for Chapter 3. As you prepare this
section of this chapter review the characteristics of Qualitative
Research Questions:
1. Qualitative Research questions ask for description and
interpretation of phenomena through the identification of
socially constructed themes and categories.
2. Qualitative questions address concepts associated with
thoughts, feelings, and actions that are not necessarily
accessible with empirical methods of measurement.
3. Qualitative data take the form of stories, narratives and
observations.
4. Qualitative questions identify the target population and
phenomena under consideration.
5. Qualitative questions do not test empirically measured data.
Research Question
Conclude the introductory paragraph to Chapter 3, by writing
out the Research Question. Add your constructs.
Target Population
As you describe the target population you will include:
Information about the number of participants.
Information about inclusion and exclusion criteria; describe
how you decide who can participate in the study and who
cannot.
Recruitment strategy
Sampling design (purposive for qualitative)
Procedure
As you describe the procedures you will include:
Information about materials used for data collection.
Information about the location where data collection takes place
Information about the time required for data collection
Information about the instruments used to collect data.
Instruments used vary widely and can include audio and video
recording equipment, pen and paper, interventions, observation
journals, member-checking documents and so on, depending on

40. the requirements indicated in the research question.
Information about the order of steps taken to obtain data.
Information about how data will be recorded and transferred
into a transcript or documents, audio or video, ready for
analysis.
When using an interview guide or observation check sheet that
is also included.
Analysis
Analysis describes strategies for analyzing the narratives
offered by participants. Once the data has been transcribed into
a format for interpretation, typically “words on the page”, and
then it can be interpreted. Analysis uses strategies that interpret
meaning components from words, phrases and narratives into
interpreted conceptual descriptions across transcripts.Ethical
Considerations
The APA Code of Ethics that apply to your study and research
design should be addressed, including both APA standard and
principles.
CHAPTER 4. EXPECTED FINDINGS/RESULTS
For the expected findings/results, use the literature reviewed in
Chapter 2 To anticipate findings that are likely to result from
the collection and interpretation of data. Note: that some results
that are not expected are possible and should be addressed in
this chapter.
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION
Implications
Implications of the potential results are discussed, implications
for wide range of potential stakeholders is addressed,
significance to the scientific community and the potential to
address the research problem is discussed, limitations of the
study are addressed, and suggestions for future research are

41. offered.
Methodological Strengths and Weaknesses
Suggestions for Future Research
The suggestions for future research should close the gap on the
methodological limitations.
References
Almerico, G. M. (2014). Building Character through Literacy
with Children's Literature. Research in Higher Education
Journal, 26.
Bebeau, M. J., Rest, J. R., & Narvaez, D. (1999). Beyond the
Promise: A Perspective on Research in Moral Education.
Educational Researcher.
Bellous, J. E. (2009). J. Russell, how children become moral
selves: Building character and promoting citizenship in
education. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 28(2), 189-192.
Bohlin, K. (2005). Teaching character education through
literature: Awakening the moral imagination in secondary
classrooms. Routledge.
Froh, J., & Bono, G. (2014). Making grateful kids: The science
of building character. Templeton Foundation Press.
Gill, D. W. (2009). Becoming Good: Building Moral Character.
Intervarsity Press.
Helterbran, V. R. (2009). Linking character education and
global understanding through children's picture books. Kappa
Delta Pi Record, 45(2), 69-73.
Lewis, B. A. (2005). What do you stand for? For teens: A guide
to building character. Free Spirit Publishing.
Lickona, T. (2004). Character Matters: How to Help Our
Children Develop Good Judgement, Integrity and Other
Essential Virtues. Simon and Schuster.
Narvaez, D. (2001). Individual Differences That Influence
Reading Comprehension. Reading Comprehension Instruction,

42. 158-175.
Nash, R. (1997). Answering the Virtuecrats: A Moral
Conversation on Character Education. Teachers College Press.
Seefeldt, A. (2013). Books Building Character.
Running head: AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER:
DIAGNOSES AND SYMPTOMS 1
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: DIAGNOSES AND
SYMPTOMS MANAGEMENT 13
Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnoses and Symptoms

43. ManagementRaCapella University
Capstone
April 2020Abstract
Do Latino Children that get diagnosed for Autism Spectrum
Disorder (ASD) early between 18 to 24 months manage
symptoms better than Latino children who are diagnosed late
after 24 months? This is the bases for the research study. The
significance of the study is that it will examine cases of Latino
children not only in the United States, but in Venezuela as well.
This data can be used to review diagnoses and determine if
being diagnosed early with ASD leads to better symptoms
management. Autism Spectrum Disorder is guided by cognitive
and social psychological theories. These frameworks are
empirically supported behavioral orientations. Prospective
participants will be identified through community outreach
efforts, and partnerships with clinics and autism network
partners. The scientific community will benefit from the
research, as data related to the late diagnoses will be shared
with necessary stakeholders.
Keywords: Autism Spectrum disorder, early diagnoses, late
diagnoses, Latino children

44. Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………
………. 5
Background of the Problem ..6
Statement of the Problem 8
Purpose of the Study 9
Significance of the Study 10
Research Questions 10
Definition of Terms 11
Research Design 11
Summary 12
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE
REVIEW…………………………………………………..…13
Theoretical Orientation for the Study 13
Review of the Literature 14
Synthesis of the Research Findings 18
Critique of Previous Research Methods 20
Summary 21
CHAPTER 3.
METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………
………22
Purpose of the Study 22
Research Question and Hypotheses 22
Research Design 23
Target Population and Sample 23
Procedures 25
Ethical Considerations 27
CHAPTER 4. EXPECTED
FINDINGS/RESULTS…………………………………………29
CHAPTER 5.
DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………
……...32
Implications .. 32
Methodological Strengths and Weaknesses 33

45. Suggestions for Future Research 34
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Research shows that Latino children are diagnosed late for
ASD. The problem is to find out if children who are diagnosed
between 18 and 24 months manage their symptoms better than
children who were diagnosed late which is after 24 months.
Research from Moody et al., (2013) shows that Latino children
are diagnosed with ASD after 24 months of age. Studies have
shown that some Latino children are diagnosed for ASD at 53
months (Moody et al., 2013), which is well past the Center for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines of diagnoses
between 18 and 24 months (CDC, 2019). In contrast, white
children are screened and diagnosed for ASD before 24 months
of age (Becerra, Von-Ehrenstein, Heck…Ritz, 2014). Research
is needed to determine if Latino children who are diagnosed
early within the recommended timeframes, manage their ASD
symptoms better than children who are diagnosed late.
Autism Spectrum Disorder is complex and there are still many
unknowns regarding the disorder (Harris et al., 2019).
Therefore, the themes surrounding ASD may vary. Social
learning theoretical frameworks have assisted in identifying
ways to prevent ASD diagnosing disparities by studying the
children and their surroundings (Penner et al., 2013). Ethical
procedures will include making sure all participants have signed
HIPAA consents and are explained the parameters of the study.
The standards will include adhering to the ethics code sections
8 and 9 from the American Psychological Association.
Autism Spectrum Disorder in Latino children remains
significantly lower than that of White children (Moody, Harris,
Zittleman, Nease, Jr., & Westfall, 2019). Latino children are
also diagnosed later than the recommended timeframes (Moody,
et al., 2019). ASD diagnoses may include a myriad of
symptoms. This leads to questions regarding symptoms
management and if children who are diagnosed early manage
symptoms better than children who are diagnosed late.

46. Screenings and diagnoses after 24 months are considered later
than the norm (Montiel-Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila, 2017).
The later the child is diagnosed can lead to additional symptoms
or more severe symptoms (Koegel, Koegel, Ashbaugh &
Bradshaw, 2013). Individuals with ASD often exhibit
aggression, tantrums, and self-injury. These behaviors are often
secondary symptoms that may develop if not addressed properly
(Koegel, et al., 2013).
This proposal will advance the psychology field by designing a
study to examine early and late diagnoses, and to determine if
children who are diagnosed early manage their symptoms better.
The proposal will address what is currently known about ASD
diagnoses in Latino children, what is known in children who are
diagnosed early and how symptoms are managed in each group.
According to Amaral (2017; Moody, et al., 2019), some possible
reasons for late diagnoses includes language barriers, mental
health stigmas, and reduced health literacy. The results of
literature reviews, health record reviews and interviews will be
essential to the comparative study. The study will review early
and late diagnoses and determine if being diagnosed early; as
opposed to being diagnosed late, leads to better symptoms
management. The study is quantitative, as it gathers opinions
from parents, mental health therapists and medical records
reviews. This information is then turned into statistical data that
can be tracked and trended.
Background of the Study
Burnside, Wright and Poulin-Dubois, (2017) states that Autism
Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder. This
disorder can cause deficits in a person’s personality and
behavior. This relates directly to Latino children because when
these children experience ASD symptoms, they may be deemed
as disruptive or labeled to have a behavior problem (Moody, et
al., 2019). Children who are diagnosed early may avoid many
symptoms associated with ASD (Zuckerman, 2014). Many of
these children are not yet diagnosed with ASD, so, there are
often few supports available to assist in managing their

