1. Assessment
a basic goal of this chapter is to help you understand how such knowledge can be used to reinforce, rather than
work against, your role as teacher. Toward that end, we will begin by defining what we mean by the
term assessment and by two key elements of this process, measurement and evaluation.
What is Assessment?
Broadly conceived, classroom assessment involves two major types of activities: collecting information about
how much knowledge and skill students have learned (measurement) and making judgments about the adequacy
or acceptability of each student's level of learning (evaluation). Both the measurement and evaluation aspects of
classroom assessment can be accomplished in a number of ways. To determine how much learning has
occurred, teachers can, for example, have students take exams, respond to oral questions, do homework
exercises, write papers, solve problems, and make oral presentations. Teachers can then evaluate the scores
from those activities by comparing them either to one another or to an absolute standard (such as an A equals 90
percent correct). Throughout much of this chapter we will explain and illustrate the various ways in which you
can measure and evaluate student learning.
Measurement
Measurement is the assignment of numbers to certain attributes of objects, events, or people according to a rule-
governed system. For our purposes, we will limit the discussion to attributes of people. For example, we can
measure someone's level of typing proficiency by counting the number of words the person accurately types per
minute or someone's level of mathematical reasoning by counting the number of problems correctly solved. In a
classroom or other group situation, the rules that are used to assign the numbers will ordinarily create a ranking
that reflects how much of the attribute different people possess (Linn & Gronlund, 1995).
Evaluation
Evaluation involves using a rule-governed system to make judgments about the value or worth of a set of
measures (Linn & Gronlund, 1995). What does it mean, for example, to say that a student answered eighty out of
one hundred earth science questions correctly? Depending on the rules that are used, it could mean that the
student has learned that body of knowledge exceedingly well and is ready to progress to the next unit of
instruction or, conversely, that the student has significant knowledge gaps and requires additional instruction.
Why Should We assess Students' Learning?
This question has several answers. We will use this section to address four of the most common reasons for
assessment: to provide summaries of learning, to provide information on learning progress, to diagnose specific
strengths and weaknesses in an individual's learning, and to motivate further
learning.http://college.cengage.com/education/pbl/tc/assess.html#top
TESTING: BASIC CONCEPTS: BASIC TERMINOLOGY
by Anthony Bynom, Ph.D., December 2001
Most teachers are involved in testing in some form, either invigilating, marking or actually writing tests. This article is
aimed at teachers who may be either assessing test material or writing their own tests. The basic question to begin with is
why do we test?
I hope there are not many of you who will follow the example of a former colleague. This person would use tests as a
punishment. If his class became too boisterous he would announce a test. Then he would retire to his desk and set the
most difficult grammar test he could find in order, as he put it, ‘to teach the blighters a lesson.’ In this instance testing was
used as a means of classroom management. The more conventional answer to the question of why we test is to get
information. The type of information required will dictate the type of test needed. Types of information needed could come
under the following headings.
SELECTION
2. This is where testees are being selected for some future course or type of
employment. You are trying to find out if the people concerned have the right
attributes to benefit from the course.
PLACEMENT
Is when you want to place testees at a correct level for their abilities.
RANK ORDERING OF TESTEES
This familiar process places testees in order, who is first second etc.
APTITUDE
This attempts to Predict likely future performance.
DIAGNOSIS OF PROBLEM AREAS
An attempt to find out why things are happening.
VALIDATION OF CURRICULA, PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES AND MATERIALS
Is the curriculum working? Do your classroom practices succeed? Are the materials you are using appropriate?
FEEDBACK
This is used to amend procedures, if necessary.
EXPERIMENTATION
When you want to try something new or different.
TYPES OF TESTING
Testing may initially be divided into two types.
1. Norm Referenced Tests
Norm Referenced tests answer such questions as, how student ‘A’ compares with student
‘B’. Attainment or Achievement tests should be specifically designed to answer this question.
2. Criterion Referenced Tests
Criterion Referenced tests answer such questions as, How much has student ‘Y’ learnt? Or, How much does student ‘X’
know? Proficiency tests should be designed to answer such questions.
In all the other test areas you should always bear in mind the purpose of your test. For example;
Aptitude tests should be designed to provide information to assist prediction of future learning success.
Diagnostic tests should obviously provide information on areas of difficulty.
Performance tests should be designed to provide information for the evaluation of a specific skill or task.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
We now move on to the two key issues for any test, reliability and validity.
These two concepts and their relationship to testing form the most fundamental issue in current thinking on testing.
Although they are absolutely basic they very often appear to be incompatible, in that some tests that are known as reliable
are seen as falling short in validity. While criticism of test validity is based on the question of how reliable they are In fact it
might be truly said that the whole art and science of testing lies in attempting to find ways of harmonising these two
important qualities. To help with this let’s look at their meaning.
