Study in Science Shows 'End of History Illusion' - NYTimes.com Gltr $r'tu {l*rlt iliurr"ri J a r t u i : r ' y . i 2 0 i 3 P a g e 1 o f 3 WhyYouWon't Be the PersonYou Expect to Be 11 JOHN TIERNEY When we remember our past selves, they seem quite different. We know how much our personalities and tastes have changed over the years. But when we look ahead, somehow we expect ourselves to stay the same, a team of psychologists said Thursday, describing research they conducted of people's self-perceptions. They called this phenomenon the "end of history illusion," in which people tend to "underestimate how much they will change in the future." According to their research, which involved more than 19,ooo people ranging in age from rB to 68, the illusion persists from teenage years into retirement. "Middle-aged people - like me - often look back on our teenage selves with some mixture of amusement and chagrin," said one of the authors, Daniel T. Gilbert, a psychologist at Harvard. "What we never seem to realize is that our future selves will look back and think the very same thing about us. At every age we think we're having the last laugh, and at every age we're wrong." Other psychologists said they were intrigued by the findings, published Thursday in the journal Science, and impressed with the amount of supporting evidence. Participants were asked about their personality traits and preferences - their favorite foods, vacations, hobbies and bands - in years past and present, and then asked to rnake predictions for the future. Not surprisingly, the younger people in the study reported more change in the previous decade than did the older respondents. But when asked to predict what their personalities and tastes would be like in ten years, people of all ages consistently played down the potential changes ahead. Thus, the typical zo-year-old woman's predictions for her next decade weren't nearly as radical as the typical 3o-year-old woman's recollection of how much she had changed in her zos. This sort of discrepancy persisted among respondents all the way into their 6os. And the discrepancy didn't seem to be because of faulty memories, because the personality changes recalled by people jibed quite well with independent research charting how httD://www.nvtimes.com/2013/01/04/science/studv-in-science'shows-end-of-hiqtnrv-ilL,cinn 1 t2't)n1't Study in Science Shows 'End of History Illusion' - NYTimes.com Pase 2 af 3 personality traits shift u'ith age. People seemed to be much better at recalling their former selves than at imagining how much they would change in the future. Why? Dr. Gilbert and his collaborators, Jordi Quoidbach of Harvard and Timothy D. Wilson of the University of Virginia, had a few theories, starting with the well-documented tendenry of people to overestimate their own wonderfulness. "Believing that we just reached the peak of our personal evolution makes us feel good," Dr. Quoidbach said. "T.

1. Study in Science Shows 'End of History Illusion' -
NYTimes.com
Gltr $r'tu {l*rlt iliurr"ri
J a r t u i : r ' y . i 2 0 i 3
P a g e 1 o f 3
WhyYouWon't Be the PersonYou
Expect to Be
11 JOHN TIERNEY
When we remember our past selves, they seem quite different.
We know how much our
personalities and tastes have changed over the years. But when
we look ahead, somehow we
expect ourselves to stay the same, a team of psychologists said
Thursday, describing research
they conducted of people's self-perceptions.
They called this phenomenon the "end of history illusion," in
which people tend to
"underestimate how much they will change in the future."
According to their research, which
involved more than 19,ooo people ranging in age from rB to 68,
the illusion persists from

2. teenage years into retirement.
"Middle-aged people - like me - often look back on our teenage
selves with some mixture
of amusement and chagrin," said one of the authors, Daniel T.
Gilbert, a psychologist at
Harvard. "What we never seem to realize is that our future
selves will look back and think
the very same thing about us. At every age we think we're
having the last laugh, and at every
age we're wrong."
Other psychologists said they were intrigued by the findings,
published Thursday in the
journal Science, and impressed with the amount of supporting
evidence. Participants were
asked about their personality traits and preferences - their
favorite foods, vacations,
hobbies and bands - in years past and present, and then asked to
rnake predictions for the
future. Not surprisingly, the younger people in the study
reported more change in the
previous decade than did the older respondents. But when asked
to predict what their
personalities and tastes would be like in ten years, people of all
ages consistently played

3. down the potential changes ahead.
Thus, the typical zo-year-old woman's predictions for her next
decade weren't nearly as
radical as the typical 3o-year-old woman's recollection of how
much she had changed in her
zos. This sort of discrepancy persisted among respondents all
the way into their 6os.
And the discrepancy didn't seem to be because of faulty
memories, because the personality
changes recalled by people jibed quite well with independent
research charting how
httD://www.nvtimes.com/2013/01/04/science/studv-in-
science'shows-end-of-hiqtnrv-ilL,cinn 1 t2't)n1't
Study in Science Shows 'End of History Illusion' -
NYTimes.com Pase 2 af 3
personality traits shift u'ith age. People seemed to be much
better at recalling their former
selves than at imagining how much they would change in the
future.
Why? Dr. Gilbert and his collaborators, Jordi Quoidbach of
Harvard and Timothy D. Wilson
of the University of Virginia, had a few theories, starting with
the well-documented tendenry
of people to overestimate their own wonderfulness.

4. "Believing that we just reached the peak of our personal
evolution makes us feel good," Dr.
Quoidbach said. "The
'I wish that I knew then what I know now' experience might
give us a
sense of satisfaction and meaning, whereas realizing how
transient our preferences and
values are might lead us to doubt every decision and generate
anxiety."
or maybe the explanation has more to do with mental energy:
predicting the future requires
more work than simply recalling the past. "People may confuse
the difficulty of imagining
personal change with the unlikelihood of change itself," the
authors wrote in Science.
The phenomenon does have its downsides, the authors said. For
instance, people make
decisions in their youth - about getting a tattoo, say, or a choice
of spouse - that they
sometimes come to regret.
And that illusion of stability could lead to dubious financial
expectations, as the researchers
demonstrated in an experiment asking people about how much
they'd pay to see their
favorite bands. when asked about their favorite band from a
decade ago, respondents were
typica willing to shell out g8o to attend a concert of the band
today. But when they were
asked about their current favorite band and how much they'd be
willing to spend to see the
band's concert in ro years, the price went up to $129. Even

5. though they realized that
favorites from a decade ago like Creed or the Dixie Chicks have
lost some oftheir luster, they
apparently expect Coldplay and Rihanna to blaze on forever.
"The end-of-history effect may represent a failure in personal
imagination," said Dan p.
McAdams, a psychologist at Northwestern, who has done
separate research into the stories
people construct about their past and future lives. He has often
heard people tell complex,
dynamic stories about the past but then make vague, prosaic
projections of a future in which
things stay pretty much the same.
Dr. McAdams was reminded of a conversation with his 4-year-
old daughter during the craze
for Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles in the 198os. when he told her
they might not be her
favorite thing one day, she refused to acknowledge the
possibility. But later, in her zos, she
confessed to him that some part of her 4-year-otd mind had
realized he might be right.
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/04/science/studv-in-science-
shows-end-nf-hi crnnr-illrrcinn 1 t1,n-r11
Study in Science Shows 'End of History Illusion' -
NYTimes.com Page 3 of 3
"She resisted the idea of change, as it dawned on her at age 4,
because she could not imagine
what else she would ever substitute for the Ttrrtles," Dr.
McAdams said. "She had a sneaking

6. suspicion that she would change, but she cor,rldn't quite
imagine how, so she stood with her
assertion of continuity. Maybe something like this goes on with
all of us."
Documento 1 de 1
Visual perception and regulatory conflict: Motivation and
physiology influence distance perception.
Link para o documento do ProQuest
Resumo: Regulatory conflict can emerge when people
experience a strong motivation to act on goals but a conflicting
inclination to withhold action because physical resources
available, or physiological potentials, are low. This study
demonstrated that distance perception is biased in ways that
theory suggests assists in managing this conflict. Participants
estimated the distance to a target location. Individual
differences in physiological potential measured via waist-to-hip
ratio interacted with manipulated motivational states to predict
visual perception. Among people low in physiological potential
and likely to experience regulatory conflict, the environment
appeared easier to traverse when motivation was strong
compared with weak. Among people high in potential and less
likely to experience conflict, perception was not predicted by
motivational strength. The role of motivated distance perception
in self-regulation is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c)
2013 APA, all rights reserved)(journal abstract)
Links:SFX
Texto integral:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 0096-3445 1939-
2222 American Psychological
Association xge_142_1_18 10.1037/a0027882 2012-07452-
001 Brief Reports Visual Perception and Regulatory Conflict:
Motivation and Physiology Influence Distance PerceptionBRIEF
REPORTS Isabel Gauthier Editor Shana Cole Emily Balcetis Sa
m Zhang Department of Psychology, New York University

7. Sam Zhang conducted this study as part of his undergraduate
honors thesis. We wish to thank Tessa West, Ken Fujita, Dan
Molden, and Dennis Proffitt for comments on the article.
Emily Balcetis, Department of Psychology, New York
University, 6 Washington Place, New York, NY
10003 [email protected] March 26, 2012 February 2013 142 1 1
8 22 January 13, 2012 February 25, 2012 February26, 2012 201
2 American Psychological Association
Regulatory conflict can emerge when people experience a strong
motivation to act on goals but a conflicting inclination to
withhold action because physical resources available,
or physiological potentials, are low. This study demonstrated
that distance perception is biased in ways that theory suggests
assists in managing this conflict. Participants estimated the
distance to a target location. Individual differences in
physiological potential measured via waist-to-hip ratio
interacted with manipulated motivational states to predict visual
perception. Among people low in physiological potential and
likely to experience regulatory conflict, the environment
appeared easier to traverse when motivation was strong
compared with weak. Among people high in potential and less
likely to experience conflict, perception was not predicted by
motivational strength. The role of motivated distance perception
in self-regulation is discussed.
motivation self-regulation distance
perception physiology energy
Successful goal pursuit often requires that people take action in
the environment. People with weight loss goals need to act to
increase exercise behaviors, and lonely people need to act to
restore social relationships. However, poor physical fitness, or
low physiological potential, decreases people's ability and
inclination to act, which can thwart the successful pursuit of
goals that require action. For example, a majority of Americans
indicate they are heavier than their ideal weight (Mendes,
2011b) and want to improve their health (Moore, 2006).
However, only half of American adults exercise at least 2 days