47. symptoms. ASD affects each child differently and may include
a range of symptoms (Amaral, 2017). If the child does not have
the proper ASD diagnosis or has not been diagnosed yet. It is
important to know the background of the disorder and how it
directly relates to the population being studied.
There is a large discrepancy in Latino populations receiving late
diagnoses for autism (Montiel-Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila,
2017), as opposed to being diagnosed on time. The timing of
the diagnoses is an important factor, because this can determine
the severity of the symptoms. In addition, the longevity of
undiagnosed or late ASD diagnoses may make the symptoms
unmanageable. So, it is very important to review how parents,
school officials, physicians and other stakeholders manage the
symptoms of each population. This population refers to
children who are diagnosed early and children who are
diagnosed late. Latino parents expressed concern regarding their
child’s developmental difficulties at 17 months; however,
children were not were diagnosed until 36 months later
(Montiel-Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila, 2017). Latino
children are diagnosed on average at 53 months (CDC, 2020).
This is much later than the CDC recommended timeframes of 18
to 24 months (CDC, 2020).
As a researcher, it is important to compare the timeliness of the
diagnoses and see if being diagnosed early leads to better
management of ASD symptoms. Early diagnoses have been
linked to improved long-term developmental outcomes
(Zuckerman et al., 2014), and late diagnoses could lead to
severe behavioral problems. Once early diagnoses and late
diagnoses are reviewed and symptoms managements is
compared, steps can be taken to design additional studies,
implement interventions, and develop outreach programs for
these populations. The data obtained from the study will assist
Latino parents in managing their child’s symptoms and locating
resources for ASD. This information will also help families
make better decisions about their children’s health and could
help to eliminate the stigmas around autism spectrum disorder

48. in Latino communities.
Statement of the Problem
Managing ASD symptoms may differ in children who are
diagnosed early versus children who are diagnosed late.
Research support the fact that many Latino children are being
diagnosed late for Autism Spectrum Disorder, (Montiel-Nava,
Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila, 2017). A late diagnosis is an initial
diagnosis after the recommended ASD screening of 18 months
to 24 months (CDC, 2019). Many Latino children are being
diagnosed after 50 months of age (Montiel-Nava, Chacin &
Gonzalez-Avila, 2017). As a precautionary measure, the CDC
(2020) suggests that children who has a sibling with ASD, be
evaluated each year; as they might have a higher propensity for
autism (CDC, 2020). Research is needed to review cases where
children of early diagnoses. This research will be pivotal in
determining how symptoms were managed.
The problem is that comparative data is needed to investigate
whether the children who are diagnosed early with ASD manage
their symptoms better than the children who are diagnosed late.
Several factors have attributed to the late diagnoses, so it would
be interesting to see if these late diagnoses cause a problem
when trying to manage ASD symptoms. Research is needed to
compare symptom management and the age of diagnoses among
Latino children.
Montiel-Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila (2017) states that
being diagnosed at a later age comes with additional symptoms.
Some of these symptoms may include lower intelligence
quotients, behavior and academic problems. Additionally,
Hispanic children are often subjected to substandard care
(Chlebowski, Magana, Wright & Brookman-Frazee, 2018) after
receiving an ASD diagnosis. How these symptoms are managed
depends on the severity of the symptoms and the support
available for parents (Koegel et al., 2013).
This proposal is necessary because more research is needed to
determine if there is a difference in symptoms management
based on when the child was diagnosed. A carefully designed

49. research study can ask the appropriate questions and obtain the
necessary data to review symptoms management. Late diagnoses
of ASD is an important issue because there are serious side
effects when ASD is left untreated. The longer the child is
untreated, the longer they are unable to manage their symptoms
and get the care they need (Martin, Sturge-Apple, Davies &
Gutierrez, 2019).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to review early and late ASD
diagnoses in Latino children and determine if children who are
diagnosed early can manage their symptoms better than children
who are diagnosed late. The problem deserves new research
because the number of Latino children being diagnosed late
with ASD continues to increase (Montiel-Nava, Chacin &
Gonzalez-Avila, 2017); however, research is needed to
determine if being diagnosed early lead to better management of
symptoms. The average age of Latino children at age of ASD
diagnosis ranged from 53.03 months to 54.38 months (Montiel-
Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila, 2017). This is a major
concern because these children are not receiving culturally
tailored interventions (Matsuda, Brooks & Beeber, 2016). This
study will design a research study to review symptoms of
children who have been diagnosed early and children who have
diagnosed late. There will be comparative research to
determine if the children who were diagnosed early were able to
manage their symptoms better than the children who were
diagnosed late. Researchers must be able to capture the feelings
and concerns of Latino parents and their views on autism.
Significance of the Study
The research will advance scientific knowledge because it
will solicit opinions from Latino parents with autistic children.
Parents of the autistic children will be interviewed to discuss
the age of their child at the age of diagnosis, and if they were
able to manage their child’s symptoms. The study will include

