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1. Kashmir
For other uses, see Kashmir (disambiguation).
See also: Cashmere (disambiguation)
Kashmir is a geographical region situated between
Political Map: the Kashmir region districts, showing the Pir Pan-
jal range and the Kashmir valley or Vale of Kashmir.
Pahalgam Valley, Kashmir
India, Pakistan and China. Throughout the course of
the history the geographical extent of the kingdom of
Kashmir kept changing, however by the mid-19th cen-
tury, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the
valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal
mountain range. Today, it denotes a larger area that
includes the Indian administered territories of Jammu
and Kashmir (which consists of Jammu, the Kashmir
Valley, and Ladakh), the Pakistan administered terri-
tories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan, and the
Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and the
Trans-Karakoram Tract.
Nanga Parbat in Kashmir, the ninth-highest mountain on Earth,
is the western anchor of the Himalayas
The Karakash River (Black Jade River) which flows north from
its source near the town of Sumde in Aksai Chin, to cross the
Kunlun Mountains
Although Jammu is part of the disputed Kashmir re-
gion, it is not geographically part of the Kashmir val-
ley nor the Ladakh region. The Jammu Division is in-
habited by the Dogra people who are historically, cul-
turally, linguistically, and geographically connected with
the Punjab region and the Pahari regions of the for-
mer Punjab Hills States that now comprise the state of
Himachal Pradesh.[1]
In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir re-
gion became an important centre of Kambojas and later
of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir
Shaivism arose.[2]
In 1339, Shah Mir became the first
Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Salatin-i-
Kashmir or Swati dynasty.[3]
For the next five centuries,
1

2. 2 2 HISTORY
Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals,
who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan Durrani
Empire, which ruled from 1751 until 1820.[3]
That year,
the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[3]
In
1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War,
and upon the purchase of the region from the British un-
der the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab
Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of
his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of
the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former
princely state of the British Indian Empire became a dis-
puted territory, now administered by three countries: In-
dia, Pakistan, and the People’s Republic of China.
1 Etymology
The Sanskrit word for Kashmir was कश्मीर (káśmīra)[4]
and, as with many ancient toponyms, its source and orig-
inal meaning remain unknown. Kashmir was archaically
spelled Cashmere in English.
Over the centuries, various Puranas linked the word
kaśmīra to the name of the mythical sage Kashyapa.
The word kaśmīra was thus said to be a contraction of
kaśyapa-mīra meaning “Kashyapa’s sea” (and the Kash-
mir Valley is then claimed to have formerly been a lake)
or, alternately, kaśyapa-meru, or “Kashyapa’s mountain”.
2 History
Surya Mandir at Martand, photographed by John Burke, 1868.
Main article: History of Kashmir
Further information: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict
and Kashmir conflict
2.1 Hinduism and Buddhism in Kashmir
Further information: Buddhism in Kashmir and Kashmir
Shaivism
Since medieval times, Kashmir has been an impor-
This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near
Baramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and an-
other at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke
in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.
tant centre for the development of a Buddhist-Hinduist
syncretism, in which Madhyamaka and Yogacara were
blended with Saivism and Advaita Vedanta. The Bud-
dhist Mauryan emperor Ashoka is often credited with
having founded the old capital of Kashmir, Shrinagari,
now ruins on the outskirts of modern Srinagar. Kashmir
was long to be a stronghold of Buddhism.[5]
As a Buddhist
seat of learning, the Sarvāstivādan school strongly in-
fluenced Kashmir.[6]
East and Central Asian Buddhist
monks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In
the late 4th century CE, the famous Kuchanese monk
Kumārajīva, born to an Indian noble family, studied
Dīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Band-
hudatta. He later became a prolific translator who helped
take Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought to
have retired to Kashmir. Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan
Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and
there instructed Kumārajīva in the Vinayapiṭaka.
