1Metropolitan Community CollegeClass Syllabus - Spring 2.docx

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Metropolitan Community College
Class Syllabus - Spring 2019-20
CLASS IDENTIFICATION
TITLE: Introduction to Literature
PREFIX/SECTION: ENGL 2450-WA
CREDIT HOURS: 4.5
CLASS BEGINS/ENDS: March 7-May 22, 2020
NO CLASS DAYS: n/a
LAST DATE TO DROP THIS CLASS WITH NO TUITION
CHARGE: March 20, 2020
LAST DATE TO WITHDRAW WITH NO GRADE: May 8, 2020
CLASS LOCATION: Online @ Blackboard--
https://blackboard.mccneb.edu/
CONTACT INFORMATION
INSTRUCTOR NAME: Marni Valerio
OFFICE LOCATION: SOC Connector Building 233
OFFICE TELEPHONE: 531-622-4711
OFFICE HOURS: By appointment
EMAIL ADDRESS: [email protected] Students enrolled in
online and hybrid classes are required to check and use MCC
Email (https://outlook.com/mccneb.edu) for all official course
correspondence. See also STUDENT EMAIL REQUIREMENTS.
ACADEMIC AREA: Humanities and Arts
ACADEMIC DEAN’S OFFICE TELEPHONE: 531-622-1329
(Please Note: Any questions or concerns regarding this course
should first be directed to the instructor.)

COURSE INFORMATION
COURSE DESCRIPTION: Students explore the genres,
elements, and themes of literature by critically reading,
discussing, and responding in writing to a culturally diverse
selection of works. Fiction, poetry and drama are emphasized.
Students learn to appreciate literature as essential to
understanding self and society.
COURSE PREREQUISITES: Level I English (ENGL 1010 or
ENGL 1220)
MINIMUM TECHNICAL SKILLS:
The online student must have the ability to:
· use MCC Email with attachments
· save files to and retrieve from a local drive
· save files in commonly used word-processing program formats
· copy and paste
· identify and use a compatible web browser
· identify and install necessary updates
· install and use course-specific software programs
COURSE OBJECTIVES
Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able
to (1) analyze rhetorical elements in works of literature, (2)
contextualize works of literature biographically, socially,
culturally, philosophically, and historically, (3) examine
multiple perspectives in and among works of literature, (4)
discover universal themes in works of literature, (5) explore
their own perspectives on universal themes in works of
literature, and (6) appreciate works of literature.
REQUIRED Text: Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,
Poetry, Drama and Writing. Kennedy and Gioia. Compact
8th edition. The textbook can be purchased at the South Omaha
Campus or

through http://www.bkstr.com/metroccsouthomahastore/home
(ISBN: 9781323633311).
*However, students will not be given extensions on assignments
if they choose to order their textbook from a source other than
MCC's bookstore because of late shipping dates, wrong
editions, out of stock problems, etc.
COMPUTER REQUIREMENTS: The computer you use for
MCC online courses must be able to run one of the Blackboard-
compatible web browsers listed on the Browser Support Page:
https://www.mccneb.edu/Current-Students/Student-Tools/Help-
Desk/Browser-Support.aspx.
SOFTWARE/FILE SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS:
Metropolitan Community College uses Microsoft products as
part of its standard software and encourages students to use
their free access to Microsoft Office 365 applications
at https://outlook.com/mccneb.edu. You may save word-
processed documents for file attachments in Microsoft Word
.doc or .docx format. If your software does not allow either of
these, then save files in Rich Text Format (.rtf).
Note: It is the responsibility of the student to submit files in a
readable format to receive feedback and grades on assignments.
If you submit files incorrectly or forget to attach your
assignments to your submissions, you will receive a zero for the
assignment and may not have an opportunity to resubmit it.
CLASS STRUCTURE: You should plan to log on at least three
times a week to ensure comprehension of the course objectives
and requirements, to participate in all learning activities, and to
submit work on time. The course includes weekly reading and
weekly rotating activities such as reading quizzes, online
discussions, and short responses to literature. There are three
analytical essay assignments (2-4 pages, double-spaced each),

and one assessment essay, interspersed throughout the course;
in the weeks that essays are due, there is no other homework
assigned.
STUDENT EMAIL REQUIREMENTS: Email sent from a
Blackboard course is delivered to both the sender and
recipient’s MCC Email account at
https://portal.microsoftonline.com. No email is stored in
Blackboard. Students enrolled in online and hybrid classes are
required to check and use MCC Email for all official course
correspondence. New email sent from Blackboard will include
the course number, section, and title in the subject
line. Students should include the same information in the
subject line when responding or composing new email from the
MCC Email inbox. Also, please understand that grade
informationis only shared through MCC email, not external
email systems.
RESPONSE TIME: Your instructor will respond within 48
hours, Monday through Friday, to student emails concerning
course content, learning activities, and private matters
appropriate for discussion within the teacher-student
relationship. Posting of feedback and grades for major
assignments is addressed under Assessment of Student Work
section.
COURSE PHILOSOPHY:
Like any learning experience, a student will get out of this
course whatever he or she puts into it. Thinking, reading, and
writing about literature is a challenging (and often frustrating)
process, but if a student is enthusiastic and commits him or
herself to the coursework, the goals stated in the course
objectives are attainable. As the instructor, I will do everything
I can to facilitate in the thinking, reading, writing, and learning
process; however, I am not here to do the work for students.
Students are expected to do their own work to the best of their
ability. A student’s final grade in this course is a representation
of his or her level of ability in regard to the course objectives