Reliability. This means the consistency of the test’s judgement and results. It is about producing precise and repeatable
measurements on a clear scale of measurement units. Such tests give consistent results across a wide range of
situations. This is achieved by carefully piloted trials of the test. Sometimes, several versions of the test may be used on a
controlled population of testees. The outcomes of these trials are carefully analysed in order to establish consistency.
When a consistent set of figures is achieved the test may be deemed reliable.
Validity. This means the truth of the test in relation to what it is supposed to evaluate. It concerns the relevance
and usefulness of what you are is measuring. The difficulty in setting such tests lies in the problem how sure you can be
about what is actually being measured. Is it consistent with the worthwhile quality you think you’re measuring?
To help with this you should consider the following:
Content validity. Have satisfactory samples of language and language skills been selected for testing?
Construct validity. Is the test based on the best available theory of language and language use?
Predictive validity. Does the test successfully predict future outcomes?
Concurrent validity. Does the test correlate with other existing measures? Usually a similar test.
There are other ways one can look at the subject of validity but the above are the main ones and give you the basic idea.
3. DISCREET POINT AND INTEGRATIVE TESTING
You may see or hear these words when being asked to assess or even write a test so let’s see what they mean.
Discrete Point tests are based on an analytical view of language. This is where language is divided up so that
components of it may be tested. Discrete point tests aim to achieve a high reliability factor by testing a large number of
discrete items. From these separated parts, you can form an opinion is which is then applied to language as an
entity. You may recognise some of the following Discrete Point tests:
1. Phoneme recognition.
2. Yes/No, True/ False answers.
3. Spelling.
4. Word completion.
5. Grammar items.
6. Most multiple choice tests.
Such tests have a down side in that they take language out of context and usually bear no relationship to the concept or
use of whole language.
Integrative tests
In order to overcome the above defect, you should consider Integrative tests. Such tests usually require the testees to
demonstrate simultaneous control over several aspects of language, just as they would in real language use situations.
Examples of Integrative tests that you may be familiar with include:
1. Cloze tests
2. Dictation
3. Translation
4. Essays and other coherent writing tasks
5. Oral interviews and conversation
6. Reading, or other extended samples of real text
OTHER ISSUES
Should you aim for direct or indirect testing? To help with this decision you may find the following helpful:
Indirect testing makes no attempt to measure the way language is used in real life, but proceeds by means of analogy.
Some examples that you may have used are:
Most, if not all, of the discrete point tests mentioned above.
Cloze tests
Dictation (unless on a specific office skills course)
Indirect tests have the big advantage of being very ‘test-like’. They are popular with some teachers and most
administrators because can be easily administered and scored, they also produce measurable results and have a high
degree of reliability.
Direct tests, on the other hand, try to introduce authentic tasks, which model the student’s real life future use of language.
Such tests include:
Role-playing.
Information gap tasks.
Reading authentic texts, listening to authentic texts.
Writing letters, reports, form filling and note taking.
Summarising.
Direct tests are task oriented rather than test oriented, they require the ability to use language in real situations, and they
therefore should have a good formative effect on your future teaching methods and help you with curricula writing.
However, they do call for skill and judgment on the part of the teacher.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TESTING
Since the late 1970s and early 1980s the Communicative approach to language teaching has gained dominance. What is
actually meant by ‘Communicative ability’ is still a matter of academic interest and research. Broadly speaking
communicative ability should encompass the following skills:
Grammatical competence. How grammar rules are actually applied in written and oral real life language situations.
4. Sociolinguistic competence. Knowing the rules of language use, ‘Turn taking’ during conversation discourse, etc. or
using appropriate language for a given situation.
Strategic competence. Being able to use appropriate verbal and non-verbal communication strategies.
Communicative tests are concerned not only with these different aspects of knowledge but on the testees’ ability to
demonstrate them in actual situations. So, how should you go about setting a Communicative test?
Firstly, you should attempt to replicate real life situations. Within these situations communicative ability can be tested as
representatively as possible. There is a strong emphasis on the purpose of the test. The importance of context is
recognised. There should be both authenticity of task and genuiness of texts. Tasks ought to be as direct as
possible. When engaged in oral assessment you should attempt to reflect the interactive nature of normal speech and
also assess pragmatic skills being used.
Communicative tests are both direct and integrative. They attempt to focus on the expression and understanding of the
functional use of language rather than on the more limited mastery of language form found in discreet point tests.
The theoretical status of communicative testing is still subject to criticism in some quarters, yet as language teachers see
the positive benefits accruing from such testing, they are becoming more and more acceptable. They will not only help
you to develop communicative classroom competence but also to bridge the gap between teaching, testing and real
life. They are useful tools in the areas of curriculum development and in the assessment of future needs, as they aim to
reflect real life situations. For participating teachers and students this can only be
beneficial. http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/testing.htm
Methods of Assessment
by William Badders
With the release of the National Science Education Standards, the issues of why, how, and what we, as teachers, assess
in our classrooms will become a major challenge in the multifaceted science reform effort currently underway. As
educators are changing their ideas about what constitutes exemplary inquiry-based learning, and recognizing that science
is an active process that encourages higher-order thinking and problem solving, there is an increased need to align
curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Classroom assessment techniques are focusing on aligning assessments more
closely with the instructional strategies actually used with children.