50. children who have been diagnosed early and late. The study will
rely on numbers or statistical information, the study will also
focus on medical record reviews, observations, case studies.
The study will add to the existing literature of ASD, as it will
bring in new perspectives and examine symptoms management
in depth. The inquiry is original as it will examine cases of
Latino children in urban and rural areas. The study will provide
evidence-based rationale and best practice models for
conducting the study. This study will also focus on the feelings,
actions of parents, mental health workers and children with
ASD. Interviewing these stakeholders will assist with
determining which group were able to manage their symptoms
better than the other.
Research Question
Research question: Do Latino Children who get diagnosed for
ASD early between 18 to 24 months manage symptoms better
than Latino children who are diagnosed late after 24 months?
Null Hypothesis: Latino children with ASD who are diagnosed
early do not manage symptoms better than Latino children who
are diagnosed late.
Hypothesis: Latino children with ASD who are diagnosed early
manage symptoms better than Latino children who are
diagnosed late.
The underlying theme is that symptoms management is
determined based on when the child was diagnosed. Additional
research is needed to determine if early diagnoses leads to
better management of these symptoms. The research question
will be answered by a carefully designed study. The study will
include surveys, review of medical records, and reviews of
previous research and case studies. The data will be transferred
to information by pulling out the relevant information related to
the research study. Each section of the research question will be
analyzed, thoroughly investigated and compared with best
practice methods.
Definition of Terms
Autism Spectrum Disorder - Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is

51. a developmental disorder that affects communication and
behavior (National Institute of Mental Health, 2018).
Early Diagnoses- Diagnoses within 18 to 24 months.
Late Diagnoses- ASD diagnoses after 24 months.
Latino –A person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or
Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless
of race (Aragones, Hayes, Chen, González, & Gany, 2014).
Research Design
This research design is quantitative. The research will be a
descriptive research method. The study will use comparative
data to determine which group manages symptoms the best. The
design constructs will include case studies, medical record
reviews, interviews and questionnaires. The research will be
guided by approved psychology practices to ensure the validity
of the study. The American Psychological Association’s Code
of Ethics will be the outline for the research design and will be
the guiding principles for assuring ethical research practices.
The codes that apply to this study will include Section 8
Research and Publication, and Section 9 Bases for Assessments
(American Psychological Association, 2010). These sections
cover multiple ethic codes for researchers and how to properly
conduct research and administer informed consents.
Summary
It is important to know if the timing of diagnoses make a
difference in the management of symptoms. In addition, it is
essentialto investigate whether being diagnosed early leads to
better symptoms management. Knowing that a child is
diagnosed late with ASD does not give the researcher any new
information. What this means regarding symptoms are the facts
that needs to be addressed. Research may determine if
symptoms can be managed if they are diagnosed early, or the
severity of the symptoms if the child is diagnosed late. It is also
important to conduct solid research and design a research study
that will be inclusive of the problem at hand. The study must
include previous research, quantitative surveys, feedback from
parents, and review of health records.

52. CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Research has shown that Latino children are diagnosed late with
autism spectrum disorder (Amaral, 2017). This may also lead to
difficulty in these children managing their ASD symptoms.
Reasons for ethnic variations are poorly understood. Research
has been conducted to identify the number of children who are
diagnosed early and late, and the age at which they are
diagnosed. The research does not show implicitly show the
comparison of these groups and which ones manage symptoms
the best, but there are various studies to show benefits of
managing symptoms. This dilemma leaves a further gap for
research. Further research is needed to specially address the
reasons for late diagnoses. (Zuckerman, Sinche, Mejia, Cobian,
Becker & Nicolaidis, 2014).
Autism affects children differently, so it is important for them
to be diagnosed in a timely manner. It is also important for
them to manage their symptoms effectively. Delayed diagnoses
could have a serious effect on children (CDC, 2020). The CDC
(2020) suggests that children should be diagnosed for ASD
between 18 and 24 months. A carefully designed study is
needed to compare the management of symptoms for early and
late diagnoses. It is also important to study this area because
Latino children are not getting the resources and support that is

53. needed in order to manage their symptoms (Moody, et al.,
2019).
Theoretical Orientation for the Study
Autism Spectrum Disorder is guided by cognitive and social
psychological theories. These frameworks are empirically
supported behavioral orientations. They are supported by the
need to research origins of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
(Penner, et. al, 2013). An empirically supported autism theory is
the Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions
(NDBI; Schreibman et al., 2015). In the NDBI, children are
supported in their natural settings, which may include
educational or home environments. The NDBI teach the
children developmental skills and strive to improve
relationships between the child and the therapist (Schreibman et
al., 2015).
In addition, the social psychological framework uses societal
factors to determine why there are racial disparities (Penner, et.
al, 2013). Albert Bandura developed a theory called the Social
Learning Theory. He wanted to show how children learn
behavior from their parents (Martin, Sturge-Apple, Davies &
Gutierrez, 2019), and how that behavior could change based on
the mental state of the child. These frameworks have also been
connected to health disparities in certain populations. Social
psychologists look at relevant concerns and how they contribute
to autism spectrum disorder (Bandawe, 2010).
Review of the Literature
In the early 1960s, scientists and physicians believed that
children with ASD were unlikely to respond to treatment
(Schreibman et al., 2015). This led to further research by
Charles Ferster and Merian DeMyer on autism and its effects on
children (Schreibman et al., 2015). Autism has since become
one of the fastest growing cognitive disorders in the United
States, and affects about one in 59 children (Moody, et al.
2019). Autism was first classified as a disorder by Kanner and
Asperger, who described these symptoms as atypical behaviors
(Ousley & Cermak, 2014). Research shows that early diagnosis