and is based on the quality of work displayed throughout the
quarter.
ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT WORK
TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS/ASSIGNMENTS:
Assessment: You are assessed on your comprehension and
application of the course objectives and requirements. To better
ensure that the course objectives are being met and to build
stronger skills in evaluation and analysis, you should complete
assigned readings from the course textbook, log on at least three
times a week, and participate in all Learning Activities.
Feedback to Students: Throughout the quarter, the instructor
will provide students timely feedback on assignments and
performance, including a midterm report or other
communication that addresses progress in the class and gives
suggestions for improvement. To check grades, students should
log into Blackboard and click on the My Grades link in the left-
hand course menu, scroll to find your graded activity then click
on the blue bubble icon to the left of the grade to see the
instructor’s comments.
Students in this class will receive a midterm grade in My Way,
so they may see how they are progressing in the course. The
midterm grade will be available by week 6 (Module 6) of the
course.
Grading Policy: You are graded on the timeliness and the
thoroughness of assigned work; this includes meeting the
required content length. To earn the highest points, you must
put forth superior effort, exhibit excellent writing, submit
timely and proficient work, and demonstrate excellent and
continuous participation. Points are updated in Blackboard
regularly throughout the course, so students may keep track of
their grades. Point totals will be kept for one calendar year after
the course ends. Grading turn-around is typically 10-12 days.

Total Course Points:
* The English Department is assessing the success of our
literature curriculum. As part of this assessment, we are asking
all students taking a literature course to complete a writing
assignment near the end of the course. The writing samples will
have any identifying information (name, section, course)
removed and will be used by a committee of faculty in their
assessment of the program. The English Department thanks you
for participating.
Grading Scale
(Your total earned points divided by the offered points of 925
will determine your grade in the course):
90-100%= A
80-89%= B
70-79%= C
60-69%= D
59% or lower= F
Evaluation Criteria for Essays (English Department Grading
Standards):
The A grade: The excellent essay engages readers through a
confident voice. The thesis is original and supported with
relevant facts, details, and examples. The essay is unified,
coherent, and developed as a result of well placed support and
sound organization. The student demonstrates a masterful use of
MLA citation format and responsibly and smoothly integrates
textual references into his/ her paper. Errors in punctuation,
diction, or spelling are few and inconsequential.
The B grade: The better than average essay is similar to the
excellent essay; however, it may lack in the area of adequate
support or in the area of style. The student demonstrates good
skills in using MLA citation format and responsibly and

smoothly integrates textual references into his/ her paper, but
may have a few errors. The essay is nearly free of punctuation,
diction, and spelling errors. Reading is not affected by the
minor errors.
The C grade: The average essay will rarely engage readers
because of its weak thesis, often times offering a general belief
not worthy of an essay topic. The essay provides broad support
points that relate to the thesis but are without specific facts,
details, and examples. The student demonstrates fair skills in
using MLA citation format, but shows struggle with responsibly
and smoothly integrating textual references into his/ her paper
and may have more than a few errors. The essay has some errors
in punctuation, grammar, diction, and spelling, which slow
down the reader.
The D grade: The below average essay is similar to the average
essay; however, it may not have followed assignment specifics
or it may not have provided relevant or adequate support in the
majority of the essay. Generally, the essay is not coherent and
may confuse the readers more than enlighten. The student is
lacking skills in proper MLA citation format and clearly
struggles with where and when to responsibly and smoothly
integrate textual references into his/ her paper; this is indicated
with several prominent errors and/or an absence of citation. The
punctuation, grammar, diction, and spelling errors hinder the
reading of the essay.
The F grade: The failed essay usually does not address the
assignment specifics or is held together with poorly developed
thoughts, an incoherent structure, and a vague argument. The
student has few to no skills in proper MLA citation format and
clearly does not know how to responsibly and smoothly
integrate textual references into his/ her paper; typically, the
paper has a complete absence of textual support/ citations. The
punctuation, grammar, diction, and spelling errors are severe.

LATE AND MAKE-UP ASSIGNMENT POLICIES:
All Learning Activities open on Mondays at 12:00am and are
due on the following Sundays by 11:55pm (*note: initial posts
for discussions should be posted by Friday after each module
opens; this will enable a healthy discussion to develop. Posting
initial posts after Friday will cost you points on your discussion
grade). Each module is one week long (except for Module 1,
which is open slightly longer because of the Saturday, March 7
start); therefore, submission of each learning activity is only
possible during the set time frame that the module is available.
No make-up work or late work is accepted in this course.
INSTRUCTOR’S EXPECTATIONS OF STUDENTS
ATTENDANCE/PARTICIPATION POLICY: Your success in
this online course is met by regularly logging on to the course,
communicating your questions or concerns to the instructor,
participating in all Learning Activities, and submitting all work
on time. Furthermore, when logging on, you must actively
engage in the course—respond to classmates or instructor, post
early to discussions, ask questions, post essays properly and in
a timely manner to drop boxes, and write substantive,
thoughtful responses.
LATE REGISTRATION RESPONSIBILITIES: If you register
late, keep in mind that you are responsible for attendance and
missed class assignments.
OUTSIDE CLASSWORK: Students should understand that
college courses require two hours of outside coursework per
week for every credit hour in which you are enrolled. Therefore,
for this course, alone, please expect to do nine hours of outside
coursework per week.
ATTENDANCE/PARTIPICATION REPORTING: To confirm
each student’s eligibility to remain registered for the class, the
instructor will officially report attendance/participation on or