8. per week, and 30% do not exercise at all (Mendes, 2011a).
Strong motivation can increase the inclination to act on goals,
but poor fitness can decrease the inclination to engage in
activities that require exertion.
When the motivation to pursue goals that require action is
strong but physiological potential is in short supply, people
experience a regulatory conflict. We tested one phenomenon
that may be involved in assisting people during this conflict.
Specifically, this study asked whether visual perceptions of the
surrounding environment are biased in ways that promote action
when strong motivation calls for action but scarce physical
resources call for inaction.
Regulatory Conflict
People must simultaneously manage both their motivational and
physiological states. When their motivation is strong, people are
driven to act in order to initiate and maintain progress toward
goals (Bandura, 1989; Carver & Scheier, 1982; Locke &
Latham, 1990). However, people must balance the expenditure
of energy against the bioenergetic resources available for
action, which we refer to as their physiological potential. When
physiological potential is low, as is the case among people who
are unhealthy and unfit, people are driven to withhold action in
order to conserve energy.
Because motivation and physiological state must be
simultaneously managed, a regulatory conflict can arise when
they suggest opposing behavioral inclinations (Baumeister,
Heatherton, & Tice, 1994; Loewenstein, 1996;Thaler,
1991; Trope & Fishbach, 2000). For example, an overweight
person who resolves to get in shape by increasing physical
activity may experience conflict when simultaneously feeling
the inclination to go to the gym and to spend the evening on the
couch. A regulatory conflict emerges when a strong
psychological motivation demands action but low physiological
potential calls for inaction.
The Environment and Goal-Directed Action
What determines whether people will initiate goal-relevant

9. action in the environment when a strong motivation conflicts
with low physiological potential? One determinant may be the
physical features of the environment itself. People may act on
goals and override physiological concerns if the environment
they must traverse to pursue their goals is easy to navigate.
There exists a relationship between physical properties of the
environment and actions that assist goal pursuit. As suggested
by classic research, close proximity to goals predicts increased
goal-relevant action. For instance, rats experiencing physical
depletion ran faster and exerted more effort as the physical
proximity to a food reward increased (Brown, 1948; Crespi,
1942; Dollard & Miller, 1950). People, too, survey and use the
physical properties of the environment to determine whether
action is feasible and warranted in light of available
physiological resources (Proffitt, 2006). Aspects of the physical
environment influence goal-relevant action. When the
environment actually is easier to navigate, goal-directed action
intensifies.
If the actual layout of the environment determines whether
action is taken, perhaps mere perceptions, or misperceptions, of
the environment too are related to action. The present work
provides the first empirical test of whether physiological and
psychological states of the perceiver interact to bias visual
perception of the environment in ways theorized to cue action
when perceivers experience a regulatory conflict. We tested
whether people perceive distances as shorter, given that
proximity cues action, when the strong motivation to act in the
service of goal pursuit conflicts with the physiological
inclination to withhold action.
Visual Perception and Goal-Directed Action
Emerging evidence suggests internal states of the perceiver
influence visual perception. For example, perception is sensitive
to physiological potential. Heavier people perceived distances
to jump as greater compared with people who weighed less
(Lessard, Linkenauger, & Proffitt, 2009). Participants depleted
of energy perceived a hill to be steeper than did participants

10. who consumed sugar, which provided a temporary burst of
energy (Schnall, Zadra, & Proffitt, 2010). When potential is
low, the environment appears more extreme.
Visual perception is also sensitive to psychological motivation.
People see the environment in less extreme ways when their
motivation is strong and the environment allows for goal
pursuit. For instance, a bottle of water appeared closer to thirsty
participants motivated to attain it than to participants whose
state of thirst was quenched (Balcetis & Dunning, 2010). Two
separate lines of research suggest perception is sensitive to
physiological resources and psychological motivation. These
data have sparked the development of emerging theories that
speculate that perception is systematically biased in ways
known to encourage or discourage action.
No research to date has explored visual perception during
instances of regulatory conflict, when the behavioral inclination
to act is discrepant. We tested if, during conflict, visual biases
emerge that favor psychological motivation or physiological
need. If psychological motivation is favored, the environment
should be misperceived as less extreme, because perceived ease
of traversing spaces is speculated to encourage action (Balcetis
& Dunning, 2010; Dollard & Miller, 1950). Conversely, if
physiological need is favored, the environment should be
misperceived as more extreme, because perceived extremity is
speculated to discourage action when energy is scarce (Proffitt,
2006). We predicted that psychological motivation would be
favored and perceptual biases would emerge that cue action
when motivation is strong, as is the case when goal-directed
behaviors are enjoyable (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2000) and goals
are important (Muraven & Slessareva, 2003) even if difficult to
pursue (Shah, Brazy, & Jungbluth, 2005). Under these
conditions, alternative courses of action interfere with goal
pursuit far less (Shah, Friedman, & Kruglanski, 2002). Thus,
psychological goals may be prioritized over physiological
concerns when motivation is strong.
Overview of Present Study

11. We tested distance perception when strong motivation to act
conflicted with physiological need to conserve energy. We
experimentally activated either a strong or a weak motivation to
move to a finish line and measured perceptions of distance to it.
To assess objective, individual differences in participants'
physiological potential, we measured waist-to-hip ratio, as it is
one of the best predictors of fitness and serious health
conditions (Pischon, Boeing, & Boeing, 2008; Su et al., 2010).
We predicted that the effect of motivation would differ
depending on perceivers' physiological potential. Situations of
regulatory conflict occur for people low in physiological
potential. Among these people, we predicted motivational
strength would determine perceptual experiences. Specifically,
we predicted unfit people who had strong motivation would
perceive distances as shorter than would those with weak
motivation. Conversely, situations of regulatory conflict would
not occur among people high in physiological potential, as
people with high physiological potential have the energy needed
to traverse the environment regardless of whether they are
motivated to do so. Among these people, we predicted that
motivational strength would not statistically predict perceptions
of distance.
Method
In exchange for $10 or course credit, 78 undergraduates (56%
female) completed a study about health. They first read an
article, ostensibly from The New York Times, that emphasized
that overall health was based not just on weight but on a
multitude of factors. Participants then completed a battery of
health measures. To assess individual differences in
physiological potential, the experimenter measured the
circumference of participants' waist and hips, and we computed
a ratio of waist-to-hip measurements.
Participants then completed other measures of actual (e.g., heart
rate, blood pressure, weight) and spurious (e.g., a “lung
capacity” test in which participants hummed for an extended
period of time) determinants of health. After completing all but

12. one of the tests in the battery, we provided bogus feedback to
manipulate motivational strength (modified from Moskowitz,
Gollwitzer, Wasel, & Schaal, 1999). Participants saw a scale
ranging from 0 to 100, divided with a line at 50. Participants in
the strong motivation condition (n = 39) received a raw score of
42 on the scale, which placed them in the bottom half of the
health scale but close to the line that divided the supposedly
healthy and unhealthy groups. We expected that participants
who received a low score and appeared to be unhealthy would
experience stronger motivation to perform well in the last
fitness task. Participants in the weak motivation condition (n =
39) received a raw score of 87, which placed them in the top
half of the health scale and far above the dividing line. We
expected that participants who received a high score would
experience weaker motivation to perform well in the last fitness
task, since they already appeared to be healthy. As a
manipulation check, we asked participants to indicate how
satisfied they were with their fitness level and how physically
fit they felt at this moment on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all)
to 10 (extremely).
Although this score was purported to be a reliable measure of
health, participants learned that they would complete one final
test that might move their score. Participants strapped on ankle
weights measured to be 15% of their body weight and stood 16
ft away from a finish line. Participants knew they would high-
step to the finish line, and if they did so quickly they could
improve their score. They were given a chance to high-step in
place to note that the task was moderately difficult but not
impossible.
We expected participants in the weak motivation condition who
received a high score would believe that their health goals had
been mostly satisfied and thus would experience weaker
motivation to quickly walk to the finish line. Alternatively, we
expected participants in the strong motivation condition who
received a low score to believe that their health goals were not
yet met but could be attained if they walked quickly to the

13. finish line. Thus, the finish line represented a goal-relevant
location and the feedback influenced the strength of the
motivation to traverse the space to meet a proximal goal of
increasing the health score.
Before they walked to the finish line, participants estimated the
distance. On a survey, participants indicated the number of feet
and inches they were from the finish line. Participants saw a
statement on the survey that indicated the piece of paper was 11
in. tall and should be used as a reference for estimating the
distance (Balcetis & Dunning, 2010; Witt, Proffitt, & Epstein,
2004).
Results Manipulation Checks
The feedback manipulation successfully activated fitness
concerns. Participants in the strong motivation condition
indicated less satisfaction with their fitness level and felt less
fit (M = 3.5, SD = 1.8, and M = 5.9, SD = 2.0, respectively)
than did participants in the weak motivation condition (M =
8.7, SD = 1.2, and M = 6.9, SD = 1.7, respectively), t(76) =
14.92, p < .001, and t(76) = 2.38, p = .02, respectively.
Waist-to-Hip Ratio
The ideal waist-to-hip ratio is .7 for women and .85 for men
(Henss, 2000). We adjusted participants' scores to reflect
difference scores from gender-specific ideals. We used this
gender-adjusted waist-to-hip ratio score in all of our primary
analyses. Gender did not moderate any of our primary effects,
so we collapsed across gender for all analyses.
Primary Analyses
To explore how motivation and physiological potential impacted
perception, we ran a regression predicting distance estimates.
We included as a predictor variable the effects-coded
motivational strength variable (–1 = weak motivation, 1 =
strong motivation). We also included the gender-adjusted waist-
to-hip ratio, after centering this variable to eliminate the
possibility of collinearity. We included the interaction term.
The overall model was significant, R2 = .14, F(3, 74) =
3.95, p = .01. When all variables were included in the model,

