definition,theories,concepts,principles,infant

1. SEMINAR PRESENTATION

3.  The period of growth and development
extends throughout the life cycle.
The period in which the principal changes
occur is from conception to the end of
adolescence
 This most important period of growth and
development is a complex one, in which two
cells joined as one, becomes a normally
thinking, feeling person who eventually takes
a responsible place in society.

4.  CEPHALOCAUDAL- Head to tail, babies lift
their head before they sit up, make sounds
before they walk.
 CONCEPTION – The process of pregnancy
 DEVELOPMENT- A change in body function
 GROWTH- A change in body size and
structure
 LANUGO- Fine hair covers most of the body.
 MATURATION- The process of becoming fully
developed and grown.
 PROXIMODISTAL – From the centre to outside
 TRIMESTER- The period of gestation.

5. GROWTH: It refers to an increase in physical size
of the whole or any of its part and can be
measured in inches, or centimeters, pound or
kilogram. It results because of cell division and
the synthesis of proteins. It causes a quantitative
change in the child’s body.(STEWART 1982)
DEVELOPMENT :It refers to a progressive increase
in skill and capacity to function. It causes a
qualitative change in the child’s
functioning.(TODD)

6.  Growth proceeds in cephalocaudal
direction that proceeds from head
down to the tail. E.g. Before birth the
head end of the embryo and foetus
enlarges and develops before the tail
end does. Postnatally, the infant can
control the movement of head before
being able to stand and control the
feet.

7.  Growth proceeds in proximodistal direction
or from the centre or midline of the body to
the periphery. E.g. During prenatal period,
the limb buds develop before the
rudimentary fingers and toes. During
infancy, the large muscles of the arms and
legs are subject to voluntary control earlier
than the fine muscles of hands and feet.

8.  General movements become more
specific. Generalized muscle
movements can occur before fine
muscle control is possible. E.g. A first,
infants can make only random
movements of the arms. Gradually
they learn to use the whole hand in
picking up a small object, and then
learn to pick it up with pincer grasp
i.e. between thumb and forefinger.

9.  Interrelatedness of growth and
development: Although growth
and development proceed at
different rates they are so
interrelated that the result is a
progressive development of the
whole child, from infancy to
adulthood.

10.  Development is a continuous process:
 Different aspects of growth develop at
different rates
 Each Child Grows in his own Unique Way.
There are wide individual differences
 Growth is both quantitative and Qualitative
 Principle of spiral versus linear arrangement

11.  INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
 READINESS FOR CERTAIN TASKS
 RATE OF DEVELOPMENT
 CHANGING GROWTH RATES OVER THE YEARS

12.  Prenatal Period: Conception to birth,
encompassing the embryonic period (conception
to 8 weeks) and the foetal period (8-40 weeks,
ending in birth)
 Newborn (Neonatal) Period: From birth to 4
weeks
 Infancy Period: From 4weeks to 1 year
 Toddler Period: From 1-3 years
 Early Childhood (preschool): From 3-6 years
 Late childhood (school): From 6-12 years to
puberty
 Adolescence: From puberty to the beginning of
adult life.

13. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT: Jean Piaget
 According to Piaget, maturation and
growth have certain signposts. The child
gradually develops an integration or
coordination of various sensory inputs from
touch, taste, smell, sight and sound into an
organized and objective understanding of
reality. The child does not understand the
objects that cannot be seen. The ability to
use symbols to represent reality is another
important stage in development.

14.  Children are primarily concerned with learning
about physical objects
 Infants gain knowledge of the world from the
physical actions they perform within it. They
progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth
to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the
end of the stage.

15.  1 Simple reflexesBirth-6 weeks"Coordination
of sensation and action through reflexive
behaviors".Three primary reflexes are
described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the
mouth, following moving or interesting
objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand
when an object makes contact with the palm
(palmar grasp). Over the first six weeks of
life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary
actions. For example, the palmar reflex
becomes intentional grasping.

16.  2 First habits and primary circular reactions
phase6 weeks-4 months"Coordination of
sensation and two types of schema: habits
(reflex) and primary circular reactions
(reproduction of an event that initially occurred
by chance). The main focus is still on the infant's
body".
 As an example of this type of reaction, an infant
might repeat the motion of passing their hand
before their face. Also at this phase, passive
reactions, caused by classical or operant
conditioning, can begin.