before the Census Date. Students in this section of Introduction
to Literature must participate in the Module 1 discussion board
and submit the Module 1 assignment byMarch 15. The instructor
will withdraw students, on this date, if participation is not met.
STUDENT RESPONSIBILITIES:
Please communicate with your instructor, preferably through
MCC email, about any absences, attendance and participation
status, and academic progress in this course. The instructor's
contact information is listed at the beginning of this document.
See also the additional responsibilities and expectations under
COLLEGE SYLLABUS POLICIES AND INFORMATION FOR
STUDENTS below. COLLEGE SYLLABUS POLICIES AND
INFORMATION FOR STUDENTS
Please visit the College Syllabus Policies and Information for
Students page at https://myway.mccneb.edu/depts/Syllabus to
learn about the policies and resources below. Students are
responsible for understanding and following the policies.
CLASS AND INSTRUCTIONAL POLICIES
· COMMUNICATION EXPECTATIONS
· ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT
· TURNITIN
· OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT LEARNING
· USE OF STUDENT WORK
· RECORDING IN THE CLASSROOM
· STUDENT WITHDRAWAL
LEARNING SUPPORT AND STUDENT SERVICES
· NEW STUDENT ORIENTATION
· ACADEMIC SUPPORT CENTERS
· ACCOMMODATIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH
DISABILITIES AND STUDENTS WHO ARE PREGNANT
· NONDISCRIMINATION AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITY
STATEMENT
INSTRUCTOR'S POLICY ON ACADEMIC HONESTY: The
instructor for this course uses Turn-it-in.com; this is a software
program that helps identify plagiarism in student writing.

Plagiarism will not be tolerated in this course. If you plagiarize
(use someone else's work as your own by cutting and pasting
from sources, hand in a paper you or someone else has already
turned in to another class, purchase papers from the Internet,
etc.) you may fail the assignment or possibly the course
(depending on the severity of the situation). In cases of
plagiarism, the instructor will complete and submit an
Academic Misconduct Incident form, which will be placed in
your permanent academic record.
TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT
· If you have difficulty connecting to the Internet, call your
Internet provider.
· If you need help connecting to the course from the
Blackboard login page, refer to “Getting Started Online”
at https://www.mccneb.edu/Online.
· If you are unable to solve the problem,
email [email protected] or call 531-622-2834.
For assistance with student email, passwords, and most other
MCC technology, contact the Help Desk at 531-622-2900
or [email protected].
TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES:
By using the information technology systems at MCC (including
the computer systems and phones), you acknowledge and
consent to the conditions of use as set forth in the Metropolitan
Community College Procedures Memorandum on Acceptable
Use of Information Technology and Resources. It is your
responsibility as a student to be familiar with these procedures.
The full text of the Procedures Memorandum may be found at
the following website:
https://www.mccneb.edu/getattachment/About-MCC-
Nebraska/About-MCC/Procedures/X-
15_Technology_Resources_Use.pdf.aspx
SCHEDULE OF ASSIGNMENTS
NOTICE: This syllabus sets forth a tentative schedule of class

topics, learning activities, and expected learning outcomes.
However, the instructor reserves the right to modify this
schedule to enhance learning for students. Any modifications
will not substantially change the intent or objectives of this
course and will conform to the policies and guidelines of
Metropolitan Community College.
Submission Dates and Learning Activities
All work must be submitted during the set time frame as shown
below, to the appropriate discussion boards (initial posts by
Fridays) and drop boxes, without exceptions. (*submissions are
not accepted after 11:55pm on due dates listed)
Modules
Due Dates (Sundays by 11:55p)
1
Discussion & Response
March 15 (initial post for discussion due Friday, March 13)
2
Quiz, Discussion, & Response
March 22 (initial post for discussion due Friday, March 20)
3
Essay
March 29
4

April 5 (initial post for discussion due Friday, April 3)
5
6
Essay
April 19
7
8
Discussion, & Response
May 3 (initial post for discussion due Friday, May 1)
9
May 10 (initial post for discussion due Friday, May 8)
10
Essay

May 17
11
Assessment Essay
May 22 (Friday)
*The assessment essay folder will be accessible at the same
time as Module 10, but the essay will not be due until the last
day of the quarter
COURSE SPECIFICS
· Please become familiar with the Blackboard platform---
familiarize yourself with the course syllabus, announcements,
calendar, and lessons tabs to ensure you understand course
policies and deadlines.
· All quizzes have the same format. Each quiz has 15 multiple-
choice questions over the assigned reading and has a 60-minute
time limit. Each quiz is worth 30 points. I recommend starting
your quiz no later than 10:00 p.m. on its due date, as
Blackboard will deny you access to the quiz if you go beyond
the 11:55 p.m. time frame, even if you are in the middle of
taking the quiz. Plus, things can go wrong with technology and
performance is typically better when the test-taker is not “under
the gun”.
· Use MLA format headings for the three course essays and the
Syllabus Statement and attach the to the drop box, as assigned.
The Syllabus Statement for Module One and the three MLA
formatted essays are the only activities you will submit as file
attachments. They must be sent in .doc, .docx, or .rtf file
format, as these are the only options available through the

College. Responses and discussions do not require attachments.
· Be certain you understand the format requirements and also
how to attach a document. Be sure to confirm your work is
attached before submitting it.
· For all four essays, I will post extensive feedback about your
paper; be sure to access and view this feedback to avoid
repeating errors in subsequent essay submissions.
· Points for each module are recorded and can be found by
clicking on “My Grades” in the main menu (shown on the left
hand of the course)
· Learning Activities in the Discussion area offer
opportunities to expand your understanding of the works read
and to challenge your ideas, perceptions, and assumptions;
please take advantage of these opportunities. Do not spend time
regurgitating obvious facts related to the literary works studied.
Post questions that wonder about the literature BEYOND the
text; avoid writing quiz-like questions that have easily found
answers in the text. We want to dig into the readings beyond the
superficial layer. In addition, when answering your classmates'
questions, I suggest interacting with a variety of your
classmates to build on your own understanding of the literary
works.
· Use the following Revising and Editing Checklists, along
with our textbook and the course content, to ensure successful
essays.
Revising and Editing
The successful essay is a culmination of a series of drafts.
Habits, capacities, and practices of writers differ widely;
putting forth effort, however, is essential for all writers.