54. is associated with improved long-term developmental and
family outcomes (Zuckerman et al., 2014). There needs to be a
mechanism to compare the outcomes of early diagnoses and late
diagnoses. This comparison would focus on how the parents
responded to their child’s symptoms and if they were able to
manage them effectively.
One dominant theme in autism research is heterogeneity
(Rudacille, 2010). Heterogeneity refers to the etiology and
diversity of the disorder (Georgiades, Szatmari & Boyle, 2013).
Some of these symptoms include cognitive, emotional, and
social functioning that are manifested differently across
subgroups of children (Georgiades, Szatmari & Boyle, 2013).
Harris et al., (2019) collected data electronically through data
capture tools. Participants were given multiple choice surveys
and quantitative assessments. They were asked to rank their
answers using a measurable scale of one to five. Data was also
collected from pediatric hospital clinics and from parents of
children with autism. Cases were identified through
prescreening processes and parental consultations (Montiel-
Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila, 2017). Data was collected by
survey technicians who discarded useless surveys, checked for
errors and coded the data into groups.
Other methods used in literature reviews were purposive
sampling. Montiel-Nava, Chacin and Gonzalez (2017)
prescreened participants using clinical data and chart reviews.
The researchers conducted a study of Latino children and their
parents. They set up an assessment for parents, who then
completed a questionnaire based on feelings surroundings
autism. The parents were also asked the age of their child at
diagnoses and step they took to manage their children’s
symptoms. The assessment was then coded and formulated into
usable quantitative data. Focus groups were conducted in
English and Spanish (Zuckerman et al., 2013). The groups
reviewed late diagnoses and standards for ASD.
Children were recruited based on their ethnicity and their ASD
diagnoses. In research it is important to maintain diversity and

55. ethical procedures to ensure the authenticity of the study.
Excluding diversity in research could impede the ability to
generalize study results (UCSF, 2020), and may prevent certain
populations from receiving much needed research. Although all
of participants were Latino, there were difference Hispanic
populations within the groups. The groups included individuals
of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Venezuelan and Guatemalan races.
Research assistants reviewed data from ASD clinics and studies
(Montiel-Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila, 2017).
The strength of these methods was that there was a lot of data
that showed benefits of early diagnoses and late diagnoses.
Some children were diagnosed during school age and physicians
were able to give a more accurate diagnoses, as opposed to
early diagnoses where the parents relayed symptoms to the
physician (Koegel et al, 2013). However, a major weakness is
that factors for late diagnoses varied. The research included
several Latino populations and took into consideration, cultural
and economic differences. The limitations of these methods
were that the research did not explicitly compare early versus
late diagnoses in percentages. Another limitation is that the
researchers (Harris, et al., 2019; Moody et al., 2019) stated that
many Latino children were not identified by ethnicity, which
could hinder the data. For example, in Venezuela, the children
are all classified as Latino, and they are not separated into
subgroups (Montiel-Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez-Avila, 2017). A
more intensive study would be needed if a study based on race
is requested by the scientific community.
When conducting autism research and reviewing the way
symptoms are managed, it is important to have reliable
resources. This information can add significant knowledge to
the base of psychology. These articles help identify what is
known and understood about ASD and what is yet to be known
in this area. The current knowledge includes ASD numbers
among Latino children but does not give the reasons for the late
diagnoses.
The research into reviewing and comparing ASD symptoms