According to tradition, Adi Shankara visited the pre-
existing Sarvajñapīṭha (Sharada Peeth) in Kashmir in the
late 8th century or early 9th century CE. The Madhaviya
Shankaravijayam states this temple had four doors for
scholars from the four cardinal directions. The southern
door (representing South India) had never been opened,
indicating that no scholar from South India had entered
the Sarvajna Pitha. According to tradition, Adi Shankara
opened the southern door by defeating in debate all the
scholars there in all the various scholastic disciplines such
as Mimamsa, Vedanta and other branches of Hindu phi-
losophy; he ascended the throne of Transcendent wisdom
of that temple.[7]

3. 2.2 Muslim rule 3
Kashmiri Pandits, natives of Kashmir Valley belong to
one of the prominent Shaiva sects of Hinduism
Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1020 CE[8][9]
) was one of India’s
greatest philosophers, mystics and aestheticians. He was
also considered an important musician, poet, dramatist,
exeget, theologian, and logician[10][11]
– a polymathic
personality who exercised strong influences on Indian
culture.[12][13]
He was born in the Kashmir Valley[14]
in a
family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools
of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of
as many as fifteen (or more) teachers and gurus.[15]
In his
long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most
famous of which is Tantrāloka, an encyclopaedic trea-
tise on all the philosophical and practical aspects of Trika
and Kaula (known today as Kashmir Shaivism). Another
one of his very important contributions was in the field of
philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabhāratī
commentary of Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata Muni.[16]
In the 10th century Moksopaya or Moksopaya Shastra,
a philosophical text on salvation for non-ascetics (moksa-
upaya: 'means to release'), was written on the Pradyumna
hill in Śrīnagar.[17][18]
It has the form of a public sermon
and claims human authorship and contains about 30,000
shloka's (making it longer than the Ramayana). The
main part of the text forms a dialogue between Vasistha
and Rama, interchanged with numerous short stories and
anecdotes to illustrate the content.[19][20]
This text was
later (11th to the 14th century CE)[21]
expanded and
vedanticised, which resulted in the Yoga Vasistha.[22]
2.2 Muslim rule
Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir (reigned 1339–42) was a ruler
of Kashmir and the founder of the Shah Miri dynasty
named after him. Sams’d-Din (ruled 1339-1342) also
Dhams-ud-din and Shah Mir, was the first Muslim ruler
of Kashmir[23]
and founder of the Shah Mir Dynasty.[24]
Jonaraja, in his Dvitīyā Rājataraṅginī mentioned him
as Sahamera. He came from sawat according to some
sources. However, Jonaraja a credible historian informs
us that Shahmir was not from Swat so some historians
say he was not from Swat but was a Kshatriya descended
from Arjuna whose ancestors had taken up Islam.
Shah Mir arrived in Kashmir in 1313 along
with his family, during the reign of Suhadeva
(1301-1320), whose service he entered. In
subsequent years, through his tact and ability
Shah Mir rose to prominence and became one
of the most important personalities of his time.
Later after the death in 1338 of Udayanadeva,
the brother of Suhedeva he was able to assume
the kingship himself, Rinchan (d. 1323), a
commander from Ladakh region who had en-
tered Kashmir as a fugitive seized the throne
of Kashmir, started his personal quest for re-
ligion, was not accepted into Hinduism by the
Brahmins due to his race, happened to watch
Sayyid Bilal (d.1327) at prayer, was enchanted
by the simplicity of the Sayyid’s faith and em-
braced it with fervour.[25]
Rinchan from Ladakh, and Lankar Chak from Dard ter-
ritory near Gilgit came to Kashmir, and played a notable
role in the subsequent political history of the valley. All
the three men were granted Jagirs by the King Rinchan
for three years became the ruler of Kashmir, Shah Mir
was the first rular of Shah mir dynasty, which had estab-
lished in 1339.