Revising Checklist
Purpose: Does the essay do what the assignment asks for? Is
the purpose evident?
Organization: Is the essay organized with a clear introduction,
body, and conclusion? Have you provided at least one full
paragraph for each main point? Are there clear transitions
between ideas to ensure fluency and coherency?
Development: Does the essay meet the page length requirement?
Is the thesis clear and concise? Is the thesis stated in one
sentence at the end of the introduction? Do all points directly
relate to the thesis? Have you provided a sufficient amount of
textual evidence to support the thesis? Is the evidence smoothly
integrated into your own prose--- is each and every quotation or
paraphrase connected to the paper and attributed to its original
author? *this is a gentle reminder that your paper should not
have “floating quotes” in it; all quotes should be smoothly
introduced and integrated in your paper
Language: Is the language clear and free from confusing slang,
wordiness, and jargon? Is the language appropriate in tone?
Audience: Will the intended audience understand the essay?
Will the essay interest the intended audience?
Voice: Is the paper written in proper third person, subject-
focused academic voice? (Avoid first person narration in
academic essays.)
Editing Checklist
Clarity: Is sentence structure used correctly, clearly and
effectively? Are the sentences varied and easily understood?

Correctness: Is the essay free from errors in punctuation,
grammar, diction, and spelling that may hinder the reader’s
comprehension? (Use the spell and grammar checkers
cautiously. A good dictionary is a necessity for any writer.)
Appearance: Have you followed the MLA format? Is the layout
of the assignment professional? Are your citations correctly
MLA formatted and properly incorporated into your paper?
If you answer “no” to any of the questions listed, in either
checklist, return to your draft and continue editing to ensure a
successful essay.
2020 (19/SP) Spring Quarter Important Dates
Classes begin for 11-week/first 5-week sessions Mar 7 Sa
Census Date* for first 5-week session Mar 13 F
Census Date* for 11-week session Mar 20 F
Deadline for students to drop a class with no charge** varies
by class. See Refund Policy
Deadline for students to withdraw from a class with no grade**
varies by class
Classes end for first 5-week session Apr 10 F
Spring Break/College closed
................................................................................Apr 11 -12
Sa-Su
Spring grades for first 5-week session due by 7:00 a.m. Apr 13
M
Classes begin for second 5-week session Apr 18 Sa
Census Date* date for second 5-week session Apr 24 F
Winter quarter “I” incomplete grades are due May 1 F
Classes end for 11-week/second 5-week sessions May 22 F
Spring grades for 11-week/second 5-week sessions due by 7:00
a.m. May 26 T
Current Student (more than 50 hours) Summer 2020 (20/SS)

Registration begins……. Mar 18 W
Current Student (fewer than 50 hours) Summer 2020 (20/SS)
Registration begins Mar 20 F
General Registration Summer 2020 (20/SS) Registration begins
Mar 24 T
*Census Date: To confirm each student’s eligibility to remain
registered for the class, the instructor will officially report
attendance/participation on or before the Census Date.
**Student Drops and Withdrawals: To view the last date to drop
a class with no charge or the last date to withdraw from a class
with no grade, go to the Class Schedule at
https://catalog.mccneb.edu/Pages/Home.aspx. Find the course
section and click on the Important Dates link. Dates for each
course section are automatically calculated based on the start
and end dates and/or the number of class meetings.
REFUND POLICY for Credit Courses
A student is responsible for dropping a course if unable to
attend. Non-attendance or non-payment does not relieve a
student from the obligation to pay. An official schedule change
that reduces or terminates a student’s credit load may entitle the
student to a refund. The last date to drop a class with no charge
is listed in the Important Dates link for each class in the credit
Class Schedule. Through 11:59 p.m. of the listed date, there is
no charge for the dropped class. After this date, the student is
charged 100% for the dropped class. Additional information on
tuition and refund policies is available at
https://www.mccneb.edu/Prospective-Students/Tuition-
Financial-Assistance/Tuition.aspx.
Instructions on how to find the last date to drop a class with no
charge is located at
https://www.mccneb.edu/Prospective-Students/Tuition-
Financial-Assistance/Tuition/Last-Date-To-Drop-with-No-
Charge-Instructions.aspx

Note: Schedule changes may have implications for students on
Financial Aid. Prior to any schedule changes, check with the
Financial Aid Office at 531-622-2330.
117
Energy Drives Life 4
© Kendall Hunt Publishing Company
Mrs. Green’s White Pine Tree
Chloroplast and Mitochondria share a close
relationship
Photosynthesis uses energy from sunlight to
produce carbohydrates
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118 Unit 1: That’s Life
the Case of a White Pine Memory
“It was a time to remember,” thought Ms. Green about the days
when she and her father
worked on their land. She could remember when it was just a
corn field that her father
had plowed. But that was almost 80 years ago and how time
flies, she thought. The birds
in the sky floated with the wind. She spotted them and thought
“. . . time flies away like
the birds.”
There it was – so wide and so impressive – she had never
forgotten the day her father
planted the tree. It was a white pine tree she and her daddy
planted so many years ago.
The image of the pine traveled with Ms. Green through her life.
She was just eight years
old on the day her father brought the tree home from the store.
He said that he wanted
shade when he worked in the field. Daddy planted the white
pine, Pinus strobus he
called it, right in the center so it would tower over the other
trees. And at 80 feet tall, it
really did tower over all the other trees in the area.
But he would not live to see its shade; her daddy died only a
few days after planting
the pine. He was the love of her life. He believed in her and he
believed in life. “He
planted the pine for more than just shade,” Ms. Green thought.
She knew her daddy loved
to nurture nature and other people; and she had loved how he

