3. Introduction
ACL tears are common athletic injuries leading to anterior and lateral rotatory
instability of the knee.
Common
more common among female athlete (4.5:1 ratio)
4. Pathophysiology
non-contact pivoting injury
tibia translates anteriorly while knee is in slight flexion and valgus
blow to the lateral aspect of the knee
common activities are soccer, basketball, skiing, and football
Associated conditions
meniscal tears
lateral meniscal tears in 54% of acute ACL tears, medial in chronic cases
PCL, LCL/PLC injuries
chronic ACL deficient knees associated with
chondral injuries
complex, unrepairable meniscal tears and bucket handle medial meniscus tears
5. Anatomy
two bundles
anteromedial bundle
tightest in flexion
primarily responsible for restraining anterior tibial translation (anterior drawer test)
posterolateral bundle
tightest in extension
primarily responsible for rotational stability (pivot shift test)
Femoral attachment
lateral intercondylar
bifurcate ridge separates the anteromedial and posterolateral bundle attachment
tibial attachment: anterior tibia, between intercondylar eminences
6.
7. Composition
90% Type I collagen
10% Type III collagen
Blood supply: middle geniculate artery
Innervation: posterior articular nerve (branch of tibial nerve)
Function
provides 85% of the stability to prevent anterior translation of the tibia relative to the
femur
acts as a secondary restraint to tibial rotation and varus/valgus rotation
2200 N strength (anterior)
8. Clinical presentasion
History
felt a "pop"
pain deep in the knee
immediate swelling (70%) / hemarthrosis
feelings of instability preventing return to sport
difficulty weight bearing
Physical exam
effusion
lack of full extension secondary to meniscal injury or arthrofibrosis
evaluate for meniscal or concomitant ligamentous injuries (McMurray, Dial test, varus/valgus stress)
Provocative tests:
ADT
Lachman's test, most sensitive exam test
Pivot shift : knee brought from extension (anteriorly subluxated) to flexion (reduced) with valgus and internal
rotation of tibia , reduces at 20-30° of flexion due to IT band tension
9. Imaging
X ray : often normal
Segond fracture (avulsion fracture of
the proximal lateral tibia) is
pathognomonic for an ACL tear . It
represents bony avulsion by
the anterolateral ligament (ALL)
associated with ACL tear 75-100% of
the time
deep sulcus (terminalis) sign:
depression on the lateral femoral
condyle at the terminal sulcus, a junction
between the weight bearing tibial
articular surface and the patellar articular
surface of the femoral condyle
12. treatment
Treatment individualized to patient based on activity level, age, demands, and
concomitant pathology
Non operative: physical therapy, lifestyle modifications
low demand patients with decreased laxity
recreational athlete not participating in cutting/pivoting activities
Outcomes: increased meniscal/cartilage damage linked to loss of meniscal integrity, high
physical activity (e.g. jumping, side-to-side sports, heavy manual labor)
13. ACL reconstruction
must have full motion of knee restored following injury (unless meniscal tear causing
mechanical block)
lack of pre-operative motion risk factor for post-operative arthrofibrosis
younger, more active patients (reduces the incidence of meniscal or chondral injury)
older active patients (age >40 is not a contraindication if high demand athlete)
partial/single bundle tears with clinical and functional instability
14. ACL repair
indications
previously abandoned but increased interest recently in pediatric populations and
avulsion rupture patterns
outcomes
previously abandoned due to high failure rates
15. Graft selection
Bone-patellar tendon-bone (BPTB) autograft
the longest history of use and considered the "gold
standard"
bone to bone healing leads to faster incorporation
time
the highest incidence of anterior knee pain (up to
10-30%) and kneeling pain
maximum load to failure is 2600 Newtons (intact
ACL is 1725 Newtons)
complications
patella fracture (usually postop during rehab), patellar
tendon rupture
re-rupture
Quadrupled hamstring autograft
smaller incision, less perioperative pain,
less anterior knee pain
maximum load to failure is
approximately 4000 Newtons
complications
residual hamstring weakness
parasthesias due to injury to saphenous
nerve branches during harvest
16. Quadriceps tendon autograft
small incision in area that does not see
pressure during kneeling
maximum load to failure 2185 Newtons
similar patient-reported and functional
outcomes as other autografts
may include bone block or completely
soft tissue
less commonly used so is often
available in revision setting
same disadvantages as hamstring
autograft with suspensory fixation
Allograft
useful in revisions
longer incorporation time
risk of disease transmission (HIV is <
1:1.6 million, hepatitis is even greater)
increased risk of re-rupture in young
athletes
Editor's Notes
patient must be completely relaxed (easier to elicit under anesthesia)
mimics the actual giving way event (see pathoanatomy section)
arthroscopic bridge-enhanced ACL repair (BEAR) trial with a bridging scaffold is ongoing 2 year results show comparable results