14. the effect of waist-to-hip ratio was not significant (β =
.052), t(74) = 0.47, p = .64. The effect of motivational strength
was not significant (β = –.18), t(74) = –1.61, p = .11.
Importantly, as predicted, the interaction between waist-to-hip
ratio and motivational strength was significant (β = –.52), t(74)
= –3.06, p = .003.
Because waist-to-hip ratios are continuous, Figure 1 depicts the
predicted mean values of distance estimates at relatively high
(1 SD above the mean) or low (1 SD below the mean) levels of
physiological potential rather than actual group means (see
procedures outlined by Aiken & West, 1991). To test our
predictions regarding distance perception during times of
regulatory conflict, we performed two contrast tests. We tested
the effect of motivation condition at +1 SD and then again at –
1 SD from the mean physiological potential. These analyses
revealed that among people who were relatively lower in
physiological potential (i.e., at 1 SD above the mean waist-to-
hip ratio, as high ratios indicate being unfit), people in the
strong motivation condition estimated the distance was shorter
than did people in the weak motivation condition, t(74) = –
3.29, p = .002. However, among people who were relatively
higher in physiological potential (i.e., at 1 SD below the mean
waist-to-hip ratio, as low ratios indicate being fit), people's
distance estimates did not differ between the two motivation
conditions,t(74) = 1.08, p = .29.
Enlarge this Image.
Perceived distance to the finish line as a function of
motivational strength condition and physiological potential as
measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR).
General Discussion
This study demonstrated that perceptions of distance depended
on the interactive effect of physiological potential and
motivational strength. Among participants low in physiological
potential, the environment appeared less extreme when
motivation was strong compared with weak. However, among

15. participants high in physiological potential, perceptions of the
environment did not depend on motivational strength. These
data suggest distance perception was biased in accordance with
the prioritization of strong psychological motivation rather than
physiological concern when experiencing regulatory conflict.
Forms of Physiological Potential
This research operationalized physiological potential through
waist-to-hip ratio. This ratio measures both chronic and current
physical resources, as it is stable but also indicative of energy
presently available for use. Future research would benefit by
exploring the direct and indirect effects of different forms of
chronic and current physiological potential. For example,
skilled athletes with high chronic potential experience difficulty
pursuing goals when temporarily fatigued; they have a higher
likelihood of goal failure as measured by poor sports
performance, injury, and dropout (Gould, Udry, Tuffey, &
Loehr, 1996). While one expects that visual biases will appear
in the same manner when isolating chronic and current
physiological potential, this is an empirical question future
research could explore.
Prioritizing Physiological Needs Over Psychological Goals
In situations of regulatory conflict we described, perception
seemed biased in ways that favored psychological goals over
physiological concerns. However, there are likely cases in
which perceptions are biased in accordance with the
prioritization of physiological regulatory needs. This may occur
when motivational states are weak, commitment is low, or
feelings of efficacy are in short supply. For example, when
people lack efficacy, they fail to believe that they possess the
ability to meet their own goals (Bandura, 1994). Low self-
efficacy often predicts self-regulatory failure. Compared with
people high in efficacy, people low in efficacy reduce efforts
quickly after failure and are thus less likely to prioritize pursuit
of social goals. In these cases, physiological concerns may be
prioritized over motivational ones.
In addition, physiological regulatory concerns may trump

16. psychological ones when environmental circumstances suspend
goal pursuit. For example, people who think they are in a
situation where they can do nothing to manage a health-relevant
goal stop engaging in actions related to the pursuit of that
health goal (Dawson, Savitsky, & Dunning, 2006). Thus, when
the situation suggests that psychological goal pursuit is
unfeasible, the goal fails to remain a priority. Future research
could explore these and other instances when perceptual biases
may favor physiological regulation needs rather than
motivational concerns.
Cuing Action and Inaction
While building upon classic (e.g., Dollard & Miller, 1950) and
new (e.g., Balcetis & Lassiter, 2010; Proffitt, 2006) work, the
current research is the first to document the specific type of
perceptual bias that emerges when psychological and
physiological concerns conflict. In so doing, this research adds
to a reoccurring question of interest: Is perception of the
environment functionally linked to action? The next generation
of research on this topic should provide empirical evidence for
the link between perceptual bias and physical action. During
instances of regulatory conflict, are people actually more likely
to take action in the environment when they perceive goal-
relevant locations as physically close?
Additionally, if perceived proximity cues action, future research
might test whether people's perceptual experiences serve as
markers of goal pursuit. In other words, health professionals
might use patients' perceptual experiences as indicators of the
likelihood or risk of self-regulatory failure. It is possible that
noting which people see distances as farther relative to other
people holding similar fitness levels might allow health
professionals to conjecture who is less likely to exercise
sufficiently. Further, if perceived proximity that results from a
strong motivation encourages action, it may be possible to
develop effective intervention strategies targeted at changing
perceptual experiences artificially for people who struggle with
self-regulatory success.

17. Concluding Remarks
Action is often a necessary component of goal pursuit, yet
engaging in action can prove difficult when physical resources
are limited. Although deficiencies in the physical capacity to
act in the environment impede goal progress, self-regulatory
challenges that arise during times of conflict may be, at least
partially, overcome by perceptual biases.
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Perceived distance to the finish line as a function of

20. motivational strength condition and physiological potential as
measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR).
Assunto: Distance Perception (principal); Motivation
(principal); Physiology (principal); Self Regulation (principal);
Visual Perception (principal); Body Weight; Physical Fitness;
Physical Health; Body Fat
Classificação: 2360: Motivation & Emotion; 2560:
Psychophysiology
Idade: Adulthood (18 yrs & older)
População: Human Male Female
Identificador (palavra-chave): distance perception energy
motivation physiology self-regulation physical fitness
Metodologia: Empirical Study, Quantitative Study
Título: Visual perception and regulatory conflict: Motivation
and physiology influence distance perception.
Autor: Cole, Shana1; Balcetis, Emily1; Zhang, Sam11
Department of Psychology, New York University, New York,
NY, US [email protected]
Endereço de e-mail do autor: [email protected]
Indivíduo de contato: Balcetis, Emily, Department of
Psychology, New York University, 6 Washington Place, New
York, 10003, US, [email protected]
Título da publicação: Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General
Volume: 142
Edição: 1
Páginas: 18-22
Data de publicação: Feb 2013
Formato coberto: Electronic
Editora: American Psychological Association
País de publicação: United States
ISSN: 0096-3445
eISSN: 1939-2222
Revisado por especialistas: Sim
Idioma: Inglês
Tipo de documento: Journal, Journal Article, Peer Reviewed

21. Journal
Número de referências: 31
Histórico de publicações :
Data da aceitação: 26 Fev 2012
Data da revisão: 25 Feb 2012
Data do primeiro envio: 13 Jan 2012
DOI: http://dx.doi.org.vlibdb.vcccd.edu/10.1037/a0027882
Data de lançamento: 26 Mar 2012 (PsycINFO); 26 Mar 2012
(PsycARTICLES)
Data de correção: 11 Feb 2013 (PsycINFO)
Número de registro: 2012-07452-001
ID PubMed: 22449101
ID do documento ProQuest: 953197965
URL do
documento: http://search.proquest.com.vlibdb.vcccd.edu/docvie
w/953197965?accountid=39859
Copyright: © American Psychological Association 2012
Base de dados: PsycARTICLES
Bibliografia
Estilo de referência bibliográfica: APA 6th - American
Psychological Association, 6th Edition
Cole, S., Balcetis, E., & Zhang, S. (2013). Visual perception
and regulatory conflict: Motivation and physiology influence
distance perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 142(1), 18-22.
doi:http://dx.doi.org.vlibdb.vcccd.edu/10.1037/a0027882
Documento 1 de 1
Visual versus kinesthetic mental imagery: Efficacy for the
retention and transfer of a closed motor skill in young children.
Link para o documento do ProQuest
Resumo: The main purposes of this study were (a) to compare
the effects of mental imagery combined with physical practise
and specific physical practise on the retention and transfer of a

22. closed motor skill in young children; (b) to determine the
mental imagery (visual vs. kinesthetic), which is the most
efficient for retention and transfer of a closed motor skill; and
(c) to verify the relationship between movement image
vividness and motor performance. As for the secondary purpose,
it was to compare the effects of gender on motor learning.
Participants (n = 96) were selected from 3 primary schools.
These participants were divided into 6 groups and submitted to
different experimental conditions. The experimental task
required the participants to throw, with the nondominant hand
(left hand), a ball toward a target composed of 3 concentric
circles. The results demonstrated that performance obtained by
the mental imagery (visual or kinesthetic) combined with
physical practise group was, during the retention phase,
equivalent to that produced by the specific physical practise
group but significantly superior during the transfer of closed
motor skill. These results showed the potential benefits of
mental imagery as a retention strategy intended for motor skills
and performance enhancement. Such results could be explained
by the similarity of 3 principal functional evidences shared by
mental and physical practise: behavioural, central, and
peripheral (as suggested by Holmes & Collins, 2001).
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights
reserved)(journal abstract)
Links:SFX
Texto integral:
Sumário
· Resumo
· Method
· Participants
· Experimental Task and Material
· Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire
· Procedure
· Experimental Phases
· Pretest phase
· Treatment phase and experimental conditions