cared for his family and
his field.
Ms. Green was known in the town for her garden and its central
white pine. The pine
had grown rapidly and continued to increase in height and
width, adding over a meter
and thousands of kilograms per year. The city had also grown
over the decades, changing
from a farm town to a thriving municipality. But Ms. Green’s
field remained the same;
except that the other crop fields around her land had become
buildings and tarred streets.
Ms. Green, everyone knew, would never sell her land, but
builders kept building around
her just the same.
Each day, Ms. Green worked in her garden, always looking up
at the pine with
fondness. Everyone she knew through her life had to join her in
her garden. Her friends
quickly realized, if they wanted to stay her friend, they needed
to work alongside Ms.
Green in the field. She built a nice stone wall around her
garden, with stones from the
land. She had any vegetable one could imagine and cooked from
the food she grew. Ms.
Green loved nature and loved her field.
ChECk in
From reading this chapter, students will be able to:
• Use the storyas an example to develop a
rationale to explain the flow of energy
between plants and

animals.
• Trace the history of the discovery of plant
and animal cell energy exchange.
• Connect the laws of thermodynamics to the
processes of energy exchange.
• List and describe the stepsof photosynthesis and
compare the different forms of photosynthesis:
C3, C4, and CAM.
• List and describe the stages of cellular
respiration and calculate the net production of
ATP energy
for each of the stages of cellular respiration.
• Differentiate between catabolism and anabolism of
macromolecules in bioprocessing, and list the
different forms of anaerobic respiration, linking its
products to humans.
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Chapter 4: Energy Drives Life 119
It was only two acres, but tending the garden became harder and
harder as the years
passed. She was, after all, over 80 years old now. Then one day,
as she worked in the
garden pulling out weeds, she knew she could go on no more.
“It was her time,” she
accepted, “to end.” She was very sad because the life she knew
was slipping away. She
looked up at the pine and knew they would soon part.
The white pine would live for many more years, but her good-
bye she knew would
come sooner. “It wasn’t fair . . . time was cruel,” protested Ms.
Green to the inflexible
passage of time. Separation from all she loved was too hard to
take. But as she cried, she
spied the birds flying overhead. Was it true, or had her eyes
deceived her? A nest high in
its branches sat atop the majestic white pine. The eagles soared
toward the treetop nest.
Suddenly, she felt a sense of peace, and a smile grew across her
face. She was letting go,

but it would be all right: A family had taken over for her.
ChECk UP sECtion
The processes occurring in the white pine described in
our storynot only help plants to growbut
are vital for human existence. Research the following
questions: 1) How are plantprocesses neces-
sary for human society? 2) Are thereany
environmental threats to plantenergy processes?
Choose a
particular example in which a plant’s processes
are threatened in nature. Discuss how such a
threat
may impact human health.
Discovering Energy Exchange
In this chapter, we will explore the ways organisms harness
energy from the sun and
liberate that energy from foods. Organisms use resources from
their environment to
survive. Some organisms, such as the white pine in our story,
use sunlight to manufac-
ture food. Other organisms, such as Ms. Green, cannot make
their own food, and obtain
energy by eating plants and other animals. In both plants and
animals, energy is trans-
ferred in a series of chemical reactions. The different stages
that take place to make food
from sunlight and into available energy for cells will be our
focus.
What processes make some trees, like the white pine in the
story grow so large and
live so long? Do plants absorb food from the soil, just as
animals eat food from their

surroundings? Until about 350 years ago, scientists believed
that plants obtained all of
their energy from the ground. Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577–
1644) contradicted this
widely held view through an experiment. In it, van Helmont
grew a baby willow tree in
a pot for 5years, noting the initial weight of the tree and the
soil. He added only water
and at the end of this period was surprised to find that the soil
increased in weight by 57
grams, but the willow increased in weight by 74,000 grams!
Where did all of this mat-
ter come from? Van Helmont concluded that the mass must have
come from the added
water. However, water could not be an agent of organic matter
(recall from Chapter 2);
water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Where is the
carbon that is needed
for sugar production? While van Helmont’s experiment didn’t
answer this question, it
is important because it was one of the first carefully designed
experiments in biology.
Adding to the mystery of plant growth, Joseph Priestly (1733–
1827), an English
clergyman and early chemist, conducted an experiment to
determine the effects of plants
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on air quality. He placed a sprig of mint in a glass jar with a
candle. The candle burned
out, as was expected but after the 27th day, Priestly discovered
that another candle could
once again burn in the same air in the jar – somehow the
presence of the plant caused
the air to regenerate. Priestly concluded that vegetables “. . . do
not grow in vain.” He
proposed that plants cleanse and purify the air. In actuality, we
now know that plants
give off oxygen and remove carbon dioxide gases. While
Priestly’s experiment could
not be replicated at the time by others scientists (or by his own
laboratory), it laid the
foundation for the discovery of the other secret ingredients to
photosynthesis. Priestly’s

experiment is shown in Figure 4.1.
It was not until a Dutch physician, Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799),
later replicated
Priestly’s work that the importance of sunlight for plants was
recognized. Ingenhousz
added that restoration of air by plants only took place in
sunlight. He concluded that “the
sun by itself has no power to mend air without the concurrence
of plants.” At the same
time that Ingenhousz performed his work, Antoine Lavoisier
(1743–1794), an extraor-
dinary chemist of his time, studied how gases are exchanged in
animals. He confined a
guinea pig in a jar containing oxygen for 10 hours and measured
the amount of carbon
dioxide it released. Lavoisier also tested gases exchanged in
humans as they exercised.
He concluded that oxygen is used to produce energy for animals
and that “respiration
is merely a slow combustion of carbon and hydrogen.”
Unfortunately, Lavoisier’s life
ended early; his intellect threatened the government during the
French revolution, and
he died by guillotine on May 8, 1794. But he was able to show
the overall equation for
cellular respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➔ 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Cellular respiration is the process through which most
organisms break down food
sources into usable energy. As shown in the equation, simple
sugar (glucose) is broken
down or oxidized to give energy,with carbon dioxide and water
as byproducts.