56. management shows that there benefits to being diagnosed early
(Zuckerman, 2014). Children who are diagnosed early between
18 and 24 months can avoid long-term ASD symptoms
(Zuckerman, 2014). Identifying the way symptoms are managed
could be a great educational resource in the Latino community.
This could also persuade Latino parents to seek assistance for
behavioral or other concerns in their children. There is a gap in
research, as to the reasons for the late diagnoses. Harris et al.,
(2019) shows that possible factors may include lack of access to
healthcare services, autism related stigmas and a lack of
bilingual clinicians.
The research question has been answered because Latino
children who are diagnosed early are able to manage their
symptoms better than Latino children who are diagnosed late.
Although there is limited research on this population (Amaral,
2017), rigorous approaches have been taken to improve on the
evidence from the literature. The study will make a meaningful
contribution to current literature as it will review early and late
diagnoses. The study will decide is early diagnoses leads to
better symptoms management. This correlates directly to the
hypothesis, that Latino children who are diagnosed early
manage ASD symptoms better than Latino children who are
diagnosed late.
There are concerns that late diagnoses are not as prevalent as
reported (Montiel-Nava, Chacin & Gonzalez, 2017). Opponents
feel that although Latino children are diagnosed later than non-
Latino children, the numbers vary too widely for comparison.
Some studies report diagnoses at 24 months, while other studies
show that Latino children are diagnosed after 53 months.
Despite the discrepancies, the fact remains that effective
management of symptoms are not often presented. If researchers
can compare symptoms management of early versus late
diagnoses, there is a possibility that late diagnoses may be
curtailed (Moody et al., 2019).

57. Synthesis of the Research Findings
After reviewing the research, there is a need for a detailed plan
to address the gaps in research. A common theme of autism
spectrum disorder focuses on late diagnoses in Latino children;
however, a comparison between how the symptoms are managed
needs to be identified. Montiel-Nava, Chacin and Gonzalez-
Avila (2017) focuses on the age of diagnoses among Latino
children in Venezuela and America. The researchers show that
children experience severe symptoms when they are diagnosed
late. Parents stated that it was difficult to manage symptoms
because they were unsure of what to do (Montiel-Nava, Chacin
and Gonzalez-Avila, 2017). Furthermore, parents tried to
manage behavioral concerns but did not have adequate support
or skills to do so. These symptoms may include severe behavior
and academic problems. This number was especially high for
Latino children (Moody, et al., 2019).
Children who were diagnosed early were able to receive
academic and behavioral supports. Furthermore, research has
shown that intensive early intervention can make a big
difference in the outcomes for people with ASD (Diagnosing
and Managing ASD, 2020). When the child was diagnosed
early, the parents were able to request supports. Some of these
supports include Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) therapy
for their child (Amaral, 2017). Having an ASD diagnosis early
on, gave parents the ability to request treatment and behavioral
therapists for their child. Therefore, they were able to manage
symptoms with the support of therapists and treatment plans.
Research showed that when children are diagnosed earlier, they
can manage symptoms better (Zuckerman, 2014). This is
because parents can get the assistance that they need to help
with behavioral and academic concerns. This does not mean that
children who are diagnosed late are unable to manage their
symptoms. All symptoms can be managed with appropriate
therapy, treatment plans and medications as needed (Diagnosing
and Managing ASD, 2020). However, this study focused on
which group early versus late, manages their symptoms the best.

58. Harris et al., (2019) reviewed the child when the parent was
first concerned about their child’s symptoms, and the age when
the child was diagnosed. Parents in both countries tried to
manage their children’s symptoms even without an ASD
diagnoses. The children in America and in Venezuela
experienced similar diagnosing delays. Investigators wanted to
find the common factors between these ASD diagnosing delays,
as the children were in different countries. They decided to
look at the Latino groups and study the populations
individually.
Harris et al., (2019) discovered that Latino populations may
have many subgroups within their population. According to
Campinha-Bacote (2003), other forms of cultural diversity
includes religious affiliation, language, physical size, gender,
sexual orientation, age, disability and more. In order to ensure
individual variation and maintain diversity. The study must note
characters and traits that are specific to that group and find
ways to incorporate the findings into the research study.
There were different Latino groups represented within the
studies, and the researchers took care to ensure they were
following ethical practices.
It is important to review several sources before relying solely
on one research study. They can use the information from this
study, in conjunction with their own research to see how
parents, therapists and other stakeholders manage ASD
symptoms. Parents may be hesitant to report behavior
symptoms and management. Montiel-Nava, Chacin and
Gonzalez-Avila, (2017), showed that in some Latino
populations, behavior problems were associated with poor
parenting skills. This fact made parents hesitant to seek help
(Montiel-Nava, Chacin and Gonzalez-Avila, 2017).
Harris et al., (2019) reviewed the early and late ASD diagnoses
in detail and compiled data. They reviewed school-based
assessments and the diagnoses by school psychologists (Harris,
et al., 2019). This is important to stakeholders who base their
research on the study data. Another consideration in this study