23. · Posttest phase
· Transfer phase
· Design
· Independent variables
· Dependent variables
· Measures and Statistical Analyses
· Results
· Group Effect During the Four Blocks of the Treatment Phase
· Group Effect During the Three Experimental Phases
· Group Effect at the QVIM
· Relationship Between Mental Imagery Capacity and Motor
Performance
· Discussion
· The Effects of Visual Versus Kinesthetic Mental Imagery on a
Closed Motor Skill Performance During the Treatment Phase
· The Effects of Visual Versus Kinesthetic Mental Imagery on
the Retention and Transfer of a Closed Motor Skill
· The Effects of Mental Imagery Capacity on the Performance of
a Closed Motor Task
· Gender's Mental Imagery Capacity and Motor Performance
During Retention and Transfer of a Closed Motor Task
Mostrar menos
Figuras e tabelas
· Figura 1
· Figura 2
· Tabela 1
Mostrar menos
Resumo
The main purposes of this study were (a) to compare the effects
of mental imagery combined with physical practise and specific
physical practise on the retention and transfer of a closed motor
skill in young children; (b) to determine the mental imagery
(visual vs. kinesthetic), which is the most efficient for retention
and transfer of a closed motor skill; and (c) to verify the
relationship between movement image vividness and motor

24. performance. As for the secondary purpose, it was to compare
the effects of gender on motor learning. Participants (n = 96)
were selected from 3 primary schools. These participants were
divided into 6 groups and submitted to different experimental
conditions. The experimental task required the participants to
throw, with the nondominant hand (left hand), a ball toward a
target composed of 3 concentric circles. The results
demonstrated that performance obtained by the mental imagery
(visual or kinesthetic) combined with physical practise group
was, during the retention phase, equivalent to that produced by
the specific physical practise group but significantly superior
during the transfer of closed motor skill. These results showed
the potential benefits of mental imagery as a retention strategy
intended for motor skills and performance enhancement. Such
results could be explained by the similarity of 3 principal
functional evidences shared by mental and physical practise:
behavioural, central, and peripheral (as suggested by Holmes &
Collins, 2001).
Les buts principaux de cette étude étaient (a) de comparer les
effets de l'imagerie mentale combinée à la pratique physique et
la pratique physique spécifique sur la rétention et le transfert
d'une habileté motrice fermée chez des enfants en bas âge ; (b)
de déterminer la forme d'imagerie mentale (visuelle vs
kinesthésique) la plus efficace pour la rétention et le transfert
d'une habileté motrice fermée ; et (c) de vérifier la relation
entre la saillance de l'image du mouvement et la performance
motrice. Le but secondaire était de comparer l'effet du genre sur
la performance motrice pendant l'exécution d'une habileté
motrice fermée. Les participants (n = 96) ont été recrutés dans
trois écoles primaires. Ils ont été divisés en six groupes et
soumis à différentes conditions expérimentales. La tâche
expérimentale exigeait que les participants lancent une balle sur
une cible composée de trois cercles concentriques, à l'aide de
leur main non-dominante (main gauche). La performance a été
évaluée durant le prétest, le traitement, le test de rétention et le
test de transfert. Les résultats ont démontré que la performance

25. obtenue avec une combinaison d'imagerie mentale (visuelle ou
kinesthésique) et de pratique physique équivaut à celle produite
par la pratique physique spécifique durant la phase de rétention,
mais est significativement supérieure durant le transfert de
l'habileté motrice fermée. Ces résultats soulignent les avantages
potentiels de l'imagerie mentale comme stratégie de rétention
pour les habiletés motrices et l'amélioration des performances.
De tels résultats peuvent être expliqués en vertu de la similitude
entre trois composantes fonctionnelles principales partagées par
la pratique mentale et physique : comportementale, centrale et
périphérique (tel que suggéré par Holmes & Collins, 2001).
The effects of training strategies on the acquisition of motor
and cognitive skills have occupied a very privileged place of
interest amongst the teachers, researchers, and theorists of
motor learning and performance (Adams, 1971, 1992; Famose,
1987, 1991; Hall, Bernoties, & Schmidt, 1995; Murphy &
Martin, 2002; Schmidt & Lee, 2005; Shapiro & Schmidt,
1982; Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Gallwey (1974) and Adams
(1971, 1976) suggested that specific physical practise organised
in identical environmental condition represented the best
training strategy for the mastery of movements. More
specifically, in his closed loop theory, Adams (1971) stipulated
that execution of any single movement requires the presence of
two traces; the “perceptual trace,” which represents a
recognition mechanism allowing the control of the movement
precision and the “mnemonic trace,” which refers to a recall
mechanism permitting the selection and production of
movement (see Schmidt, 1975, 1988; Taktek, in press-a, in
press-b; Taktek & Hochman, 2004, for further details).
Elsewhere, a new training strategy utilising mental imagery was
inspired from the field of cognitive psychology (Ahsen,
1984; Denis, 1979, 1991; Finke, 1989; Kosslyn,
1994, 1995; Paivio, 1971; Piaget & Inhelder,
1971,1981; Taktek, 2006). This strategy was explored within
the domain of physical activities and sports as an effective

26. method for cognitive and/or motor skill enhancement (Blair,
Hall, & Leyshon, 1993; Cumming & Ste-Marie, 2001; Decety,
2002; Denis, 1985; Holmes & Collins, 2001; Howe,
1991; Lesley & Gretchen, 1997; Paivio, 1985). The concept
of mental imagery refers to a process of mental representation,
mental rehearsal, or mental practise (Éloi & Denis,
1989; Decety, 1989; Taktek, 2004, 2006), and even motor
imagery (Jeannerod, 1994). It is intimately related to quasi-
sensorial or quasi-perceptual experiences and also to conscious
activities, which manifest themselves without the necessary
presence of external stimuli (Denis, 1989; Murphy, 1994; A.
Richardson, 1967a, 1967b, 1983). Therefore, mental imagery
represents a simulation experience (Weinberg & Gould, 2003),
which remains private and subjective because it is inherent to
the internal and mental functioning of the person's brain (J. T.
E. Richardson, 1991, 1999). Nevertheless, it could be expressed
by means of drawing, language (Paivio, 1971; Piaget &
Inhelder, 1966), or movement (Decety, 1991; Decety & Michel,
1989; Jeannerod, 1994) and measured by physiological and/or
neurological techniques (Bolliet, Collet, & Dittmar,
2005;Decety, Philippon, & Ingvar, 1988; Deschaumes-Molinaro,
Dittmar, & Vernet-Maury, 1991; Overton, 2004; Roure et al.,
1999).
Several studies (Goss, Hall, Buckolz, & Fishburne,
1986; Housner, 1984; Housner & Hoffman, 1981; Jarus &
Ratzon, 2000; Kohl, Ellis, & Roenker, 1992) talk in favour of
mental imagery as a strategy of memorization. By studying the
effects of mental imagery on the retention of a pursuit rotor task
by students, Kohl et al. (Experiment 1), for instance, found that
the retention performance obtained by the physical practise
group (PPG) was equivalent to that produced by the physical
practise group combined with mental imagery (PPMIG) but each
significantly superior to that achieved by the group of physical
practise combined with rest (PPRG) or mental imagery only
(MIG). Finally, performance obtained by the two latter groups
was equivalent but each significantly superior to that realised

27. by the control group (CG). Kohl et al. proposed that the
mechanisms shared by the PP and mental imagery after a given
response remains at a higher level of the central nervous
system. Nevertheless, the activation of the peripheral
mechanisms does manifest itself only during PP. To attenuate
these mechanisms, Kohl et al. suggested the utilisation of the
contra-lateral limb during the retention phase. Therefore, they
undertook a second experiment identical to the first except that
the participants employed the dominant limb (right) during the
acquisition phase and the nondominant limb (left) during the
retention phase. The results revealed that the performance of the
PPMIG group was significantly superior to that of any of the
other groups. The performance obtained by the PPG and MIG
was equivalent but each significantly superior to that produced
by the PPRG or CG. Thus, these results confirmed Kohl et al.'s
(Experiment 2) hypotheses according to which the use of the
contra-lateral limb reduces the difference between PP and
mental imagery by lessening the specificity of the activated
peripheral mechanisms, during the acquisition and retention
phases in the case of the PP. As an alternative
procedure, Schmidt (1975) suggested the utilisation of the
nondominant limb, the implication of children, and the
introduction of a transfer task similar to the one employed
during the acquisition phase rather than the transfer of limb.
Thus, the primary purpose of this study was to compare the
effects of mental imagery combined with physical practise and
specific physical practise on the retention and transfer of a
closed motor skill in children 8 to 10 years of age.
As for the second purpose, it was to determine which form of
mental imagery (visual vs. kinesthetic) had the most impact on
retention and transfer of a closed motor task. Although the
beneficial effect of mental imagery on the acquisition of
cognitive and motor skills was supported by the majority of
researchers (Barr & Hall, 1992; Hough, 1995; Martin & Hall,
1995; Zhang, Ma, Orlick, & Zizelsberger, 1992), the
manipulated parameters during this imagery were not