2.3 Sikh rule
In 1819, the Kashmir valley passed from the control
of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four cen-
turies of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans,
to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit
Singh of Lahore.[26]
As the Kashmiris had suffered un-
der the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh
rulers.[27]
However, the Sikh governors turned out to
be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally con-
sidered oppressive,[28]
protected perhaps by the remote-
ness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh empire in
Lahore.[29]
The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim
laws,[29]
which included handing out death sentences
for cow slaughter,[27]
closing down the Jamia Masjid in
Srinagar,[29]
and banning the azaan, the public Muslim
call to prayer.[29]
Kashmir had also now begun to attract

4. 4 2 HISTORY
Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-
din’s Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date A.D. 400 to 500, 1868.
John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Li-
brary.
Raja Gulab Singh, the Dogra ruler of Jammu, in a portrait made
before he purchased the Kashmir valley from the British in 1846
European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject
poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exor-
bitant taxes under the Sikhs.[27]
High taxes, according
to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large
tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of
the cultivable land to be cultivated.[27]
However, after a
famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the
produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free
loans to farmers;[29]
Kashmir became the second high-
est revenue earner for the Sikh empire.[29]
During this
time Kashmiri shawls became known worldwide, attract-
ing many buyers, especially in the West.[29]
Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo , the Raja
of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the
Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and after-
wards, until 1846, became a tributary to Sikh power.[26]
Ranjit Deo’s grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently
sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished
himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of
the Kashmir valley, and, for his services, was appointed
governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his offi-
cer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the
Sikhs the lands of Ladakh and Baltistan to the east and
north-east, respectively, of Jammu.[26]
2.4 Princely state
1909 map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The
names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are un-
derlined in red.
In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According
to the Imperial Gazetteer of India,
“Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself
aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he
appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted
adviser of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties
were concluded. By the first the State of La-
hore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the
British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity,
the hill countries between the rivers Beas and
Indus; by the second the British made over
to Gulab Singh for 7.5 million all the hilly or
mountainous country situated to the east of the

5. 2.5 1947 and 1948 5
Indus and the west of the Ravi (i.e. the Vale of
Kashmir).”[26]
Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted
between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kash-
mir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined dis-
parate regions, religions, and ethnicities:[30]
to the east,
Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its in-
habitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had
a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the
heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population
was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was
also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri
brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated
Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh,
but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely
populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly
Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of
different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[30]
After the
Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided with
the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule
by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came un-
der the suzerainty of the British Crown.
In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered
a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu popula-
tion of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and
Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%.[31]
That same year,
Prem Nath Bazaz, a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote:
“The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ...
Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee
[Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official
corruption is borne by the Muslim masses.”[32]
For almost
a century until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled
over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.[31][33]
Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to land-
lords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor
awareness of rights,[31]
the Muslim peasants had no po-
litical representation until the 1930s.[33]
2.5 1947 and 1948
Further information: Kashmir conflict, Timeline of the
Kashmir conflict and Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
Ranbir Singh’s grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended
the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch
in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcon-
tinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian
Empire into the newly independent Union of India and
the Dominion of Pakistan. According to Burton Stein's
History of India,
“Kashmir was neither as large nor as old
an independent state as Hyderabad; it had been
created rather off-handedly by the British after
the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a re-
ward to a former official who had sided with
The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the In-
dian Empire.
the British. The Himalayan kingdom was con-
nected to India through a district of the Pun-
jab, but its population was 77 per cent Mus-
lim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan.
Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja
would accede to Pakistan when the British
paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When
he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a
guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler
into submission. Instead the Maharaja ap-
pealed to Mountbatten[34]
for assistance, and
the governor-general agreed on the condition
that the ruler accede to India. Indian sol-
diers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-
sponsored irregulars from all but a small sec-
tion of the state. The United Nations was then
invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mis-
sion insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must
be ascertained, while India insisted that no ref-
erendum could occur until all of the state had
been cleared of irregulars.”[35]
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under
UN auspices. However, since the plebiscite demanded
by the UN was never conducted, relations between India
and Pakistan soured,[35]
and eventually led to two more
wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999. India has con-
trol of about half the area of the former princely state
of Jammu and Kashmir, while Pakistan controls a third
of the region, the Northern Areas and Kashmir. Accord-
ing to Encyclopædia Britannica, “Although there was a
clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 par-
tition and its economic, cultural, and geographic conti-
guity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in
Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the polit-
ical developments during and after the partition resulted
in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with ter-
ritory that, although basically Muslim in character, was
thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economi-

6. 6 3 DEMOGRAPHICS
cally underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situ-
ated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number
more than half the population of the entire region, lay in
Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via
the Jhelum valley route blocked.”[36]
Topographic map of Kasmir
2.6 Current status and political divisions
Main articles: Aksai Chin, Azad Kashmir, Jammu and
Kashmir, Gilgit–Baltistan and Trans-Karakoram Tract
The eastern region of the former princely state of Kash-
mir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in
the late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Al-
though some boundary agreements were signed between
Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern
borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agree-
ments, and China’s official position has not changed fol-
lowing the communist revolution of 1949 that estab-
lished the People’s Republic of China. By the mid-1950s
the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of
Ladakh.[36]
“By 1956–57 they had completed a military
road through the Aksai Chin area to provide
better communication between Xinjiang and
western Tibet. India’s belated discovery of this
road led to border clashes between the two
countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian
war of October 1962.”[36]
The region is divided amongst three countries in a
territorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest por-
tion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls the
central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and
Ladakh, and the People’s Republic of China controls
the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-
Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the
Siachen Glacier area, including the Saltoro Ridge passes,
whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest
of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 101,338 km2
(39,127
sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls 85,846
km2
(33,145 sq mi), and the People’s Republic of China
controls the remaining 37,555 km2
(14,500 sq mi).
Jammu and Pakistan administered Kashmir lie outside
Pir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistani
control respectively. These are populous regions. The
main cities are Mirpur, Dadayal, Kotli, Bhimber Jammu,
Muzaffarabad and Rawalakot. Gilgit–Baltistan, formerly
known as the Northern Areas, is a group of territories in
the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram, the west-
ern Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges.
With its administrative centre in the town of Gilgit, the
Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 square kilome-
tres (28,174 sq mi) and have an estimated population ap-
proaching 1 million (10 lakhs). The other main city is
Skardu.
Ladakh is a region in the east, between the Kunlun moun-
tain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to
the south.[37]
Main cities are Leh and Kargil. It is under
Indian administration and is part of the state of Jammu
and Kashmir. It is one of the most sparsely populated
regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people
of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[37]
Aksai Chin is a
vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up
to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of the
Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda
Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no per-
manent settlements.
Though these regions are in practice administered by their
respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has for-
mally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by
the other. India claims those areas, including the area
“ceded” to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram
Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan
claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-
Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several
declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War
of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with
Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and In-
dia one-half, with a dividing line of control established
by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.
3 Demographics
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the pop-
ulation of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was
2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims,
689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and
35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) oth-
ers).
Among the Muslims of the princely state, four divisions
were recorded: “Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans.

7. 7
A Muslim shawl making family shown in Cashmere shawl man-
ufactory, 1867, chromolith., William Simpson
A group of Kashmiri Pandits, natives of Kashmir Valley belong
to one of the prominent Shaiva sects of Hinduism, shown in 1895
The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the
descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the
caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names
known as krams ...”[38]
It was recorded that these kram
names included “Tantray”, “Shaikh”, “Bat”, “Mantu”,
“Ganai”, “Dar”, “Damar”, “Lon”, etc. The Saiyids were
found to be the second most numerous group, it was
recorded that they “could be divided into those who fol-
low the profession of religion and those who have taken
to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is
'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is
a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to
his name.”[38]
The Mughals who were not numerous were
recorded to have kram names like “Mir” (a corruption of
“Mirza”), “Beg”, “Bandi”, “Bach” and “Ashaye”. Finally,
it was recorded that the Pathans “who are more numerous
than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of
the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time
been founded. The most interesting of these colonies
is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who re-
tain all the old customs and speak Pashtu.”[38]
Among
the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the
Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Kha-
tri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title
Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar
use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indige-
nous of the princely state which converted to Islam from
Hinduism during its arrival in region.