59. is that the school psychologists self-reported many of the
results for this study. The study showed that school
psychologists discussed that symptoms are managed better if
they are caught earlier (Harris et al., 2019). School
psychologists can recommend treatment plans for school aged
children which assists with managing symptoms. The study
results were coded into usable data.
Moody et al, (2019) reviewed ASD in Latino communities and
the age when the child was diagnosed. The primary goal of the
article was to present evidence-based practices and empirical
data to support the research. The researchers implemented a
bootcamp to address health disparities among Latino children
and how to prevent late diagnoses of ASD. The authors
researched a program called The Appreciative
Inquiry/Bootcamp Translation (AI/BCT), which is a method of
community engagement and participation (Moody et al., 2019).
They encouraged children and parents with ASD to attend and
complete surveys related to ASD age of diagnosis.
This program used methods to create outreach and awareness
within the Latino communities. This program can be beneficial
to investigators, because these are non-traditional methods.
Investigators and stakeholders can use this data develop new
evidence-based practices. The researchers stated that AI/BCT
may reduce the late diagnoses in ASD (Moody, et al., 2019);
however, it will also assist investigators with determining the
causes of late diagnosis.
Critique of Previous Research Methods
Previous ASD research methods have traditionally focused
on white children (Amaral, 2017). The research was in-depth
analysis and often started while the child was 18 months. The
research on Latino children was not quite as in-depth and often
lacked in complexity and detail (Penner et. al, 2013). While
reviewing previous research methods there was a clear pattern
that developed. The research methods for Latino children
included parental assessments, surveys, reviewing clinical
charts and some observational methods.

60. Summary
It is important to conduct an extensive literature review when
trying to obtain knowledge about a broad subject. In regards to
Autism Spectrum Disorder, early and late diagnoses, literature
reviews show that there are still knowledge gaps. There are
also areas of research that needs to be performed in order to
effectively compare the way symptoms are managed. The
literature was able to provide a detailed synopis of how
symtoms are managed in early ASD diagnoses and late ASD
diagnoses.
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative research study is to review and
compare early and late diagnoses in Latino children. The result
is to determine which group of children were able to manage
their symptoms the best. The purpose is an attempt to
understand if early diagnoses leads to better management of
ASD symptoms in this population. The methodology used are
surveys, record reviews and purposive sampling. The
significance of the study is that it may establish a relationship
or discover the reasons for the late diagnoses. The study will

61. use reliable and validated data that is free of bias.
Research Question and Hypotheses
Hypothesis testing is an important activity of empirical research
(Banerjee, Chitnis, Jadhav, Bhawalkar, & Chaudhury, 2009).
There is a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis. The
research question and hypothesis are as follow:
Research question: Do Latino Children who get diagnosed for
ASD early between 18 to 24 months manage symptoms better
than Latino children who are diagnosed late after 24 months?
Null Hypothesis: Latino children with ASD who are diagnosed
early do not manage symptoms better than Latino children who
are diagnosed late.
Hypothesis: Latino children with ASD who are diagnosed early
manage symptoms better than Latino children who are
diagnosed late.
The independent variable is the Latino children. The dependent
variable will be the timing of the ASD diagnosis. The null
hypothesis states that there is no association between the
predictor and outcome variables in the population (Banerjee et
al., 2009). The alternative hypothesis specifies the direction of
the association between the predictor and outcome variables
(Banerjee et al., 2009). The research shows that there is
correlation between early diagnoses and better outcomes for
management of symptoms.
Research Design
This quantitative study will use a descriptive research
method design. The independent variable will be the autism
spectrum disorder diagnosis. The constructs will include Latino
children who were diagnosed with ASD between 18 and 24
months and Latino children who were diagnosed with ASD after
24 months. The dependent variable will be age of the child at
their initial diagnosis. The research will review quantitative
data to find a possible cause for the late diagnoses. Prospective
participants will be identified by implementing community
events and targeted specific populations. All participants will
be required to sign a consent form which allows for the review

62. of protected health information; additional sampling procedures
are outlined below.
Target Population and Sample
The target population is Latino children between the ages of
two and seven years of age. The study is targeting these
children who have an active ASD diagnoses. The children’s’
cases will be reviewed to identify how their ASD symptoms
were managed. The design approach will be a descriptive
research method. The type of design will be a survey method
research. In this type of research, participants answer questions
administered through interviews or questionnaires. For the
survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the
questions are constructed properly (Hale, 2018). Additional
details and procedures in obtaining the steps for obtaining the
target population are identified in the subsequent paragraphs.
The target population is Latino children who have an ASD
diagnosis. Community outreach events will be held and targeted
to parents of children with ASD. Flyers will be posted
throughout the community, schools, clinics and autism
treatment centers. Participants who respond will be screened
and required to sign a consent. The consent will ask for
permission in obtaining the medical records and health
information of the child. After obtaining consents, an
investigative review will be conducted among local hospital,
autism centers and clinics in predominately Latino communities.
This will include a meeting with hospital officials and
therapists in order to identify prospective participants.
Participants would be included in the study if they have been
diagnosed with ASD. They will be divided into two groups.
The groups would be ASD diagnoses between 18 and 24 months,
and ASD diagnoses after 24 months. Children would not be
included solely based on ethnicity; they must meet the
qualifications in order to be considered. The children would be
qualified based on prescreening data obtained from community
outreach programs. After a signed consent is signed by the
parent, the child’s health records would be reviewed to see if