The Nature of Assessment
Assessment can be defined as a sample taken from a larger domain of content and process skills that allows one to infer
student understanding of a part of the larger domain being explored. The sample may include behaviors, products,
knowledge, and performances. Assessment is a continuous, ongoing process that involves examining and observing
children's behaviors, listening to their ideas, and developing questions to promote conceptual understanding. The term
authentic assessment is often referred to in any discussion of assessment and can be thought of as an examination of
student performance and understanding on significant tasks that have relevancy to the student's life inside and outside of
the classroom.
The increasing focus on the development of conceptual understanding and the ability to apply science process skills is
closely aligned with the emerging research on the theory of constructivism. This theory has significant implications for
both instruction and assessment, which are considered by some to be two sides of the same coin. Constructivism is a key
underpinning of the National Science Education Standards.
Constructivism is the idea that learning is an active process of building meaning for oneself. Thus, students fit new ideas
into their already existing conceptual frameworks. Constructivists believe that the learners' preconceptions and ideas
about science are critical in shaping new understanding of scientific concepts. Assessment based on constructivist theory
must link the three related issues of student prior knowledge (and misconceptions), student learning styles (and multiple
abilities), and teaching for depth of understanding rather than for breadth of coverage. Meaningful assessment involves
examining the learner's entire conceptual network, not just focusing on discreet facts and principles.
The Purpose of Assessment
5. Critical to educators is the use of assessment to both inform and guide instruction. Using a wide variety of assessment
tools allows a teacher to determine which instructional strategies are effective and which need to be modified. In this way,
assessment can be used to improve classroom practice, plan curriculum, and research one's own teaching practice. Of
course, assessment will always be used to provide information to children, parents, and administrators. In the past, this
information was primarily expressed by a "grade". Increasingly, this information is being seen as a vehicle to empower
students to be self-reflective learners who monitor and evaluate their own progress as they develop the capacity to be
self-directed learners. In addition to informing instruction and developing learners with the ability to guide their own
instruction, assessment data can be used by a school district to measure student achievement, examine the opportunity
for children to learn, and provide the basis for the evaluation of the district's science program. Assessment is changing for
many reasons. The valued outcomes of science learning and teaching are placing greater emphasis on the child's ability
to inquire, to reason scientifically, to apply science concepts to real-world situations, and to communicate effectively what
the child knows about science. Assessment of scientific facts, concepts, and theories must be focused not only on
measuring knowledge of subject matter, but on how relevant that knowledge is in building the capacity to apply scientific
principles on a daily basis. The teacher's role in the changing landscape of assessment requires a change from merely a
collector of data, to a facilitator of student understanding of scientific principles.
The Tools of Assessment
In the development and use of classroom assessment tools, certain issues must be addressed in relation to the following
important criteria.
A. Purpose and Impact— How will the assessment be used and how will it impact instruction and the selection of
curriculum?
B. Validity and Fairness— Does it measure what it intends to measure? Does it allow students to demonstrate both what
they know and are able to do?
C. Reliability— Is the data that is collected reliable across applications within the classroom, school, and district?
D. Significance— Does it address content and skills that are valued by and reflect current thinking in the field?
E. Efficiency— Is the method of assessment consistent with the time available in the classroom setting?
There is a wide range of assessments that are available for use in restructuring science assessment in the classroom.
These types of assessments include strategies that are both traditional and alternative. The various types of alternative
assessments can be used with a range of science content and process skills, including the following general targets.
Declarative Knowledge— the "what" knowledge
Conditional Knowledge— the "why" knowledge
Procedural Knowledge— the "how" knowledge
Application Knowledge— the use of knowledge in both similar settings and in different contexts
Problem Solving— a process of using knowledge or skills to resolve an issue or problem
Critical Thinking— evaluation of concepts associated with inquiry
Documentation— a process of communicating understanding
Understanding— synthesis by the learner of concepts, processes, and skills
Assessment can be divided into three stages: baseline assessment, formative assessment, and summative assessment.
Baseline assessment establishes the "starting point" of the student's understanding. Formative assessment provides
information to help guide the instruction throughout the unit, and summative assessment informs both the student and the
teacher about the level of conceptual understanding and performance capabilities that the student has achieved. The wide
range of targets and skills that can be addressed in classroom assessment requires the use of a variety of assessment
formats. Some formats, and the stages of assessment in which they most likely would occur, are shown in the table.
ASSESSMENT FORMATS
Format Nature/Purpose Stage
Oral and written responses based on individual experience
Baseline
Baseline
Assessments
Assess prior knowledge
Multiple choice, short answer, essay, constructed response, written reports
Paper and Pencil
Formative
Tests
Assess students acquisition of knowledge and concepts