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they
constituted a little less than 60% of the population.[38]
In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented “524 in
every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the
frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of
every 10,000 persons (0.94%).”[38]
In the same Cen-
sus of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total popula-
tion was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Mus-
lim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu
population 60,641.[38]
Among the Hindus of Jammu
province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the
Hindu population of the princely state), the most im-
portant castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans
(186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000)
and the Thakkars (93,000).”[38]
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the to-
tal population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to
3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Mus-
lims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs,
and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of
British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and
Jammu (which as a result of the second world war, was es-
timated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these,
the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the
Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh
55,000 (1.39%).[39]
The Kashmiri Pandits, the only Hindus of the Kashmir
valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5%
of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–
1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley
by 1950,[40]
began to leave in much greater numbers in
the 1990s. According to a number of authors, approxi-
mately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population
of 140,000 left the valley during that decade.[41]
Other
authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus,
ranging from the entire population of over 150[42]
to 190
thousand (1.5 to 190,000) of a total Pandit population of
200 thousand (200,000)[43]
to a number as high as 300
thousand[44]
(300,000).
The total population of India’s division of Jammu and
Kashmir is 12,541,302[45]
and Pakistan’s division of
Kashmir is 2,580,000 and Gilgit-Baltistan is 870,347.[46]

8. 8 7 NOTES
4 Culture and cuisine
Brokpa women from Kargil, northern Ladakh, in local costumes
Further information: Kashmiri cuisine, Wazwan,
Kashmiri literature, Kashmiri music, and Kashmiri
Pandit festivals
Kashmiri cuisine includes dum aloo (boiled potatoes with
heavy amounts of spice), tzaman (a solid cottage cheese),
rogan josh (lamb cooked in heavy spices), yakhiyn (lamb
cooked in curd with mild spices), hakh (a spinach-like
leaf), rista-gushtaba (minced meat balls in tomato and
curd curry), danival korme, and the signature rice which
is particular to Asian cultures. The traditional wazwan
feast involves cooking meat or vegetables, usually mut-
ton, in several different ways. Alcohol is strictly prohib-
ited in most places. There are two styles of making tea in
the region: Noon Chai, or salt tea, which is pink in colour
(known as chinen posh rang or peach flower colour) and
popular with locals; and kahwah, a tea for festive occa-
sions, made with saffron and spices (cardamom, cinamon,
sugar, noon chai leaves), and black tea.
5 Economy
Further information: Economy of Azad Kashmir and
Economy of Jammu and Kashmir
Kashmir’s economy is centred around agriculture. Tra-
Srinagar, the largest city of Kashmir
ditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which
formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian
corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its
temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus,
artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot,
cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the
valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples,
peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firs
and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, ap-
ple, cherry.
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when
Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and na-
tions (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance
of the cashmere goat and increased competition from
China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making
Pashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery.
Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to ex-
port the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic
foods mainly to the Middle East. Srinagar is known for its
silver-work, papier mache, wood-carving, and the weav-
ing of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005
Kashmir earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, re-
sulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled
part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian con-
trolled Kashmir. The Indian-administered portion of
Kashmir is believed to have potentially rich rocks con-
taining hydrocarbon reserves.[47][48]
5.1 Transport
Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the
region.[49]
Kashmir has a 135 km (84 mi) long modern
railway line that started in October 2009, and was last
extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla in the western
part of Kashmir to Srinagar and Banihal. It is expected to
link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of
the railway line from Katra to Banihal is completed.[50]
6 See also
• Kashmir conflict
• Line of Control
• List of Jammu and Kashmir related articles
• List of Kashmiri people
7 Notes
[1] “Jammu and Kashmir”. Britannica. Retrieved 24 March
2016.