28. unanimous (Hardy, 1997; Hardy & Callow, 1999; White &
Hardy, 1995). Several studies distinguish kinesthetic imagery
from visual imagery (Féry, 2003; Fishburne, 1990; Fishburne &
Hall, 1987; Hall, Buckolz, & Fishburne, 1992; Hall & Pongrac,
1983). Whereas the first form of imagery allows the
representation of the neurophysiological (muscular sensations,
proprioception, etc.) and temporal (rhythm, speed, duration)
components, the second permits the evocation of the spatial
(visualisation of space, size, amplitude or form of movement,
etc.) components (Decety, 1989; Féry, 2003; Féry & Morizot,
2000; Sweigard, 1974). By using a closed motor task such as a
tennis serve, Féry and Morizot put forward that kinesthetic
imagery is more efficient than visual imagery when the
emphasis is on the time parameter or duration of movement.
This could be explained by the fact that this task requires the
perception of the body as a generator of the necessary force for
the movement execution. More specifically, Féry found that
visual imagery is more efficient than kinesthetic imagery in the
case of form reproduction (drawing) and that it was completely
the opposite with regard to the reproduction of a task involving
a time parameter or coordination of the two hands.
Although most studies dealt with the potential benefits of
mental imagery on the motor skills and performance
enhancement, the exploration of such imagery with children has
been very scarce (Cadopi, 1990; Chevalier, Monnier, & Auger,
1995; Fishburne, 1990; Kosslyn, Margolis, Barret, &
Goldknopf, 1990; Taktek, 2004; Taktek & Rigal, 2005). In their
analyses of the child's mental image development, Piaget and
Inhelder (1966, 1971) highlighted that, during the
preoperational stage (before 7 to 8 years), the child is unable to
reproduce movement or transformation results and also is not
capable to make anticipations. Nevertheless, these capacities
appear with the advent of concrete operations, precisely around
7 to 8 years of age (see Taktek, 2006, for more details). Several
studies have emphasised the capability of children to make
proper use of visual and kinesthetic imagery (Kosslyn et al.,

29. 1990; Taktek & Rigal, 2005; Taktek, Salmoni, & Rigal, 2004).
Fishburne, for instance, conducted a study with children
belonging to the following three age groups: 6 and 7 years, 8
and 9 years, and 10 and 11 years. Initially, the children
completed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ)
developed by Hall and Pongrac (1983). Following each
movement execution, the children rated the difficulty they
encountered in imagining the movement. The results revealed
that both visual and kinesthetic imagery capacities were
significantly improved with age, especially from 6 to 7 years to
10 to 11 years.
The third purpose of this study was to verify the effects of
movement imagery vividness on motor performance. Several
researchers (Decety & Mick, 1988; Hall et al., 1995; Housner &
Hoffman, 1981; Lovell & Collins, 2001;Marks, 1977; A.
Richardson, 1994; Ryan & Simons, 1982) have dealt with the
visual and kinesthetic imagery from the perspective of the
individual's imagery capacities rather than the characteristics of
the task at hand. Based on their aptitudes to rehearse scenes,
objects or movements, participants could be classified as high
imagers or low imagers. Whereas high imagers can make proper
use of mental imagery to accurately guide their motor
responses, low imagers experience a lot of difficulty in
rehearsing the appropriate mental image necessary for motor
performance enhancement (Denis, 1989; Fishburne & Hall,
1987). Taktek et al. (2004), for example, studied the effects of
mental imagery on the learning and transfer of a discrete motor
task in 8 to 10-year-old children. Initially, the participants
responded to the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire
(QVIM, in French; Fournier, Le Cren, Monnier, & Halliwell,
1994). The experimental task requires the participant to propel
with the left hand a miniature vehicle during a predetermined
time to reach a target distance. Performance for the temporal
and spatial objectives were recorded during different
experimental phases (pretest, treatment, posttest, and transfer).
The results did not reveal any relation between the scores

30. obtained at QVIM (in French) and the motor performance,
prompting Taktek et al. to suggest two possible alternatives: (a)
the experimental task does not rely on the participant's mental
imagery capacity or (b) the QVIM is not valid for use with 8 to
10 year old children and, therefore, certain modifications should
be done to adapt its protocol to the level of this age category.
Elsewhere, Hall, Buckolz, and Fishburne (1989) found that the
performance obtained during the rememorization of simple
movements by high imagers was not superior to that produced
by low imagers. However the reproduction of these movements
was less precise for the latter than the former.
A secondary purpose of this study was to compare gender
imagery capacities during the execution of a closed motor
task. Linn and Peterson (1985), Paivio and Clark (1990), and
also Harshman and Paivio (1987) link the mental imagery
capacity to gender. Thus, they distinguish static imagery
(evocation of stationary and fixed objects) from dynamic
imagery (evocation of moving objects, transformation, or
rotation). In their meta-analysis of 172 studies dealing with
spatial capacities, Linn and Peterson (1985) found that males
outperformed females in activities such as mental rotation.
These gender differences may result from differential rate of
rotation, differential efficiency in strategy application,
differential use of analytic processes, or differential caution.
Nevertheless, the differences between genders decrease when
the task relies on measurement related to spatial visualisation,
which is characterised by analytic combination of both visual
and nonvisual strategies. Based on the Individual Difference
Questionnaire (IDQ), designed to assess individual differences
in imagery and verbal habits and skills, Harshman and Paivio
reported that females performed well on items related to the
preferred use and vividness of static images whereas males
performed well on items referring to dynamic imagery skills
(movements, transformations, or reorganizations of imaged
information). This could be explained by the fact that memory
images, notably static pictorial images of experienced scenes,

31. are more common for females. Oppositely, problem-solving use
of images is more common for males. The evidence lead
Harshman and Paivio to the conclusions that males might more
often use active image transformation, be better at any imagery
involving movement, and make less use of specific (episodic)
memory imagery and more use of generic constructed images.
In light of the above literature overview, the hypotheses of this
study could be formulated as follows: (a) mental imagery
combined with physical practise produces, during the retention
phase, equivalent performance as the specific physical practise
but significantly better performance during the transfer phase;
(b) kinesthetic mental imagery combined with physical practise
affords the best retention and transfer performance; (c) high-
vivid imagers will outperform low-vivid imagers during the
execution of closed motor skill; and (d) boys will obtain better
motor performance than that produced by girls.
Method
Participants
Ninety-six participants were selected from three primary
schools. The participants' age varied between 8 and 10 years old
(Grades 3, 4, or 5; see Table 1, for groups' age average). No
apparent physical (broken leg, arm, etc.) or sensorial (blindness,
vision problem, etc.) handicap was detected on the selected
participants. The latter were right-handed based on the adapted
French version of Oldfield's (1971) Laterality Questionnaire.
They never had been exposed to motor imagery prior to the
experiment. Participation was voluntary, unpaid, and approved
by the parents' consents.
Enlarge this Image.
Mean Results and Variability (SD) for Each Experimental
Group in the Imagery Test and in the Motor Performance
(Treatment Blocks and Experimental Phases)

32. Experimental Task and Material
The task took place in a gymnasium (in each of the three
primary schools) where the experimental device was installed.
The participant was required to execute with her/his left hand
(nondominant hand; as suggested bySchmidt, 1975, 1988) an
underarm throw of a ball toward a target (Schmidt,
1975; Shapiro & Schmidt, 1982; Taktek, in press-a, in press-
b; Van Rossum, 1987, 1990). Before performing her/his throw,
the participant was informed about the nature of her/his motor
task and the instructions related to her/his group. Furthermore,
she/he was asked to stand up behind a throwing line marked on
the floor at 200 cm from the target. This target was composed of
three concentric circles with diameters of 20, 40, and 60 cm.
The scores were recorded as follow: 3 points if the ball reached
the smallest concentric circle, 2, and 1 for the other circles,
respectively. The centre of the target was located at 130 cm of
height from the floor. The target was drawn with a black felt
pen on a great format paper posted on the wall. Six targets were
marked at 200 cm of interval one from the other so that several
participants could execute their throws at the same time. The
prerecorded mental imagery instructions were transmitted to the
participants by a SONY tape recorder, model CFD–ZW770.
Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire
After the administration of Oldfield's (1971) Laterality
Questionnaire, adapted in French by Rigal (1996, p. 336), each
right-handed participant was placed in a very quiet area and
requested to respond individually to the French version of the
Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ). Isaac,
Marks, and Russell (1986) underlined that the
(VMIQ) uses a similar format to the VVIQ [Vividness of Visual
Imagery Questionnaire] but is composed of 24 items relevant to
movement imagery: visual imagery of movement itself and
imagery of kinesthetic sensations.... The questionnaire is
designed with the intention that it can be administered to a wide
variety of subjects differing in age and experience and,

33. therefore, the items relate to common situations and not to
specific motor skills. (p. 24)
The test–retest reliability of the VMIQ was assessed on 220
students using the Pearson's product–moment correlation
coefficient (r = .76). As for the validity (relationship between
the VMIQ and VVIQ) on the first administration of the
questionnaires for the same group, it was r = .81, using the
Pearson product–moment correlation (Isaac et al., 1986, pp. 27–
28). This Questionnaire was translated into French (QVIM)
adapted and validated by Fournier et al. (1994):
the validity and reliability [of the VMIQ] are equivalent to
those measured for the original version although the format of
the questionnaire was sensibly modified. Campos and Perez
(1988) had elsewhere confirmed the running validity of the
Questionnaire with comparison to other imagery tests [...]. The
preliminary study shows that the Questionnaire is understood by
the schoolboys and schoolgirls of the French School “Stanislas”
as well as the students of 'Université du Québec à Montréal.'
Therefore, this version could be used by the French people of
Quebec and France. (author's translation, p. 2)
Moreover, Fournier et al. (1994) underlined that this
questionnaire could be administered by subjects of all ages.
Each participant was requested to measure the vividness
(clarity) of the image evoked by means of 24 movements
underlined on a 5-point Likert scale. The participant was asked
to, first, imagine someone doing each movement (external
imagery perspective) and, last, imagine himself performing each
of these movements (internal imagery perspective; Mahoney &
Avener, 1977). The imagery score varied between 0 and 120 for
each internal or external imagery perspective. A high score of
the questionnaire reflects high-movement vividness (Fournier et
al., 1994).
Procedure

