ESSLLI2016 Advanced Course "An Introduction to Dependent Type Semantics" by Daisuke Bekki and Koji Mineshima

1. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Introduction to Dependent Type Semantics:
More dependent types
Daisuke Bekki1,2 Koji Mineshima1,2
1Ochanomizu University / 2CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency
version: August 18, 2016
ESSLLI 2016 course, Bolzano, Italy, August 15-19, 2016.
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2. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Disjoint Union Types for Disjunction
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3. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Disjoint union type A B is a type for representing disjunctions
(A ∨ B).
Definition ( -Formation/Introduction Rules)
A : type B : type
A B : type
( F)
M : A
ι1(M) : A B
( I )
N : B
ι2(N) : A B
( I )
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4. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Mary sees a horse or a pony: Parsing
Mary
NP
m
sees
SNP/NP
see
a
SNP(SNP/NP)/N
λn.λp.λx.

 v:
y:entity
ny
p(π1(v))x


horse
N
horse
SNP(SNP/NP)
λp.λx.

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
p(π1(v))x


>
or
CONJ
a
SNP(SNP/NP)/N
λn.λp.λx.

 v:
y:entity
ny
p(π1(v))x


pony
N
pony
SNP(SNP/NP)
λp.λx.

 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
p(π1(v))x


>
SNP(SNP/NP)
λp.λx.

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
p(π1(v))x



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
p(π1(v))x


Φ
SNP
λx.

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(x, π1(v))



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(x, π1(v))


<
S
 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


<
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5. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Disjoint Union Type: the elimination rule
-Elimination rule is about how to use L of type A B:
Definition ( -Elimination Rule)
L : A B C : (A B) → type
x : A....
M : C(ι1(x))
i
x : B....
N : C(ι2(x))
i
case L of (λx.M; λx.N) : C(L)
( E),i
C is a one-place predicate.
M is a proof that C(x) holds for any x of type A.
N is a proof that C(x) holds for any x of type B.
These are enough for proving that C(L) holds for any L of
type A B.
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6. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Example: a disjunctive inference
Mary sees a horse or a pony. =
⇐
Mary sees an animal.
u :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
animal(y)
see(m, π1v)

 true
under a signature:
k1 : u:
x:entity
horse(x)
→ animal(π1u) “Every horse is an animal.”
k2 : u:
x:entity
pony(x)
→ animal(π1u) “Every pony is an animal.”
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7. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Mary sees a horse or a pony.
⇐
Mary sees an animal.
u :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


π1x :
y:entity
horse(y)
(ΣE)
π1π1x : entity
(ΣE)
x :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)


1
π1x :
y:entity
horse(y)
(ΣE)
k1 : u:
x:entity
horse(x)
→ animal(π1u)
k1(π1x) : animal(π1π1x)
(ΣE)
(π1π1x, k1(π1x)) :
y:entity
animal(y)
(ΣI )
x :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)


1
π2x : see(m, π1π1x)
(ΣE)
((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x) :

 v:
y:entity
animal(y)
see(m, π1v)


(ΣI )
x :

 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


....
((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
:

 v:
y:entity
animal(y)
see(m, π1v)


1
case u of (λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x); λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)) :

 v:
y:entity
animal(y)
see(m, π1v)


( E),1
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8. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Disjunctive antecedents
Elbourne (2011):
(1) If Mary1 sees [[a horse] or [a pony]]2, she1 waves to it2.
Dynamic semantics does not have a straightforward solution
for it.
A solution via dependent types: Ranta (1994)
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9. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
If Mary sees a horse or a pony... : Parsing
If
S/S/S
λp.λq.p → q
Mary sees a horse or a pony
S
 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


S/S
λq.

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)

 → q
>
she
NP
m
waves
SNP/NP
waveTo
to
NP/NP
id
it
NP
π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
NP
π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
>
SNP
waveToπ1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
>
S
waveTo m, π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
<
S
 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)

 → waveTo m, π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
>
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10. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
If Mary sees a horse or a pony... : Type Checking
....
 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)

 : type
waveTo : entity → entity → type
(CON )
....
x:entity
¬human(x)
: type
p :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


....
x:entity
¬human(x)
1
@1
x:entity
¬human(x)
:
x:entity
¬human(x)
(@)
π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: entity
(ΣE)
waveTo π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: entity → type
(→E)
m : entity
(CON )
waveTo m, π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: type
(→E)

p:

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)



 → waveTo m, π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: type
(ΠF)
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11. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
If Mary sees a horse or a pony... : Proof Search
....
 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)