[2] Basham, A. L. (2005) The wonder that was India, Pi-
cador. Pp. 572. ISBN 0-330-43909-X, p. 110.
[3] Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford
University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.

9. 9
[4] “A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Lan-
guages”. Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
[5] A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass
2000, page 256.
[6] A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass
2000, pages 263–264.
[7] Tapasyananda, Swami (2002), Sankara-Dig-Vijaya, pp.
186–195
[8] Triadic Heart of Shiva, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, page 12
[9] Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 27
[10] Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 4
[11] Key to the Vedas, Nathalia Mikhailova, page 169
[12] The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare,
page 12
[13] Companion to Tantra, S.C. Banerji, page 89
[14] Doctrine of Divine Recognition, K. C. Pandey, page V
[15] Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 35
[16] Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero
Gnoli, page LXXVII
[17] Slaje, Walter. (2005). “Locating the Mokṣopāya”, in:
Hanneder, Jürgen (Ed.). The Mokṣopāya, Yogavāsiṣṭha
and Related Texts Aachen: Shaker Verlag. (Indologica
Halensis. Geisteskultur Indiens. 7). p. 35.
[18] Gallery – The journey to the Pradyumnaśikhara Archived
23 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine.
[19] Leslie 2003, pp. 104–107
[20] Lekh Raj Manjdadria. (2002?) The State of Research to
date on the Yogavastha (Moksopaya).
[21] Hanneder, Jürgen; Slaje, Walter. Moksopaya Project: In-
troduction. Archived 28 December 2005 at the Wayback
Machine.
[22] Chapple, Christopher; Venkatesananda (1984), “Intro-
duction”, The Concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha, Albany: State Uni-
versity of New York Press, pp. x–xi, ISBN 0-87395-955-
8, OCLC 11044869
[23] Concise Encyclopeida Of World History By Carlos
Ramirez-Faria, page 412
[24] The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil
Services Page 104 “However, the situation changed with
the ending of the Hindu rule and founding of the Shah-
miri dynasty by Shahmir or Dhams-ud-din (1339-1342).
The devastating attack on Kashmir in 1320 by the Mon-
gol leader, Dalucha, was a prelude to it. It is said ... The
Sultan was himself a learned man, and composed poetry.
He was ...”
[25] History of Civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV By
M.S. Asimov C E Bosworth Page 307
[26] Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. “Kashmir:
History”. pp. 94–95.
[27] Schofield 2010, pp. 5–6
[28] Madan 2008, p. 15
[29] Zutshi 2003, pp. 39–41
[30] Bowers, Paul. 2004. “Kashmir”. Research Paper 4/28,
International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons
Library, United Kingdom. Archived 26 March 2009 at
the Wayback Machine.
[31] Bose 2005, pp. 15–17
[32] Quoted in Bose 2005, pp. 15–17
[33] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 54
[34] Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British
India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948,
serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of In-
dia.
[35] Stein, Burton. 2010. A History of India. Oxford Univer-
sity Press. 432 pages. ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6. Page
358.
[36] Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved
27 March 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Archived 13 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
[37] Jina, Prem Singh (1996), Ladakh: The Land and the Peo-
ple, Indus Publishing, ISBN 81-7387-057-8
[38] Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford
University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.
[39] Brush, J. E. 1949. “The Distribution of Religious Com-
munities in India” Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 39(2):81–98.
[40] Zutshi 2003, p. 318 Quote: “Since a majority of the land-
lords were Hindu, the (land) reforms (of 1950) led to a
mass exodus of Hindus from the state. ... The unsettled
nature of Kashmir’s accession to India, coupled with the
threat of economic and social decline in the face of the
land reforms, led to increasing insecurity among the Hin-
dus in Jammu, and among Kashmiri Pandits, 20 per cent
of whom had emigrated from the Valley by 1950.”