Ingenhousz quickly used Lavoisier’s deductions, realizing that
plants absorb the
carbon dioxide that is later burned for energy, “throwing out at
that time the oxygen
alone, keeping the carbon to itself as nourishment.” Building
upon this, Nicholas Theo-
dore de Saussure (1767–1845) revealed the final secrets of
photosynthesis – that equal
volumes of carbon dioxide and oxygen were exchanged during
photosynthesis. Thus, a
plant gains weight by absorbing both carbon dioxide and water
and releasing oxygen. All
of the elements of the equation for photosynthesis were now
identified – carbon dioxide,
water, sugar, oxygen, and light to give:
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy ➔ C6H12O6 + 6O2
Cellular respiration
The process through
which most organisms
break down food
sources into useable
energy.
Photosynthesis
The process by
which green plants
(plussomealgae and
bacteria) use sunlight
to synthesize nutrients
from water and
carbon dioxide.

Candle floating
on cork burns
Candle
goes out
Green plant
put under jar
After a few days
candle can burn again
1. Lives 2. Diesa. b. c. d.
Figure 4.1 Priestly’s experiment. Priestly showed that
plants regenerate the air surrounding them.
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Photosynthesis is the process by which some organisms trap the
sun’s energy, using
carbon dioxide and water, to make simple sugars (glucose). As
shown in the equation on
the previous page, oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis.
Both plants and animals carry out cellular respiration to obtain
energy from food
sources. But only those organisms carrying out photosynthesis
produce their own food
sources. These processes comprise the key reactions in cell
energetics, which is the
study of the energy exchanges within a cell. In order for the
white pine to grow so large
in the opening story, exchanges of energy between chemical
players in cell energetic
processes took place over many years. Its growth is a
characteristic of life that shows
how tiny chemical reactions may lead to large changes in
organisms.
The two processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration, in
their overall equa-

tions, are indeed the reverse of one another: photosynthesis is
the taking in of energy to
yield food, and cellular respiration is the taking in of food to
yield energy. The specifics
of the processes, however, differ in this comparison. Also,
while plants, most algae, and
some bacteria produce their own food, all other life must obtain
energy by consuming
products of photosynthesis. We will examine these processes in
greater detail after look-
ing at the physical laws that describe the flow of energy.
Rules for Energy Exchange: Energy Laws
The opening story demonstrated the flow of energy from
sunlight to plants and finally
to Ms. Green as she ate her vegetables (see Figure 4.2). While
large amounts of energy
enter Earth through sunlight, about one-third of sunlight is
reflected back into space. The
remaining two-thirds is absorbed by Earth and converted into
heat. Only 1% of this energy
is used by plants, an impressive fact because that fraction drives
most life functions. With
just a few exceptions, everything that is alive in some way uses
the sun’s energy, and
humans owe their existence to plants’ use of this small sliver of
harnessed energy.
The flow of energy through our environment and in our cells is
explained by thermo-
dynamics, the science of energy transformations. As the sun’s
energy moves from object
to object and organism to organism, it follows the same rules.
The first rule, called the
first law of thermodynamics, states that energy can be changed
from one form to another

First law of
thermodynamics
A law that states that
energy can be changed
from one form to
another but cannot be
created or destroyed.
Figure 4.2 Ms. Green’s garden. Energy is first brought
into the garden by plants using
sunlight to form sugars.
Glucose
Oxygen
Sunlight
Carbon
Dioxide
Root
Water
Minerals
Biology Photosynthesis in Plant
Light En
erg
y
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Thermodynamics
The science of energy
transformations that
explains the flow

of energy through
environment and in
cells.
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but cannot be created or destroyed. The total energy of a system
remains constant. While
99% of sunlight entering the Earth is lost to organisms, it is
actually reflected toward

space or changed to heat; it is still conserved. The first law of
thermodynamics is also
called the law of conservation of energy. While newly formed
sugar molecules from pho-
tosynthesis contain potential energy, which is energy of stored
position, it is not newly
created. Organisms, to drive life functions use potential energy,
stored in the bonds of
sugar molecules. In accordance with the first law of
thermodynamics, sugar’s energy
was transferred from the sun to the plant.
The second law of thermodynamics states that all reactions
within a closed system
lose potential energy and tend toward entropy, which is
randomness or any increase in
disorder. A good example of entropy is your room or house: if
you do not regularly tidy it
(expend energy), it gets messier and messier. Natural processes
tend toward randomness
and energy release. In living systems, cellular respiration
(C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➔ 6CO2 +
6H2O + energy) releases 3.75 kcal of energy per gram of
glucose. Cells, to drive cellular
processes, use this energy.
Energy is exchanged in cells through the action of the ATP or
adenosine triphos-
phate molecule, which contains two high energy bonds.
• As discussed in Chapter 2, ATP transfers its high-energy
phosphates by breaking
or making bonds between its three phosphates.
When ATP loses a high-energy phosphate, two phosphates
remain, and the molecule