 : type
waveTo : entity → entity → type
(CON )
....
x:entity
¬human(x)
: type
p :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


....
case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
:
x:entity
animal(x)
1
π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: entity
(ΣE)
p :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


....
case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
:
x:entity
animal(x)
1
k3 : u:
x:entity
animal(x)
→ ¬human(π1u)
(CON )
k3 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: ¬human(π1)
(→E)
π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
, k3 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
:
x:entity
¬human(x)
(→E)
@1
x:entity
¬human(x)
:
x:entity
¬human(x)
(@)
π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: entity
(ΣE)
waveTo π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: entity → type
(→E)
m : entity
(CON )
waveTo m, π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: type
(→E)

p:

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)



 → waveTo m, π1 @1
x:entity
¬human(x)
: type
(ΠI ),1
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12. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
If Mary sees a horse or a pony... : @-Elimination
....
 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)

 : type
waveTo : entity → entity → type
(CON )
....
x:entity
¬human(x)
: type
p :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


....
case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
:
x:entity
animal(x)
1
π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: entity
(ΣE)
p :

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)


....
case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
:
x:entity
animal(x)
1
k3 : u:
x:entity
animal(x)
→ ¬human(π1u)
(CON )
k3 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: ¬human(π1)
(→E)
π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
, k3 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
:
x:entity
¬human(x)
(→E)
π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: entity
(ΣE)
waveTo π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: entity → type
(→E)
m : entity
(CON )
waveTo m, π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: type
(→E)

p:

 v:
y:entity
horse(y)
see(m, π1v)



 v:
y:entity
pony(y)
see(m, π1v)