[41] Bose 1997, p. 71, Rai 2004, p. 286, Metcalf & Metcalf
2006, p. 274 Quote: “The Hindu Pandits, a small but in-
fluential elite community who had secured a favourable
position, first under the maharajas, and then under the
successive Congress regimes, and proponents of a distinc-
tive Kashmiri culture that linked them to India, felt under
siege as the uprising gathered force. Of a population of
some 140,000, perhaps 100,000 Pandits fled the state af-
ter 1990; their cause was quickly taken up by the Hindu
right.”
[42] Malik 2005, p. 318
[43] Madan 2008, p. 25
[44] CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues

10. 10 8 CITED REFERENCES
[45] “India, Jammu and Kashmir population statistics”. Geo-
Hive. Retrieved 2015-05-29.
[46] “Pakistan population statistics”. GeoHive. Retrieved
2015-05-29.
[47] Iftikhar Gilani. “Italian company to pursue oil exploration
in Kashmir”. Daily Times. Archived from the original on
6 June 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
[48] Ishfaq-ul-Hassan. “India, Pakistan to explore oil jointly”.
Daily News and Analysis. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
[49] “Local Transport in Kashmir – Means of Transporta-
tion Kashmir – Mode of Transportation Kashmir India”.
Bharatonline.com. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
[50] “How to Reach Kashmir by Train, Air, Bus?". Baa-
par.com. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
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• Bose, Sumantra (2005), Kashmir: roots of conflict,
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• Keenan, Brigid (1989), Travels in Kashmir: A Pop-
ular History of Its People, Places, and Crafts, Delhi:
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562236-7
• Khan, Mohammad Ishaq (2008), “Islam, State and
Society in Medieval Kashmir: A Revaluation of
Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani’s Historical Role”, in
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• Khan, Yasmin (2007), The Great Partition: The
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• Ramusack, Barbara (2004), The Indian Princes and
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• Reynolds, Nathalène (2008), “Revisiting Key
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• Schofield, Victoria (2010), Kashmir in conflict: In-
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• Witzel, Michael (2008), “The Kashmiri Pandits:
Their Early History”, in Rao, Aparna, The Valley
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• Wolpert, Stanley (2006), Shameful Flight: The Last
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• Zutshi, Chitraleka (2008), “Shrines, Political Au-
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81-7304-751-0
9 Further reading
• Blank, Jonah. “Kashmir–Fundamentalism Takes
Root”, Foreign Affairs, 78,6 (November/December
1999): 36–42.
• Drew, Federic. 1877. The Northern Barrier of In-
dia: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kash-
mir Territories with Illustrations; 1st edition: Edward
Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publish-
ers, Jammu. 1971.
• Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won't Come to
Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April
2001 p. 170-175.
• Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. “Kashmir Dispute: An In-
ternational Law Perspective”, National Institute of
Pakistan Studies.
• Irfani, Suroosh, ed “Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dis-
pute": Based on the proceedings of the International
Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and
Kashmir 24–25 August 1997: University of Azad
Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997.
• Joshi, Manoj Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the
Nineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999).
• Khan, L. Ali The Kashmir Dispute: A Plan
for Regional Cooperation 31 Columbia Journal of
Transnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994).
• Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: A
Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Ti-
bet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans,
Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen
Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971.
• Knight, William, Henry. 1863. Diary of a Pedes-
trian in Cashmere and Thibet. Richard Bentley, Lon-
don. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational Services,
New Delhi.
• Köchler, Hans. The Kashmir Problem between Law
and Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Set-
tlement. Keynote speech delivered at the “Global
Discourse on Kashmir 2008.” European Parliament,
Brussels, 1 April 2008.
• Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841.
Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan
and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Pe-
shawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819
to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publi-
cations, 1971.
• Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). The Tourist’s Guide
to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c. 18th Edition. Civil
and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of
this edition is unknown – but the 16th edition was
published in 1938).
• Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. Kalhaṇa’s Rājataraṅgiṇī–A
Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr, 2 vols. London, A.
Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass, 1979.
• Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward
1917. Kashmir. A. & C. Black, London.
• Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. “Kashmir and the Con-
vergence of Time, Space and Destiny”, 2004; ISBN

12. 12 10 EXTERNAL LINKS
0-945747-00-4. First published as a four-part se-
ries, March 2002 – April 2003, in 'Prakash', a re-
view of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Char-
itable Foundation.
• Muhammad Ayub. An Army; Its Role & Rule (A
History of the Pakistan Army from Independence
to Kargil 1947–1999) Rosedog Books, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania USA 2005. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.
10 External links
• Kashmir Information Portal
• Instrument of Accession
• United Nations Military Observers Group in Kash-
mir
• Official website of the Jammu and Kashmir Govern-
ment (Indian-administered Kashmir)
• Official website of the Azad Jammu and Kashmir
Government (Pakistan-administered Kashmir)
• (Kashmir resources)
• Kashmir Watch: Kashmir Conflict News Source
Coordinates: 34°30′N 76°00′E / 34.5°N 76°E

13. 13
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11.2 Images
• File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned from
personal copy and annotated by me (<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw'
title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>«Talk»</a> 04:16, 19 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John George
Bartholomew
• File:Buddhist_tope_baramula1868.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Buddhist_tope_
baramula1868.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Museum Original artist: John Burke
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0
Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:
• User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Azad_Kashmir.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Flag_of_Azad_Kashmir.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Himasaram
• File:Flag_of_Brunei.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion
• File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Original artist: Draw new flag by User: _
• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the
Sodipodi SVG flag collection, and is public domain.
• File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

15. 11.2 Images 15
• File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
• File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên
• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original
artist: User:Achim1999
• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
• File:Gulabsingh1840.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Gulabsingh1840.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Off2riorob using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was
Idleguy at English Wikipedia
• File:Jammu-Kashmir-flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Jammu-Kashmir-flag.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Self-created Original artist: Self-created; flag created by Jammu and Kashmir National Conference
• File:Karakash_River_in_the_Western_Kunlun_Shan,_seen_from_the_Tibet-Xinjiang_highway.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Karakash_River_in_the_Western_Kunlun_Shan%2C_seen_from_the_Tibet-Xinjiang_
highway.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:KashmirPundit1895BritishLibrary.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/39/
KashmirPundit1895BritishLibrary.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
Image downloaded from this British Library web site (see also this site for information) by <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
User:Fowler%26fowler' title='User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:
Fowler%26fowler' title='User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>«Talk»</a> 02:46, 19 June 2012 (UTC) Original artist:
Unknown photographer
• File:Kashmir_Ladakh_women_in_local_costume.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Kashmir_
Ladakh_women_in_local_costume.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Kashmir_region_2004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Kashmir_region_2004.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/kashmir_region_2004.jpg Original artist: CIA
• File:Kashmir_top.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Kashmir_top.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kashmir_top.jpg Original artist: BorgQueen (
• File:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/
Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This chromolithograph is taken from plate 2 of
William Simpson’s 'India: Ancient and Modern'. Downloaded from the British Library Web Site.
Original artist: William Simpson
• File:NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/08/NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg License: PD
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Nanga_parbat,_Pakistan_by_gul791.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Nanga_parbat%2C_
Pakistan_by_gul791.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: http://www.sxc.hu/photo/341372 Original artist: Atif Gulzar
• File:Pahalgam_Valley.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Pahalgam_Valley.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: KennyOMG
• File:Pandit_woman_1922_vintage_by_Vishwanath.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Pandit_
woman_1922_vintage_by_Vishwanath.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Pandit Vishwanath
• File:Srinagar_pano.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Srinagar_pano.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: KennyOMG
• File:Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_
indogreek.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded from the British Museum website by <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>«Talk»</a> 15:20, 19 March
2007 (UTC) Original artist: John Burke (died 1900)
• File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw
• File:Zeinulabuddin-tomb-srinagar1866.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/
Zeinulabuddin-tomb-srinagar1866.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: British Library Original artist: John Burke

16. 16 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
11.3 Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0