is called ADP, or adenosine diphosphate. If an ADP molecule
gains a high-energy phos-
phate, it again contains three phosphates, forming ATP. When a
high-energy phosphate
is transferred to another molecule, it brings with it the potential
energy of its bond.
Higher energy states change the molecule onto which an ATP’s
phosphates attach. These
changes drive many cell reactions, such as cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration is very efficient at obtaining energy from
food sources. Over
40% of the energy in glucose bonds is converted into useful
ATP for a cell, with between
30 and 32 ATP per glucose molecule. In comparison, over 75%
of energy from bonds in
gasoline is lost as heat through the combustible energy of an
automobile, and only 25%
is converted into useful forms for a car’s driving.
Photosynthesis started the flow of energy through the system in
our opening story.
Plants in Ms. Green’s garden manufactured food, using sunlight.
Plants were able to
efficiently use these nutrients through cellular respiration.
Then, Ms. Green was able to
obtain energy from plants by consuming them and breaking
their stored energy through
cellular respiration. The flow of energy begun by
photosynthesis and traced in a simple
system resembles the flow in our environment.
Photosynthesis uses 3.75 kcal of energy to produce 1 gram of
glucose. In this special
case, its product (glucose) has a higher potential energy than
reactants (carbon dioxide and

water). Glucose is more organized and has less entropy than its
gaseous reactants, with a
ring of chemicals. Does photosynthesis violate the second law
of thermodynamics? It does
not, because the system in photosynthesis includes both the
Earth and the sun. The sun is
slowly losing its power; its reactions cause it to have less
potential energy and more entropy
as time passes. Thus, the glucose gains the energy that is lost by
the sun. Eventually, the sun
will lose enough energy that it will die out, ending life as we
know it. There is no cause for
immediate alarm, however; the sun is not expected to die for
about 20 billion years.
Thus, life processes are driven by a sun that is running down.
Its loss of energy is
our gain, and photosynthesis is the gateway reaction to tap this
resource for the benefit
of living things. As plants capture solar energy and transform it
into glucose, the sugar
is used by mitochondria to produce usable energy. Some energy
is transferred to heat in
the process but reactants are reused readily.
Second law of
thermodynamics
A law that states that
all reactions within
a closed system lose
potential energy and
tend toward entropy.
Entropy

Randomness or any
increase in disorder.
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Figure 4.4 Biological energy moves along: plants
and animals have interdependent reactions.
C6H12O6
O2

CO2
H2O
day
Plant
cell
(photosynthesis)
light
Animal cell,
microbes
(respiration)
heat
Dead
cells
(combustion)
O2
CO2
H2O
heat
light
C6H12O6
O2
CO2

H2O
nightPlant
cell
(respiration)
heat
Animal
cell
(respiration)
heat
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Figure 4.3 A hummingbird in Ms. Green’s garden
The humming bird derives its
energy from products made by a tree’s capture
of sunlight. Sugars in nectar are a nutri-
tious source of food.
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Photosynthesis: Building Up Molecules of Life
The process of making sugar from sunlight via photosynthesis
uses carbon dioxide and
water and liberates oxygen. Photosynthesis occurs in two
stages: Light reactions, which
trap energy from sunlight within special pigments, and the
Calvin cycle (once called
dark reactions), which uses carbon dioxide to make the glucose
structure (see Figures
4.10 and 4.11). The two parts of the word photosynthesis
describe these two stages:
“photo” refers to light energy that is converted to chemical
energy during light reac-
tions; “synthesis” refers to the making of glucose during dark
reactions.
Chloroplasts: Where the action takes Place
The processes of photosynthesis occur in chloroplasts, which
are specialized organ-
elles found only in organisms that carry out photosynthesis.
Each chloroplast contains a

series of special membranes called thylakoid membranes, within
which are molecules
of the pigment chlorophyll (see Figures 4.5 and 4.6).
Chlorophyll contains electrons
that become excited by light energy from the sun and transfer
that electron energy into
a series of photosynthesis processes. Sunlight has special wave
properties that stimulate
photosynthesis in chloroplasts. These characteristics of light
waves enable plant and
algae cells to transform light wave energy into usable sugars
and other products.
What Is Light?
Photosynthesis transforms light energy into complex
macromolecules. Sunlight is a
form of energy known as electromagnetic energy or radiant
energy. Electromagnetic
energy travels in waves, carrying with it bundles of energy in
the form of photons. The
Light reactions
A reaction that traps
energy from sunlight
using special pigments.
Electromagnetic
energy
A type of energy
released by into space
by stars (sun).
Radiant energy

A type of energy
travelling by waves or
particles.
Figure 4.5 Structure of a Chloroplast.
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Stroma
lamellae
Lumen
Stroma
Thylakoid
Granum
Chloroplast anatomy
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Figure 4.6 Chloroplasts are the organelle responsible
for photosynthesis. Chloro-
plasts have interdependent reactions. From Biological
Perspectives, 3rd ed by BSCS.
©
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y.
R
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p
rin
te
d
b
y
p
e
rm
is
si
o
n
Calvin cycle
A set of chemical
reaction absorbing
carbon dioxide and
making glucose, taking
place in chloroplasts
during photosynthesis.
Pigment

A naturally occurring
special chemicals that
absorb and reflect
light.
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wavelength of light, which is the distance between the wave
crests, is related to the

amount of energy a wave carries (see Figure 4.7).
Each wavelength range appears as a certain color on the
rainbow, corresponding to
the amount of energy it carries. Visible light (see Figure 4.7)
has a wavelength range of
380–750 nm. Note that the frequency of each wave in Figure 4.7
is the number of wave
crests per second. The more frequent the wave crests, the higher
the amount of energy
in a light ray. When light hits an object, it is either absorbed or
reflected. When it is
absorbed it disappears from our sight, and when it is reflected,
we see it. Thus, in a green
leaf, very little green light is absorbed or used by a plant
because it is reflected.
750 nm650 nm600 nm560 nm500 nm430 nm380 nm
Visible light
Gamma rays X-rays UV
light
Infrared Radio waves
10
–12
m 10
–10
m 10
–8
m 10