17.  3 Secondary circular reactions phase4–
8 monthsDevelopment of habits. "Infants
become more object-oriented, moving
beyond self-preoccupation; repeathat bring
interesting or pleasurable results".This stage
is associated primarily with the development
of coordination between vision and
prehension.

18.  stages8–12 months"Coordination of vision and
touch—hand-eye coordination; coordination of
schemas and intentionality.
 This stage is associated primarily with the
development of logic and the coordination
between means and ends. This is an extremely
important stage of development, holding what
Piaget calls the "first proper intelligence". Also,
this stage marks the beginning of goal
orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to
meet an objective.

19.  12–18 months"Infants become intrigued by
the many properties of objects and by the
many things they can make happen to
objects; they experiment with new
behavior". This stage is associated primarily
with the discovery of new means to meet
goals. Piaget describes the child at this
juncture as the "young scientist," conducting
pseudo-experiments to discover new
methods of meeting challenges

20. 8-24 months"Infantdevelop the ability to use
primitive symbols and form enduring mental
representations". This stage is associated
primarily with the beginnings of insight, or
true creativity. This marks the passage into
the preoperational stage.

21.  PREOPERATIONAL STAGE(2-7): They are
preoccupied with symbols in language,
dreams and fantasy.
Preconceptual (2-4): uses representational
thought to recall past, represent present
and anticipate future.
Intuitive (4-7): Increased symbolic
functioning, transductive reasoning.

22.  CONCRETE OPERATIONAL(7-11): They move
into the abstract world, mastering numbers
and relationships and how to reason about
them
 FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11-15): They tackle
purely logical thought, thinking about their
own thinking as well as those of others

23.  According to Piaget, moral development
parallels mental development and consists of
two stages – ‘Respect for rules’ and ‘sense of
justice’.
 1. About 3-11 years of age.
 2. Occurs from 12 years onwards

24.  According to Kohlberg, a moral sense is
acquired through an internal and personal
series of changes in attitudes. There are 6
stages of potential moral development
organized within 3 levels.
 PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY- Egocentricity
 CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
 POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY

25.  Moral judgements only on the basis of reward
or punishment:
 Stage 0 (0-2 years): The good is what I like
and want.
 Stage 1 (2-3 years): Punishment-obedience
orientation.
 Stage 2 (4-7 years): Children focus on the
pleasure motive.

26.  Correct behavior is that which those in
authority will approve and accept. If
behavior is not acceptable, children feel
guilty. There are 2 stages at this level.
 Stage 3 (7-9 years): Orientation to
interpersonal relations.
 Stage 4 (10-12 years): Maintenance of social
order, fixed rules and authority.

27. Adolescents make choices on the basis of
principles that have been thought about,
accepted and internalized.
 Stage 5: Higher law and conscience orientation.
Adolescents give importance for values on
attitudes and actions that benefit society.
 Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation.
In this level of highest moral value, individuals
motivate and evaluate themselves.

28.  In each stage of a child’s emotional
development a central problem exist
for which a solution should be found.
 THE INFANT (0-1 YEAR): Sense of trust vs
mistrust
 THE TODDLER (1-3 YEARS): Sense of
Autonomy vs shame and doubt

29.  THE PRESCHOOL CHILD (3-6 YEARS): Sense of
initiative vs guilt
Children at this age want to learn what they
can do for themselves.
 THE SCHOOL-AGE CHILD (6-12 YEARS): Sense
of industry vs inferiority
Children in this age group have a strong
sense of duty. They want to engage in task.

30.  EARLY ADOLESCENCE (>12 YEARS): Sense of
identity vs identity diffusion
Adolescents want to clarify who they are and
what their roles in society are to be.
 LATE ADOLESCENCE: Sense of intimacy vs
isolation

31. According to Fowler, faith is an
ongoing process in which individuals form
and reform their way of seeing the world.
Persons may acquire their religious beliefs
and preferences in childhood and may
deepen those convictions as their faith
develops, or they may change religious
beliefs in adulthood

32.  STAGE 1- UNDIFFERENTIATED (INFANCY):
The primary caregiver provide s the infant and
young child with a variety of experiences that
encourage the development of mutuality, trust,
love and dependence.
 STAGE 2- INTUITIVE-PROJECTIVE FAITH (EARLY
CHILDHOOD):
This stage is characterized by the child forming
long lasting images and feelings. Imagination,
perception and feelings are the mechanism by
which the child explores and learns about the
world at large.