34. The research project was approved by Laurentian University's
(LU) Ethic Board. Three primary schools, St-Denis, St-Etienne
Blais (Catholic School Board District of “Nouvel Ontario”) and
Jeanne Sauvé (School Board District of “Grand Nord de
l”Ontario') were contacted by the researcher. The School Board
research coordinators as well as the School Heads agreed to
participate to the study. They were individually briefed about
the research project and received a copy of the experimental
protocol, the LU's Ethic Board approval letter, and the parent's
consent letter. Teachers of Grades 3, 4, and/or 5, amongst the
three selected primary schools, took the responsibility to
distribute the parent's consent letters to their schoolboys and
schoolgirls and to ask to have the letters return back to them
within a week. All the letters were kept in hold for the
experimenter at the school secretariat.
At the beginning of the experiment, participants were, first,
asked to respond to the adapted French version of Oldfield's
(1971) Laterality Questionnaire (LQ; see Rigal, 1996, p. 336).
Only the right-handed participants were, then, selected to
respond to the QVIM (in French). They were divided into two
groups (boys and girls) and ranged from high imagers to low
imagers, for each group, based on their mental imagery capacity
score. Finally, participants were allocated to six experimental
groups. To neutralise the effects of the gender variable on the
acquisition of motor skills and performance (Corlett, Anton,
Kozub, & Tardif, 1989; Kosslyn et al., 1990), each group was
composed of 8 girls and 8 boys, distributed based on their score
at the QVIM, in such a way to maintain a homogenous imagery
capacity between the groups (Decety & Mick, 1988; Hall et al.,
1992; see Table 1). The experimenter explained the details
regarding the LQ and the QVIM (in French) and responded to
all asked questions. Moreover, he informed the participants
about the manner their performance will be tested and the trial
numbers they have to do during each experimental phase. The
results of the pilot project showed that the participants (8 to 10
years old children) understood very well the imagery

35. instructions and were able to use them to improve their
performance. The experimenter explained the underarm throw,
responded to all questions raised by the participants and did a
demonstration. Under the physical practise conditions, the
participant threw the ball with her/his left hand. However, under
the imagery condition, each participant closed her/his eyes, took
the tennis ball in her/his left hand, listened to the imagery
instructions and imagined or felt the actual physical underarm
throw (Decety & Michel, 1989; Kohl et al., 1992). The
participants of each of the VIPPG and KIPPG alternated
between the physical and mental practises after each trial (Kohl
et al., 1992; Taktek et al., 2004). Several participants (two
groups of six participants and one group of four
participants, n = 16) belonging to the same group practised their
actual or imagined underarm throw at the same time, under the
signal given by the experimenter. After each physical throw, the
participant retrieved her/his ball, wrote the number of points
corresponding to her/his throw on a paper placed at her/his right
side, and got ready for the next trial. The experimenter verified
the correctness of the reported scores (see Elfaqir, 1982, for
more details).
At the beginning of the experience, each participant was
allowed to execute two familiarization trials with the
experimental task. After each throw, a 10-s rest period was
given to the participant so that she/he received the necessary
feedback on the result of her/his throw, wrote the appropriate
point numbers and got ready for the subsequent trial. To
eliminate the effect of tiredness, a 20-s rest period was
authorized after each set of five trials. Finally, a 15, 30, or 15
min period of time separated, respectively the pretest from
treatment; treatment from posttest; or posttest from transfer
(Kohl et al., 1992). Each participant executed a total of 35
throws divided into 5, 20, 5, and 5 during the pretest, treatment,
posttest, and transfer, respectively (Chevalier, Denis, &
Boucher, 1987; Taktek & Rigal, 2005; Taktek et al., 2004).

36. Experimental Phases
The experimental phases of the present study were the pretest,
treatment, posttest (as suggested by Decety, 1989; Denis,
1985; Hall et al., 1992) and transfer (see Schmidt,
1975, 1988; Taktek, in press-a, in press-b;Taktek et al.,
2004; Van Rossum, 1987, 1990, for further details).
Pretest phase
Each participant of the different experimental groups executed
five times an underarm throw of a yellow tennis ball weighting
50g toward a target located at 200 cm.
Treatment phase and experimental conditions
The participants of the specific physical practise group (SPPG)
executed 20 underarm throws of a tennis ball. The weight of
this ball and the distance to the target were identical to those
utilised during the pretest: 50g and 200 cm, respectively.
The participants of the visual imagery group (VIG) executed
mentally 20 underarm throws. The instructions were: “Hold the
tennis ball with your left hand. Close your eyes. Imagine very
clearly the tennis ball moving toward the centre of the target
situated at 200 cm. Open your eyes at the end of the
movement.”
As for the participants of the kinesthetic imagery group (KIG),
they executed mentally 20 underarm throws. The instructions
were: “Hold the tennis ball with your left hand. Close your
eyes. Feel very clearly the force in the muscle of your left hand
in order to throw the 50g tennis ball. Open your eyes at the end
of the movement.”
The participants of the visual imagery combined with physical
practise (VIPPG) and kinesthetic imagery combined with
physical practise (KIPPG) executed 10 physical practise trials
and 10 mental imagery trials. The physical practise throws were
identical to those of the SPPG and the mental throws were
identical to those of the VIG or KIG with regards to
respectively the VIPPG or KIPPG.

37. Finally, the participants of the control group (CG) were
involved in silent reading for the same period of time allowed
for each of the other groups.
Posttest phase
Each participant of the different experimental groups executed
physically five throws of a yellow tennis ball. The weight of
this ball and the distance separating the participant from the
target were identical to those used during the pretest phase:
50g and 200 cm, respectively.
Transfer phase
Each participant of the different experimental groups executed
physically five throws of a rubber ball weighting 150g toward a
concentric circle target situated at 250 cm.
Design
Independent variables
The between-groups variables were: (a) the six experimental
groups of SPPG, VIG, KIG, VIPPG, KIPPG, and CG; and (b)
gender. As for the within-group variable, they were either the
treatment phase and the trial block numbers (Block 1, Block 2,
Block 3, and Block 4) or the experimental phases (pretest,
posttest, and transfer).
Dependent variables
The dependent variable was the number of points corresponding
to the underarm throw or the score obtained at QVIM.
Measures and Statistical Analyses
To facilitate the result comparisons of the six experimental
conditions, the number of points obtained, during the 20 trials
of the treatment phase, was calculated based on the average of
four blocks of five successive trials: (a) Block 1 (1 to 5 average
trials), Block 2 (6 to 10 average trials), Block 3 (11 to 15

38. average trials), and Block 4 (6 to 20 average trials). Three
analyses of variances (ANOVAs) were conducted according to
the following designs: 3 (SPPG, VIPPG, and KIPPG) × 2
(gender) × 4 (block), with repeated measures on the last factor;
6 (SPPG, VIG, KIG, VIPPG, KIPPG, and CG) × 2 (gender) × 3
(pretest, posttest, and transfer) with repeated measures on the
last factor; and 6 (SPPG, VIG, KIG, VIPPG, KIPPG, and CG) ×
2 (gender) × 2 (external vs. internal perspective), with repeated
measures on the last factor. The four ANOVAs assumptions
(independence of observations, normality of observations,
homogeneity of group variances, and sphericity) were satisfied.
The technique suggested by Sidak (Hsu, 1996, p. 160, SPSS,
2001) was utilised for a posteriori comparisons of means.
Finally, the degree of relationship between the scores on the
mental imagery capacity and motor performance obtained during
the experimental phases was calculated with Pearson's
correlation coefficient.
Results
Group Effect During the Four Blocks of the Treatment Phase
Table 1 shows the results in each experimental condition. The
ANOVA revealed that the block trials, F(3, 40) = 7.683, p <
.001, η2 = .366, observed power (OP) = .980, and group
effect, F(2, 42) = 24.768, p < .001, η2 = .541, OP = 1.000, were
significant. The gender effect was not. The Block Trials ×
Groups was the only significant interaction, F(6, 82) =
3.115, p < .01, η2 = .186, OP = .898.
The simple effects analysis of the Block Trials × Groups
interaction revealed that differences between the three
experimental groups were significant during all the block trials,
Block 1: F(2, 42) = 7.076, p < .005, η2 = .252, OP = .912;
Block 2: F(2, 42) = 37.589, p < .001, η2 = .642, OP = 1.000;
Block 3: F(2, 42) = 6.129, p < .005, η2 = .226, OP = .866; and
Block 4: F(2, 42) = 19.223, p < .001, η2 = .478, OP = 1.000.
However, differences between block trials were significant only

39. for VIPPG, F(3, 40) = 6.025, p < .005, η2 = .311, OP = .940;
and KIPPG, F(3, 40) = 7.665, p < .001, η2 = .365, OP = .980.
The a posteriori comparisons for Block 1 revealed that the
number of points for the KIPPG was significantly lower than
that for SPPG (p < .005). For Block 2, the number of points for
KIPPG was significantly lower than those for the VIPPG (p <
.05) or SPPG (p < .001). Furthermore, the number of points for
the SPPG was significantly higher than that for VIPPG (p <
.001). For each of Block 3 and 4, the number of points for
VIPPG or KIPPG was significantly lower than that for SPPG
(both p< .001). In addition, the number of points for VIPPG, at
Block 4, was significantly lower than that at Block 1 (p ≤ .001)
or 3 (p < .05). The number of points for KIPPG, at each of
Block 2 and 4, was significantly lower that at Block 1 (both p <
.05) or 3 (p ≤ .001 and p < .005, respectively).
In summary, during the treatment phase, performance (number
of points) of the mental imagery groups (KIPPG and VIPPG)
was significantly lower than that of the specific physical
practise group (SPPG; exception for the performance at Block 1,
which was equivalent between the VIPPG and SPPG).
Moreover, performance of the imagery groups (KIPPG, VIPPG)
decreased significantly from Block 1 to Block 4, but for the
SPPG performance remained stable between the different block
trials (see Figure 1).
Enlarge this Image.
Mean point numbers in the different blocks of the treatment
phase, for each experimental group (VIPPG = visual imagery
combined with physical practise group; KIPPG = kinesthetic
imagery combined with physical practise group; SPPG =
specific physical practise group). Vertical lines depict ± two
standard errors of the mean.
Group Effect During the Three Experimental Phases
Table 1 also shows the results of each group in each
experimental phase (pretest, posttest, and transfer). The