–6
m 10
–4
m 10
–2
m 10
0
m 10
2
m
W avelength
Energy
Figure 4.7 Wavelengths of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Only a narrow range of
wavelengths are visible light, used for
photosynthesis.
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ThE AuTumn LEAvES oF CoLoR
Light that is reflected gives color to an
object. Chlorophyll appears green
because it uses very little green light for
photosynthesis.When autumn begins
and temperatures cool in many areas, the leaves
of someplants change colors.
This colorchange occurs because the plantis
shutting down for the winter,

ceasing chlorophyll production in its leaves.
Only the yellow-orange colors of
carotenoid pigments and the red colorof anthocyanin
pigments remain, giving
trees their beautiful foliage. It is, however, a
concession that plants make to
living in colder climates, as will be discussed in
a later chapter. Leaf drop is a big
waste of energy but is necessary. In our
story, Ms. Green’s white pine did not
shed needles during the winter because pines
are adapted to withstand harsh
conditions.
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Pigments
Plants and algae both contain pigments, special chemicals in
chloroplasts that absorb
and reflect certain visible wavelengths of light. Pigments
include green-colored chlo-
rophyll a and b as well as other pigments. The structure of the
pigment chlorophyll is
shown in Figure 4.8. Violet-blue and red wavelengths are most
effectively absorbed by
chlorophyll pigments. The absorption spectra for chlorophylls a
and b, two types of
chlorophyll, are given in Figure 4.8. From Figure 4.8, which
colors besides green are
least used by chlorophyll?
the Light Reactions
When photons, or discrete units of light energy hit the pigment
in chlorophyll, photon
energy is transferred to electrons in the pigment, and those
electrons begin moving more
rapidly; in technical terms, they become excited to a higher
energy state. In other words
their electrons move from a ground state to a higher excited
state.
The excited state of electrons in chlorophyll makes them
unstable and loosely held
within the pigment. An excited electron can either return to its
ground state or be tossed
to a nearby molecule. Some electrons fall back to their ground

state, producing energy
as they move to the lower energy state, as shown in Figure 4.9a.
Some electrons shoot
out like pinballs to get accepted by another molecule, which
then has more energy than
it had before. Both of these paths of electron excitement are the
“photo” part of photo-
synthesis, also called the light reactions, in which energy is
captured and passed along
(Figure 4.9b). The capturing of light energy is step one in the
process.
(a)
chlorophyll a
chlorophyll b
R
e
la
tiv
e
a
b
so
rp
tio
n
400 500 600 700

Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Wavelength (nm)
Mg
CH2
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH CH CH
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
CH2
C
C
C
CH3
CH3
CH3

H3C
H3C
CH2 CH2
CH2
N N
N N
HC
H
H
H
O
O
OOO
R
H2C
Chlorophyll a:
Chlorophyll b:
R

R
= — CH3
= — C
H
O
(b)
Figure 4.8 The absorption spectra for chlorophylls a
and b. Green and yellow wavelengths are
used least
in photosynthesis and red and purple wavelengths
are used most effectively.
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Excited state
A state of a physical
system that is higher
in energy than in its
normal state.
Ground state
The lowest state of
energy of a particle.
Photon
Discrete unit of light
energy that when

hits a pigment in
chlorophyll transfers
its energy to electrons
in the pigment.
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Figure 4.9 a. Electrons fall to lower energy levels
after they become excited by light
energy. b. Light reactions take place along

the innermembraneof chloroplasts.
Leaf cross section
Chloroplasts
Photosynthesizing cell
Chloroplast
Thylakoid
Large molecules
embedded in membrane
including chlorophylls
(b)
Stack of
thylakoids
Stack of
thylakoids
Leaf
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Absorption of a photon
(a)
Electron
Nucleus
Photon

m
p
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If you inspected needles from Ms. Green’s pine tree with an
electron micro-
scope, you would see within the chloroplasts many thylakoid
membranes, which look
somewhat like stacks of coins (see Figure 4.9). Each thylakoid
membrane contains
bundles of chlorophyll and other pigments. These light-
capturing bundles are called
photosystems. There are two photosystems, Photosystem II,
which we will call the
water-splitting photosystem, and Photosystem I, the
nicotinamide adenine dinucleo-
tide phosphate (NADPH)-producing system. Photosystem II
works first in the process
of photosynthesis, and then photosystem I takes over. (Although
photosystem I occurs
after photosystem II, it bears its “I” name because it was
discovered first.)
The water-splitting photosystem
The process starts when light is captured in the water-splitting
photosystem (II). Water
molecules from fluid within chloroplasts donate electrons to the
photosystem, releasing
oxygen and hydrogen ions (H+). Light energy causes the
released electrons to move to
the excited state. Excited electrons return their ground state, but
give off energy they
gained to neighboring pigment molecules.
As energy spreads through the collection of pigment molecules,
it reaches the center
of a photosystem. There, energy is captured by chlorophyll a, a
special molecule in a

photosystem that does not move its electrons back to the ground
state. Instead, excited
electrons in chlorophyll a are transferred to a neighboring
primary electron acceptor.
Now begins a game of a pinball, in which excited electrons are
moved from chloro-
phyll a to the primary electron acceptor, losing energy just a bit
…

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