33.  STAGE 3- MYTHIC-LITERAL FAITH (LATE
CHILDHOOD):They are able to differentiate
their thinking from that of others. Stories
become the gateway to learning about life.
 STAGE4- SYNTHETIC-CONVENTIONAL FAITH
(ADOLESCENT AND BEYOND):In this stage, a
person’s experience extends beyond the
family to peers, teachers and other members
of society.

34.  According to Sigmund Freud, the sexual
feelings do not suddenly emerge during
puberty and adolescence but are present
from infancy and gradually change from one
form or state to another until adult sexual life
is achieved. It centers almost on the early
years of life and include the following stages:

36.  THE ORAL STAGE: During this period, the oral
region or the sensory area of mouth provides the
greatest sensual satisfaction for the infant
 THE ANAL STAGE: The greatest amount of
sensual pleasure for the toddler is obtained from
the anal and urethral areas
 THE PHALLIC STAGE: The greatest sensual
pleasure is derived from the genital areas. The
oedipal stage occurs in the later part of the
phallic period.

37.  THE LATENCY STAGE: At the beginning of the
latency stage the child has resolved or is
resolving the oedipal conflict. During the latency
period children form close relationship with
others of their own age and sex
 THE PUBESCENT STAGE: During puberty,
secondary sexual characteristics appear in both
sexes. The same psychosexual conflicts that
occured during the oedipal priod are revived. If
children resolve the conflicts, they are free to
enter into heterosexual relationships as adults.

39.  Health and care of children depend upon
understanding of growth &development . The
physical growth and development can be
divided into three areas-Biologic growth,
motor development, 7sensory development.

40.  Changes in general body growth
Changes result from different rates of growth
in different parts of the body during
consecutive stages of development. for eg-
The infant head constitutes one fourth of the
entire length of the body at birth, whereas
the adults head is only one eight of body
length. Growth during childhood is primarily
linear and in the nature of a filling out
process until adult proportions are reached.

42.  Average length of full term baby is 45-50 cm at
birth. First 5 month length increases by
2.5cm/month
At 9 month 70cm
One year 75cm
Two year 85cm
Three tear 95cm
Four year
100cm

43.  Height increases by 2.5cm(1inch) a month during
the 1st 6month and slows during the second 6
months.
 Increases in the length occur in sudden spurts,
rather than in a slow gradual pattern. Average
height is 65cm (25.5 inches)at 6 months and
74cm (29inches)at 12 months.
 By 1 year the birth length has increased by
almost 50%.This increases occurs mainly in the
trunk, rather than in the legs& contributes to the
characteristics physique of the infant.

45. ◦ By the 10th day of life he regains his birth weight.
◦ Infant gain about 150 to 210g (about 5 to 7 ounces)
weekly until approximately age 5 to 6 month, when
the birth weight has at least doubled. An average
weight for a 6 month old child is 7.3kg (16 pound)
weight gain slows during the second 6 month.
◦ By 1 year of age the infant birth weight has tripled,2
year increases 4 times,3 years 5 times,5 years birth
weight increases to 6 times,10 years it increases to 10
times.

46.  The circumference of head is an important
measurement since it is related to intracranial
volume. At birth it is 33 to 35cm about 2.5 to
3cm more than the chest.
 A 3 month 40cm and 12 month 45cm.Boys
have slightly larger head than girls. Passing a
measuring tape over the head to overlie the
most prominent part of the occiput and area
just above the eyes brows or just above the
supra orbital ridges in front. Posterior
fontanels closed closed by 6 to 8 weeks of
age

47.  At birth the circumference of chest is about
2.5 to 3cm less than the head circumference.
The circumference of head & chest comes
equal by one year. By the age of 5years,chest
circumference is 5cm more than head
circumference. For measuring this type
should be kept at the level of nipple line and
should be taken in midway between
inspiration &expiration

48. ◦ At 1 month of age child develops sucking,
rooting, swallowing and asymmetric tonic neck
reflex (head turned to one side, one arm
extended on the same side, the other arm flexed
to shoulder.)
◦ At 3 month grasping reflex absent &landau reflex
appears an infant suspended in a horizontal
prone position with the head flexed against the
chest reflex draws the legs up against the
abdomen.