40. ANOVA revealed that the experimental phase, F(2, 83) =
20.718, p < .001, η2 = .333, OP = 1.000; and group effect, F(5,
84) = 7.924, p < .001, η2 = .320, OP = .999; were significant.
The gender effect was not. The Experimental Phase × Group
interaction was significant, F(10, 168) = 6,338, p < .001, η2 =
.274, OP = 1.000. The Experimental Phase × Gender interaction,
was not significant: F(2, 83) = .593, p > .05, η2 = .02, OP =
.146.
The simple effects analysis of the Experimental Phase × Group
interaction revealed that differences between the six groups
were significant only during the experiment's posttest, F(5, 84)
= 11.084, p < .001, η2 = .398, OP = 1.000; and transfer, F(5,
84) = 10.355, p < .001, η2 = .381, OP = 1.000. In addition,
differences between experimental phases were significant for
VIPPG: F(2, 83) = 14.019, p < .001, η2 = .253, OP = .998;
KIPPG: F(2, 83) = 9.847, p < .001, η2 = .192, OP = .980;
KIG: F(2, 83) = 4.579, p < .001, η2 = .099; OP = .762;
CG: F(2, 83) = 9.066, p < .05, η2 = .179, OP = .971; and
SPPG: F(2, 83) = 16.784, p < .001, η2 = .288, OP = 1.000,
except for VIG: p > .05. The a posteriori comparisons for the
posttest phase of the experiment revealed that the number of
points for KIPPG or VIPPG was significantly higher than that
for VIG (p < .005 and p < .001, respectively) or CG (both p <
.001). The number of points for CG was significantly lower than
that for KIG (p < .05) or SPPG (p ≤ .001). For the transfer
phase of the experiment, the number of points for KIPPG or
VIPPG was significantly higher than that for CG (both p < .001)
or SPPG (p < .001 and p ≤ .001, respectively). The number of
points for CG was significantly lower than that for KIG (p <
.005). The number of points for KIPPG was significantly higher
than that for VIG (p < .05). Furthermore, the number of points
for VIPPG, KIPPG, KIG, or SPPG at posttest phase was
significantly higher than at pretest phase (p < .001, p <
.001, p < .05, and p < .05, respectively). The number of points
for KIPPG at transfer phase was significantly higher than that at
pretest phase (p < .01). However, the number of points at the

41. latter phase for SPPG or CG was significantly higher than that
at transfer phase (p < .005 and p < .001, respectively). Finally,
the number of points for VIPPG, CG, or SPPG at posttest phase
was significantly higher than that at transfer phase (p < .05, p <
.05, and p < .001, respectively; Figure 2; Table 1).
Enlarge this Image.
Mean point numbers as a function of the different experimental
phases for each group (VIPPG = visual imagery combined with
physical practise group; VIG = Visual imagery group; KIPPG =
kinesthetic imagery combined with physical practise group; KIG
= kinesthetic imagery group; CG = control group; SPPG =
specific physical practise group). Vertical lines depict ± two
standard errors of the mean.
As for the simple effects analysis of the Experimental Phase ×
Gender interaction, they revealed that differences between
gender were not significant during each of the experimental
phases, pretest, posttest, and transfer (p> .05). However, the
differences between experimental phases were significant for
boys, F(2, 83) = 9.031, p < .001, η2 = .179, OP = .970; and
girls, F(2, 83) = 12.28, p < .001, η2 = .228, OP = .995. The a
posteriori comparisons for the experimental phases revealed that
the number of points for boys and girls at posttest was
significantly higher than that at pretest phase (both p < .001) or
transfer phase (p ≤ .005 and p < .001, respectively; see Table
1).
In summary, during the pretest phase, performance (number of
points) of the six groups KIPPG, VIPPG, KIG, VIG, SPPG, CG
was equivalent. In addition, during the posttest phase,
performance of all imagery groups (KIPPG, VIPPG, KIG, and
VIG) and specific physical practise group (SPPG) was
equivalent, but each was significantly higher than that of the
control group (CG, exception for the performance of the VIG,
which was equivalent). Finally, during the transfer phase,
performance for each mental imagery condition combined with
physical practise group (KIPPG or VIPPG) was significantly

42. higher than that of the SPPG or CG. Whereas performance of
each of the KIPPG, VIPPG, KIG, and SPPG groups improved
significantly from the pretest phase to the posttest phase,
performance of the CG an VIG remained stable between the
latter two phases.
Group Effect at the QVIM
Table 1 also shows the results of each group at the QVIM. The
main effect of imagery perspectives was significant, F(1, 84) =
4.046, p < .047, η2 = .046, OP = .511. The other main effects
were not significant. Only one significant two-way interaction,
Imagery Perspectives × Gender, was significant, F(1, 84) =
6.351, p < .05, η2 = .070, OP = .702; and the three-way
interaction, Imagery Perspectives × Groups × Gender, was also
significant,F(5, 84) = 2.693, p < .05, η2 = .138, OP = .792.
The simple effects analysis of the Imagery Perspectives ×
Gender interaction revealed that there is no difference between
boys and girls in terms of their internal or external perspective
(both p > .05). In addition, differences between imagery
perspectives were significant only for boys, F(1, 84) =
10.268, p < .005, η2 = .109, OP = .886.
Relationship Between Mental Imagery Capacity and Motor
Performance
The correlation coefficients between the scores at QVIM and at
motor performance were close to zero (not significant) in most
cases. The only significant correlations exist between the scores
for external and internal imagery perspectives, r = .844, p <
.001; external and total imagery perspectives, r = .931, p < .001;
external imagery perspective and pretest, r = .224, p < .05;
external imagery perspective and Block 2, r = .316, p < .05; and
also internal and total imagery perspectives, r = .945, p < .001.
Discussion
The Effects of Visual Versus Kinesthetic Mental Imagery on a

43. Closed Motor Skill Performance During the Treatment Phase
In general, performance (number of points) produced, during the
treatment phase, by the SPPG was significantly higher than that
obtained by the KIPPG and VIPPG (exception for the
performance at Block 1, which was equivalent). These results
could be explained by the fact that each of KIPPG and VIPPG
required the participants to change their motor response after
each trial, which did not allow the immediate correction of the
last trial and the consolidation of an adequate motor response.
Conversely, SPPG permitted the opportunity for the participant
to develop a better and more solid relation between the motor
responses. Therefore, the participants of the imagery groups
(KIPPG and VIPPG) probably had difficulty in surmounting the
“contextual interference” caused by the alternation between the
actual physical and the mental physical practises. In fact, during
the different blocks of the treatment phase, SPPG's performance
remained stable. Conversely, KIPPG or VIPPG's performance
was variable and even decreased significantly at the end of the
treatment phase (most notably at Block 4).Gabrielle, Hall, and
Lee (1989) found that, during the acquisition (treatment) phase,
the imagery practise combined with physical practise of
different motor tasks (random practise) produce the contextual
interference effect. The acquisition data of the present study
showed that such contextual interference could be even caused
by alternating between mental imagery and physical practise for
the same task.
From Adams' (1971) closed loop point of view, specific
physical practise increases the precision of feedback, which in
turn allows the consolidation of a perceptual trace responsible
for movement correction. Conversely, when physical practise is
associated with other forms of practise (such as mental
imagery), the felt feedback is not necessarily the same from
trial to trial, which does not allow the perceptual trace to gain
rigor and to enhance the movement precision (Adams,
1992; Taktek, in press-a, in press-b; Taktek & Hochman, 2004).
The interaction between number of block trials and groups did

44. not reveal any performance improvement from Block 1 through
Block 4. These results could emerge as a consequence of the
block trial performance combination (average of four blocks of
five trials), which probably camouflaged the eventual intertrial
improvement. A more plausible explanation is that the treatment
practise trials were not sufficient to ensure such an
improvement. In his motor schema theory, Schmidt
(1975, 1988) as well as Shapiro and Schmidt (1982) underlined
that the learning of a single schema by children (as, e.g., during
an underarm throw) required 1,000 practise trials. Although this
assertion raised some controversies in the field of motor
learning and performance (Elfaqir, 1982; Van Rossum, 1990), it
could explain in some extend that the limited number of practise
(20 trials), during the treatment, did not allow the “formation”
of the appropriate motor schema and, thus, the learning of the
task at hand (Taktek & Hochman, 2004). Kerr
(1982) differentiated between the
terms formation and attainment (or realisation). Whereas the
former refers to the abstraction of rules occurring from specific
environmental events, the latter refers to the application of
these already built rules in specific conditions. Because
participants were young (8 to 10 years old) and they used their
nondominant hand (left) to execute the experimental task, the
formation of the appropriate motor schema seemed to require
more practise trials (Kerr & Booth, 1978). Therefore, the
potential benefit of each practise strategy (SPPG, PPKMIG, and
PPVMIG) did not manifest itself in short term, notably during
the treatment phase, likely due to latent learning. However, this
improvement came into view, in long term, particularly during
the subsequent phase of retention and/or transfer. Most research
dealing with the mental imagery hypothesis used an
experimental task engaging a process of attainment of a motor
schema instead of formation of a new one because the
participants were usually adult, they used their dominant hand
and their performance was rarely assessed during a transfer
task. This shows probably the originality of the present study.