 → waveTo m, π1 case p of
λx.((π1π1x, k1(π1x)), π2x);
λx.((π1π1x, k2(π1x)), π2x)
: type
(ΠI ),1
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13. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Inaccessibility again
(1) If Mary1 sees [[a horse] or [a pony]], she1 waves to it2.
(2) * If Mary1 sees [[a horse] or [nothing]], she1 waves to it2.
(3) * If Mary1 sees [[nothing] or [a horse]], she1 waves to it2.
(4) If Mary1 sees [[a horse] or [nothing]], she1 is unhappy.
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14. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Summary: Disjoint union type and disjunction
Disjunctive constructions are represented by using disjoint
union types.
Disjunctive antecedents have been problematic to dynamic
semantics, while disjoint union types give it a proper analysis,
which implies that anaphora binding is not an issue of variable
binding but an issue of proof construction.
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15. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Enumeration Type
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16. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Rules for enumeration type
An enumeration type is a type that is inhabited by a finite number
of terms. A particular enumeration type is defined from a given
enumeration of n-number of constructors a1, . . . , an.
Definition ({}-Formation/Introduction Rules)
For each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ n:
{a1, . . . , an} : type
({}F)
ai : {a1, . . . , an}
({}I )
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17. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Rules for enumeration type
Definition ({}-Elimination Rule)
M : {a1, . . . , an} C : {a1, . . . , an} → type N1 : C(a1) . . . Nn : C(an)
caseM (N1, . . . , Nn) : C(M)
({}E)
{}-Elimination rule says how to use M, a proof of an
enumeration type. Similar to disjoint union type.
C is a one-place predicate.
Ni is a proof of C(M) in case M is ai.
caseM (N1, . . . , Nn) saids that C holds in every case where
M is ai, since we have a proof for each case.
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18. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Example I: Bottom Type
The first example of enumeration types is the bottom type, the
type representing absurdity. Absurdity is understood as a
proposition which has no proof, which is straightforwardly
represeted as an enumeration type which is inhabited by no term.
Definition (⊥ type)
⊥
def
≡ {}
Definition (⊥-Formation/Elimination Rules)
⊥ : type
(⊥F)
M : ⊥ C : ⊥ → type
caseM () : C(M)
(⊥E)
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19. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
EFQ
The “Ex Falso Quodlibet” (EFQ) rule is straightforwardly derived
from ⊥-Elimination Rule. Thus dependent type theory with
enumeration types of arity 0 is stronger than intuitionistic logic.
Theorem (Ex Falso Quodlibet)
M : ⊥ C : type
caseM () : C
(EFQ)
Proof.
M : ⊥
C : type x : ⊥
1
C : type
(WK)
λx.C : ⊥ → type
(→I ),1
caseM () : (λx.C)M ( β C)
(⊥E)
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20. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Negation
By using ⊥, the negation of A (notation: ¬A) is defined as
follows:
Definition (¬)
¬A
def
≡ A → ⊥
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21. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Example: Inferences that require EFQ
Susan or Mary killed John. Mary didn’t kill John.
=
⇐
Susan killed John.
u : kill(s, j ) kill(m, j ), v : ¬kill(m, j ) kill(s, j ) true
u : kill(s, j ) kill(m, j ) x : kill(s, j )
1
x : kill(m, j )
1
v : ¬kill(m, j )
vx : ⊥
(→E)
casevx() : kill(s, j )
(EFQ)
case u of (λx.x; λx.casevx()) : kill(s, j )
( E),1
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22. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Example II: Top Type
The second example of enumeration types is the top type, the type
representing necessary truth. Necessary truth is understood as a
proposition that there is always a proof (), called an unit.
Definition ( type)
def
≡ {()}
Definition ( -Formation Rule)
: type
( F)
() :
( I )
M : C : → type N : C()
caseM (N) : C(M)
( E)
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23. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Example III: Finite model
Suppse that entity
def
≡ {mary, susan, john}. Under the
signature: σ
def
≡ girl : entity → type,
smart : entity → type,
mg : girl(mary),
sg : girl(susan),
jg : ¬girl(john),
ms : smart(mary),
ss : smart(susan),
js : ¬smart(john)
the following inference holds:
(x:entity) → girl(x) → smart(x) true
(i.e. “Every girl is smart.”)
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24. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
A proof of “Every girl is smart.”
x : {mary, susan, john}
1
ms : smart(mary)
(CON )
y : girl(mary)
2
ms : smart(mary)
(WK)
λy.ms : girl(mary) → smart(mary)
(→I ),2
ss : smart(susan)
(CON )
y : girl(susan)
2
ss : smart(susan)
(WK)
λy.ss : girl(susan) → smart(susan)
(→I ),2
x : girl(john)
3
gs : ¬girl(john)
(CON )
gs(x) : ⊥
(→I )
....
smart(john) : type
casegs(x)() : smart(john)
(⊥E
λx.(casegs(x)()) : girl(john) → smart(john)
(→I ),3
case(λy.ms, λy.ss, λx.(casegs(x)())) : girl(x) → smart(x)
({}E),1
λx.case(λy.ms, λy.ss, λx.(casegs(x)())) : (x:entity) → girl(x) → smart(x)
(ΠI ),1
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25. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Summary
⊥ and are instances of enumeration types.
Generally, ∃ and ¬∀ propositions can be verified by a single
witness, while ∀ and ¬∃ propositions can be verified only
analytically, if they quantify over possibly infinite domain.
In model-theoretic semantics, even ∀ and ¬∃ propositions can
be shown to be true under some finite model, while it is not
the case in proof-theoretic semantics without enumeration
types.
entity defined in terms of enumeration types behaves as finite
models, enables us to mimic model-theoretic semantics.
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26. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Natural Number Type
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27. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Natural Numbers
Definition (N-Formation Rules)
N : type
(NF)
The type N is defined by the constructor 0 (zero) and s (the
successor function).
Definition (N-Introduction Rules)
0 : N
(NI )
n : N
s(n) : N
(NI )
(NI ) also serves as the introduction rule for s. The digits are
defined in the following way: 1
def
≡ s0, 2
def
≡ ss0, 3
def
≡ sss0, . . .
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28. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Natural Numbers
The (NE) rule is the elimination rule of N (and the formulation
rule of the natrec constructor).
Definition (N-Elimination Rules)
n : N C : N → type e : C(0)
x : N....
i
y : C(x)
....
i
M : C(s(x))
natrec(n, e, λx.λy.M) : C(n)
(NE),i
Intuitively, the (NE) rule corresponds to the mathematical
induction. where e is a proof for 0 and f is a proof for s(n).
Definition (β-reduction rules (one-step))
natrec(0, e, f) →β e
natrec(s(n), e, f) →β f(n)(natrec(n, e, f))
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29. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Addition and Multiplication
The addition operator “+” and the multiplication operator “·” for
nutural numbers illustrate the use of the natrec constructor.
Definition (Addition and Multiplication)
m + n
def
≡ natrec(m, n, λx.λy.s(y))
m · n
def
≡ natrec(m, 0, λx.λy.(y + x))
Exercise: Proove the following theorems:
Theorem
m : N n : N
m + n : N
(+F)
m : N n : N
m · n : N
(·F)
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30. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Example of Addition
2 + 1
≡ s s 0 + s0
→β natrec(s s 0 , s0, λx.λy.s(y))
→β (λx.λy.s(y))( s 0 )(natrec( s 0 , s0, λx.λy.s(y)))
β s(natrec( s 0 , s0, λx.λy.s(y))
→β s(λx.λy.s(y))( 0 )(natrec( 0 , s0, λx.λy.s(y)))
→β ss(natrec( 0 , s0, λx.λy.s(y)))
→β sss0
≡ 3
m + n
def
≡ natrec(m, n, λx.λy.s(y))
natrec(0, e, f) →β e
natrec(s( n ), e, f) →β f( n )(natrec( n , e, f)) 30 / 41

31. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Exercises on natural numbers
Prove the following theorems:
Theorem
0 + n β n
0 · n β 0
Theorem
1 + 1 β 2
Theorem
sn =β 1 + n
s(m) + n =β s(m + n)
s(m) · n =β (m · n) + n
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32. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Finite Sequences
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33. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Finite Sequences
The disjoint union type, the enumeration types, and the natural
number type enable us to define a series of types known as finite
sequences (Aczel (1980))
Definition (Finite Sequence)
M(n)
def
≡ natrec(n, ⊥, λx.λy.(y ))
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34. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Finite Sequences
Then, M(0), M(1), M(2), . . . are respectively defined as types
which inhabits 0, 1, 2, . . . canonical terms, as follows.
M(0) = natrec(0, ⊥, λx.λy.(y ))
= ⊥
M(s0) = natrec(s0, ⊥, λx.λy.(y ))
= (λx.λy.(x ))(0)(natrec(0, ⊥, λx.λy.(y )))
= ⊥
M(ss0) = natrec(ss0, ⊥, λx.λy.(y ))
= (λx.λy.(y ))(s0)(natrec(s0, ⊥, λx.λy.(y )))
= (λx.λy.(y ))(s0)(⊥ )
= (⊥ )
. . .
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35. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Finite Sequences
M0 is equivalent to ⊥, thus inhabits no term.
M(s0) only inhabits a term ι2().
M(ss0) inhabits two terms ι1ι2() and ι2().
. . .
Exercise
Show that:
ι1ι2() : M(ss0)
ι2() : M(ss0)
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36. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Intensional Equality type
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37. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Extended Syntax
A collection of Preterms for an extended theory is augmented with
three terms: Λ =Λ Λ (intensional types), reflΛ(Λ) (proof terms
for the reflexive laws), idpeel(Λ, Λ) (proof terms for )
Definition (Preterms)
A collection of preterms (notation: Λ) for an alphabet
(Var, Con) is recursively defined by the following BNF notation:
Λ := x | c | type | kind
| (x:Λ) → Λ | λx.Λ | ΛΛ
|
x:Λ
Λ
| (Λ, Λ) | π1(Λ) | π2(Λ)
| Λ =Λ Λ | reflΛ(Λ) | idpeel(Λ, Λ)
where x ∈ Var and c ∈ Con.
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38. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Typing Rules
Definition (Id-Formation Rules)
A : s M : A N : A
M =A N : type
(IdF)
Definition (Id-Introduction Rule)
A : type M : A
reflA(M) : M =A M
(IdI )
Definition (Id-Elimination Rules)
E : M1 =A M2 C : (x:A) → (y:A) → (x =A y) → type N : (x:A) → Cxx(reflA(x))
idpeel(e, N) : CM1M2E
(IdE)
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39. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Reduction
Definition (Reduction for Id)
idpeel(reflA(M), N) →β N(M)
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40. Disjoint Union Types Enumeratioin Types Natural Number Type Finite Sequences Id-type
Theorems of Id-type
Theorem (Symmetry law for Id)
A : type M =A N true
N =A M true
Theorem (Transitivity law for Id)
A : type L : A M : A N : A L =A M true M =A N true
L =A N true
Theorem (Substitution by Id)
A : type M : A N : A P : A → type M =A N true P M true
P N true
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41. References
Reference I
Aczel, P. H. (1980) “Frege structures and the notions of
proposition truth and set”, In: J. Barwise, H. J. Keisler, and K.
Kunen (eds.): The Kleene Symposium. Amsterdam, North-
Holland Publishing Company, pp.31–59.
Elbourne, P. (2011) Meaning: A Slim Guide to Semantics. Oxford
University Press.
Ranta, A. (1994) Type-Theoretical Grammar. Oxford University
Press.
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