49. ◦ At 4 month tonic neck, moro, sucking rooting
reflexs absent.
◦ At 6 month two lower central incisors erupt begin
to bite and chew.
◦ At 7 month sucking & rooting reflex disappear
parachute reflexes appear between 7 to 9 month.
An infant suspended in a horizontal prone
position and lowered suddenly extend the hands
forward and to provide protection from
falling.Upper central incision erupts
&lower lateral incisors erupt.
◦ At 8 month beginning of a pattern in bowel and
bladder elimination.

50.  In this section, you will learn
about the expected developmental
milestones to be achieved at different
ages. The child develops is assessed
in four separate segments i.e a) gross
motor b)fine motor &adaptive
c)personal social d)language

51.  Ventral suspension-
 The baby is held in prone position and then
lifted up from the bed, with the examiner
supporting the chest or the abdomen of the
baby with the palm of his hand.
 In the newborn child, the head flops down.
 From the age of 4 weeks to 12 weeks the
infant learns to lift and control his head in the
horizontal plane and then above the
horizontal plane.

52. Supine position
 The infant is placed in the supine positions
and is gently pulled up by the arms to a
sitting position. Movement of his head and
curvature of his spine are observed.
 In the newborn infant, the head lags behind
completely and the back appears rounded.
 The infant gradually gains control of his head
between the ages of 12 &20 weeks and the
curvature of his spine becomes less
prominent.

53.  The examiner observes the baby while it is lying in
the prone position.
 Within a few days of birth the head can be turned
to one side.
 At 1 month, the baby lifts the chin up momentarily
in the midline.
 At 3 month, the infant lifts his head and upper part
of forearms.
 By 6 months he can lift his head &greater part of
his chest while supporting weight on extended
arms.
 Between the age of 5 and 8 month, he learns to roll
in bed at 1st from back to side and then from back
to stomach.
 By the age of 8 month he crawls in bed.
 By 10month the child creps, keeping his abdomen
off the ground.

54.  The infant learns to control his body in the
sitting position from the age of 5 month
onwards, initially, he needs several pillows or
support of the examiner’s hand at his lower
back so as to remain steady.
 By the age of 8 month he can maintained
steady, sitting position with straight back.
 By the age of 10th months, he can pull himself
up from the supine to sitting position.

55.  An infant can bear some weight of his body
with straight legs in the mothers lap by 4
months.
 By 9 month, he makes early stepping
movements when feet are placed on the
surface of the table.
 By 10th month or so the infants starts cruising
around the furniture.
 By 1 year, the child can stand without support
for 10seconds or more and can usually take a
few steps in walking without tipping from
side to side in the next one or 2 month.
 Child walks alone between 13-15 months of
age.

56.  Climbing stairs-
 The child can climb the stairs by the age of
2yrs.In the process, he brings both his feet
up on one step before he climbs to the next.

57. This includes co-ordination of eyes, hand eye
coordination, hand mouth co-ordination
&skills for manipulation with hands.
The ability of the child to perform fine motor
activity and maneuvers is tested with the aid
of particular test objects such as a) a red ring
of diameter 6.5cm,tied to a red string b)a pen
torch c)red cubes d)a pellet e)cup with handle
f)a spoon g)a book of thick pages h)a red
pencil or craynon i)paper j)wooden blocks k)a
doll and l)mirror.