63. they qualify for the research study. Participants would be
excluded if they have other cognitive disorders such as
Asperger’s or ADHD. The study is looking at a single factor,
and do not want to address multiple factors. Participants will
be recruited from clinics and organizations specializing in
autism therapy. Researchers will receive the clinical records
and work with behavioral therapists, pediatricians and parents
to determine possible candidates. These medical records will be
reviewed later to identify any documented symptoms and how
they were managed.
Purposive sampling will be used to ensure the target population
is obtained. Purposive sampling is a non-probability sample
that is selected based on characteristics of a population and the
objective of the study (Crossman, 2020). This sampling is
preferred as researchers can tailor the study to a specific
population. Flyers can be made in English and Spanish to
attract Latino participants. In addition, heavy populated Latino
clinics and schools to obtain prospective participants.
Procedures
Prospective participants will be identified through medical
record review and through autism network partners. At each
community outreach session, demographic information will be
collected from prospective participants. Parents will be asked
for their name, address and telephone number. They will also
be asked for their child’s age at diagnosis and asked if they
would return for a follow-up meeting. The follow up meeting
will be a time for parents to ask questions, hear more about the
study and sign health information consent forms. Protected
health information (PHI) includes all individually identifiable
health information, including demographic data, medical
histories and test results (HIPAA Journal, 2018). The
participants will be informed of the usage of this data and given
the opportunity to decline signing the consent. If a participate
declines to sign the consent, they will no longer be eligible to
participate in the study.
Participants will be sent letters to participate in Spanish and in

64. English. Participants will also be contacted via telephone.
Spanish language translators will be available to assist parents
with communication concerns. The researchers will take extra
care to ensure native Spanish speakers are available. This is
important because a study by Konkel (2015) found that
participants are more likely to participate in a study when the
researcher is someone who looks like them or can communicate
with them in their own language.
There will be case studies, medical records reviews, with
signed consents and questionnaires to design the study. The
questionnaires will be related to the age of initial ASD
diagnoses for the children. During the interviews, parents will
also be asked if they were able to manage their children’s ASD
symptoms. They might include factors as to why they were
unable to manage them, but the study is primarily focusing on if
the symptoms were managed.
give their reasons as to why they feel that their child was
diagnosed late. The data from these research studies will be
collected by technicians. They will review the questionnaires
and code the information accordingly. The participants’ parents
will be able to drop off their paper surveys at designated drop
off locations, such as their children’s doctor office or an
identify community center or autism treatment center. The
researchers will also provide electronic surveys for participants.
The data will be reviewed for completeness before coding. The
technicians will work in collaboration with the researchers to
ensure all paper surveys are completed, medical record consent
forms are signed, and that all information is present. The data
collection process will be collected for a two-month period.
This timeframe will give the researchers time to ensure all
information is reviewed and entered the study database.
Technicians will be able to contact participants for further
information, or to complete missing items.
When analyzing data, the data must be reliable and valid.
Reliability in research means
how consistently or dependably does a measurement scale

65. measure what it is supposed to be measuring (Bannigan &
Watson, 2009). The study has to be free of errors to the best of
the researchers’ ability. For example, in this study researchers
must be sure to include only the data that is reported on the
questionnaire. Researchers cannot assume by speaking with the
parents that they meant to check a certain response on the
questionaire. They have to make sure the data is reliable and
can be substantiated when reviewed by other researchers.
Validity is concerned with the mean and interpretation of a
scale (Bannigan & Watson, 2009). This is important in an
autism related study, because there is no medical test or gold
standard for detecting autism (Amaral, 2017). The construct
validity would be used in this study. It helps when there is no
way of directly testing the relationship between the
measurement scale and the underlying concept (Bannigan &
Watson, 2009). The construct validity can validate a test if the
researcher can show a strong relationship between the variables.
Ethical Considerations
It is important to have a solid recruitment strategy in place that
is free from bias and unethical procedures. Rogerson, Gottlieb,
Handelsman, Knapp and Younggren (2011) states that being
knowledgeable of rules and regulations can prevent ethical
errors. Some experts believe that fear of exploitation, based on
unethical practices, may make minority communities distrustful
to participate in research studies (Konkel, 2015). Researchers
must take steps to ensure they are following ethical procedures.
This includes providing excessive incentives, using deceptive
measures and obtaining the appropriate consents for
participants.
The American Psychological Association provides
recommendations and ethics codes for researchers. The relevant
sections for this study are sections 8 and 9. These sections are
Research and Publication, and Bases for Assessments (American
Psychological Association, 2010). These sections govern the
ethical considerations for researchers and how to obtain
consents. Section 8.06 Offering Inducements for Research