58. ◦ Red ring-At the age of 4 month, the infant tries
to grasp the red ring on rattle dangling in front of
him. Initially, he may overshoot, but eventually
gets it to his mouth.
◦ Red cube – by the age of 5 month, he can reach
for a red cube, which is held within reach. He
holds the cube in his palms in a crude manner by
7 months of age pincer grasp with the index
finger and thumb apposition is acquired by 9-10
months. He can transfer object from one hand to
other by 5-6 months.
◦ Pellet-He develops fine more co-coordinated
hand skills by the age of 9 month. When he can
scoop on a pellet crudely with his palm. By
10months he can pick it up neatly, using ends of
his thumb and index finger

59.  At one month infant holds hand in tight fist. Can
grasp an object placed in the hand(palmar grasp)
but can drops it immediately.
 At 3-4 month holds object with both hand with
active grasp and brings hands together in
midline plays with fingers.
 At 5-6 month tries to obtain objects beyond
reach and holds one object while looking at
another.
 7-8 month begins to transfer object from one
hand to other. pincer grasp beginning to
develops, using the fingers against the lower
portion of the thumb.
 10-12 month picks up small objects up with
index finger &thumb. Removes cover from boxes
&takes toy out of box or cup. beginning to hold a
craynon &make a mark on paper and turn pages
in a book but usually not one at a time.


60.  Social smile and recognition of mother

61.  Hearing-at one month he turns his head towards
the sound of a bell or rattle.
 Sounds-by 6 month he produces monosyllable
sound like da,ma,but without attaching any
meaning to them(this is not true speech)
bisyllables(baba,mama)are spoken by 9 month of
age.
 Understanding-by 10th month ,he can
understand spoken speech and respond in an
appropriate manner to verbal request made
without an accompanying gesture,eg,where is
dady? Where is the light?
 True speech-by the age of 1 year child can use 2
words with meaning for objects of daily use.

62.  At 1st month-beginning development of
sense of trust. eye contact.
 At2-3 month-distinguish “mother” as primary
caregiver from others
 4-5 month-initiates social play by smiling
 6-7 month-recognizes parents & strangers
 At 8-9 month-greets strangers , knows what
“no” means, begins to play simple games with
adult such as Bye-bye.
 At 10-12 month-express anger, sadness,
jealous, anxiety, pleasure activity. start to
play social games . Respond to request for
affection such as a kiss or hug. cooperates in
dressing.

63.  According to freud there are 5 phases of
psychosexual development center almost
exclusively on the early years of life.
 During the oral stage, the infant's primary source
of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially
important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation
through gratifying activities such as tasting and
sucking.
 The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning
process--the child must become less dependent
upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage,
Freud believed the individual would have issues
with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can
result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail biting.

64.  G] SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT:-
Fowlers describes spiritual
development during the period of infancy as
stage 1 primal faith. During the early years,
the infant forms an attachment for parents
that develops trust, hope &autonomy as a
result of the give and take relationship.

65.  Sub stage 1(birth -1 year)
 Generalized assimilation-occurs when the
infant no longer sucks only the breast or
bottle but other non-nutritive items like a
fist.
 Recognitory assimilation-occurs when the
hungry infant will not accept a substitute for
the breast or bottle
Sub stage 2(1-4 month)
Sub stage 3(4-8 month)
Sub stage 4(8-12 month)

66.  1: preconventional morality stage 0 from
birth to 2 year of age, infants &early toddlers
are egocentric and unable to understand
rules or to judge what is good or bad in
terms of rules or authority. They are guided
only by what they want to do &can do. What
is pleasant is good What is unpleasant is bad.

67.  At 1 month infant open and closes mouth as adults speaks. and
also responding to voices ,cries & begins to coo.
 At 2 month cries becomes differentiated for eg hunger,
sleepiness, or pain
 At 3-4 month vocalizes in response to others; coos and chuckles
,may laughs aloud.
 At 5-6 month begins to mimic sounds cries easily when
withdrawing a toy. Respond when own name is spoken.
 At 8 month Infant can combine syllables such as da-da, ma-ma
but without specific meaning.
 At 9-10th echolalia or correct imitative expression of sound
made by others occurs. Understand meaning of bye-bye
 At 11 month jargon well established, may speak two or more
words besides ma-ma, da-da. knows name of increasing number
of objects, imitates sounds animals.

68.  Birth to five month:-An early type of motor play,
useful for exercise, is also thoroughly enjoyable
to infants
 Five to eight month:-At this age the infant still
finds, pleasure in motor activity for its own sake,
 Eight to ten months:-Motor activity is the chief
source of play, vocalization.
 Ten to twelve month:-Infant can play alone for
relatively long periods but now let the family
know when their company or another toy is
desired