45. In summary, mental imagery combined with physical practise
(KIPPG or VIPPG) did not allow, during the treatment phase,
the achievement of equivalent or superior results than those for
specific physical practise (SPPG). These results could be
explained by the two following principle factors: (a) The
contextual interference effect caused by the alternation after
each trial between mental and physical practises for the same
task; and (b) the weakness of the perceptual trace responsible of
the movement correction, which was due to the combination of
physical practise with other forms of practise, notably mental
imagery. The next section of this paper will address at what
levels the conclusions of the treatment phase could be
generalised to the retention and transfer phases.
The Effects of Visual Versus Kinesthetic Mental Imagery on the
Retention and Transfer of a Closed Motor Skill
The interactions between the experimental phases and groups
revealed that the performance produced during the pretest phase
by the six groups was equivalent, confirming the homogeneity
of initial motor skill level of the participants and, therefore,
satisfied the requirement of the mental imagery research
assumption (Decety, 1989; Decety & Mick, 1988; Denis,
1985; Denis, Chevalier, & Éloi, 1989; Feltz & Landers,
1983; Hinshaw, 1991;Taktek, 2004). Furthermore, performance
obtained during the posttest phase by each imagery group
(KIPPG, VIPPG, KIG, and VIG) was equivalent to that
produced by the specific physical practise group (SPPG). This
equivalence showed the efficiency of mental imagery (Gould,
Damarjian, & Greenleaf, 2002; Murphy & Martin, 2002) as a
retention strategy in the field of motor kills and performance,
thus endorsing Kohl et al.'s (1992)findings (see also Gabrielle
et al., 1989).
Research conducted by Decety (1989) demonstrated the
equivalence of mental imagery and physical practise. This
equivalence was tested, using times measured to execute
physically and mentally a graphic action (i.e., signature); write

46. a sentence; draw a cube (Decety & Michel, 1989); and walk
toward fixed targets (Decety, Jeannerod, & Prablanc, 1989).
Such results support those of the present study and could be
explained by the fact that (a) physical and mental practise share
a common mechanism that is responsible for the movements'
temporal organisation, and (b) movements executed physically
or mentally are controlled by the same general motor
programme (Decety, 1989; see Taktek, 2004, for more
details). Holmes and Collins (2001) encircled these conclusions
in what they termed as “behavioural evidence for functional
equivalence” (p. 66) between mental imagery and physical
practise.
Decety et al.(1988) found that, during a writing task, the values
of the regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) for mental imagery
(MI) and physical practise (PP) were increased bilaterally in the
prefrontal region, in the supplementary motor areas and in the
regions corresponding to the cerebellum (respectively, an
increase of 10%, 15%, and 15% for MI and 10%, 15%, and 20%
for PP) compared to an initial rest condition. These results show
that the cerebellum seems to contribute to the formation of a
motor programme in both MI and PP conditions. Moreover, by
using a tennis task, Decety Sjoholm, Ryding, Stenberg, and
Ingvar (1990) found that the rCBF mean in both hemispheres
increased significantly more under mental imagery condition
than a rest or silent counting condition. These results lead to the
conclusion that the cerebellum could play an active role during
mental imagery.
Malouin, Richards, Jackson, Dumas, and Doyon (2003), for
their part, examined the pattern of brain activation during
mental imagery of four motor tasks: standing, initiating gait,
walking, and walking with obstacles. When these conditions
were compared to a rest condition, the results revealed a
common set of activated structures including the dorsal
premotor cortex and precuneus bilaterally, the left dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex, the left inferior parietal lobule, and the right
posterior cingulated cortex. Additional activation in the

47. presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA), the precentral gyrus,
were observed during the mental imagery of the locomotor
movements per se.
By studying the effects of mental and physical practise on the
acquisition of a five-finger piano exercise, Pascual-Leone et al.
(1995) found that mental practise-only led to significant
performance improvement. Although this improvement was less
than that produced by physical practise, mental practise-only
led to the same plastic changes in the motor system as those
occurring with the acquisition of the skill by repeated physical
practise. Hence, mental practise-only seems to be sufficient to
promote the modulation of neural circuits involved in the early
stages of fine motor skill learning.
Altogether, the findings of Decety (1989); Decety et al.
(1988, 1990); Malouin et al. (2003) and also Pascual-Leone et
al. (1995) suggested that mental imagery and physical practise
share common neural mechanisms and, thus play an equivalent
central role in the execution of locomotor or fine motor tasks
(Holmes & Collins, 2001)
As for the peripheral functional equivalence between mental and
physical practise, it is measured by calculating: (a) the increase
in pulmonary ventilation and cardiac rhythm, (b) the cardio-
vascular and respiratory change during tendinous vibration, and
(c) the increase in cardiac frequency and ventilation as the
intensity of the imagined effort increases (Bolliet et al.,
2005; Holmes & Collins, 2001; Jeannerod, 1994; Taktek, 2004).
More precisely, Deschaumes-Molinaro et al. (1991) compared
three conditions, namely concentration prior to shooting, actual
shooting, and a mental representation of shooting. The six
autonomous nervous system (ANS) variables measured were:
electrodermal response (skin potential and resistance),
thermovascular variables (skin blood flow (original sensor) and
skin temperature, and cardiorespiratory variables (instantaneous
heart rate and respiratory frequency). The results for the six
ANS variables were equivalent between the three experimental
conditions, prompting Deschaumes-Molinaro et al. to conclude

48. that mental imagery may represent a form of concentration.
Therefore, the equivalence between performance obtained
during the posttest phase of the present study by each imagery
group (KIPPG, VIPPG, KIG, and VIG) and SPPG could be
explained by three principal functional evidences, behavioural,
central, and peripheral (see Holmes & Collins, 2001, for further
details).
As for results of the transfer phase, they indicated that
performance of each mental imagery combined with physical
practise group (KIPPG or VIPPG) was significantly higher than
that produced by the SPPG or CG. These results could be
explained by the fact that the mental imagery combined with
physical practise group (KIPPG or VIPPG) allowed participants
to practise, during the treatment phase, two motor learning
strategies by alternating after each trial between the specific
physical practise and mental imagery (Taktek & Rigal, 2005).
More precisely, the execution of 10 trials of physical practise
combined with 10 trials of mental imagery could have lead to a
substantial cortical, peripheral, and behavioural functioning
enhancement (Holmes & Collins, 2001). If this explanation is
plausible, why then mental imagery combined with physical
practise (KIPPG or VIPPG) did not produce better motor
performance during the treatment phase or retention phase?
In his motor schema theory, Schmidt (1975) assumed that
variable physical practise led, during the treatment phase, to
motor performance lower than that produced by specific
physical practise but, during the subsequent transfer phase, to
better motor learning performance. Such results could be
explained by the fact that variable physical practise allows the
formation of a general and flexible motor schema, which has a
better potential of adaptation for novel motor task, similar but
not identical to that previously executed; namely transfer task
(see Taktek, in press-a, in press-b, for more details). This is
what probably occurred in the case of the mental imagery
combined with physical practise group (KIPPG or VIPPG). The
latter groups afford to their participants the opportunity to

49. develop a flexible motor schema to thwart the changes, during
the transfer phase, at the level of force and space parameters
(150g and 250 cm, respectively). However, it was not the case
for each of the CG and SPPG. With respect to performance
obtained by the CG, it seems to be systematically due to the
absence of practise during the treatment phase (Kohl et al.,
1992). As for performance produced by the SPPG, it indicates
that probably this strategy of practise was favourable for the
consolidation of the motor schema's space and force parameters.
Such a schema becomes very specialised for producing the same
parameters to fit an identical learning environment (Adams,
1971) but very rigid to adapt to dynamic and spatial novel
circumstances (Schmidt, 1975). Rarely, studies dealing with the
effects of mental imagery versus specific physical practise on
motor skills and performance have compared the experimental
groups based on a transfer task (Schmidt, 1975,1988; Schmidt &
Lee, 2005; Taktek et al., 2004). Because performance obtained,
during the retention phase by each imagery group combined
with physical practise (KIPPG and VIPPG) was equivalent to
that produced by the SPPG but significantly better during the
transfer phase, the first hypothesis of the present study was
confirmed.
The results of this study also revealed that mental imagery
groups produced equivalent retention and transfer motor
performance when either the imagery instructions emphasise the
kinesthetic or visual components (KIG = VIG and KIPPG =
VIPPG). Féry (2003) and also Féry and Morizot (2000) found
that kinesthetic imagery is more efficient than visual imagery
when the task engaged the time parameter, movement duration
(Féry & Morizot, 2000), or coordination of the two hands, and
that is completely the opposite which would occur in the case of
form reproduction (drawing; Féry, 2003). The experimental task
employed in the present study entails the coordination of one
hand movement, that is, an underarm throw of a ball toward a
concentric circle target, rather than the reproduction of a form.
Furthermore, the kinesthetic (KIG or KIPPG) and visual (VIG

50. or VIPPG) imagery instructions seem to emphasise respectively
the force required for throwing a ball (“Feel very clearly the
force in the muscle of your left hand in order to throw the
50g tennis ball”) or the movement (speed) of that ball (“Imagine
very clearly the tennis ball moving toward the centre of the
target situated at 200 cm”). Therefore, the equivalence between
the kinesthetic and visual imagery instructions could be
explained by the fact that they involve similar parameters of the
motor task and that these instructions emphasise the perception
of the body as a producer of force (or speed) necessary for the
movement execution (Féry & Morizot, 2000). The results of the
present study support then those found by several researchers
(Chevalier et al., 1987; Féry, 2003; Féry & Morizot,
2000; Hardy, 1997). The failure to find any differences between
the visual and kinesthetic imagery conditions could have been
also because participants of the concrete operational stage
(Piaget, 1973a, 1973b; Piaget & Inhelder, 1966, 1981), notably
between the ages of 8 and 10 years old, were using both visual
and kinesthetic imagery instead of just the type of imagery they
were assigned. It is also possible that the imagery instructions
directed the participants' attention toward the object of the
imagery process rather than the type of imagery (body vs. ball).
Because the kinesthetic imagery combined with physical
practise (KIPPG) did not always reflect the best motor
performance, the study's second hypothesis was rejected.
The Effects of Mental Imagery Capacity on the Performance of
a Closed Motor Task
In general, the results did not show any positive coefficient of
correlation between the participant's score at the QVIM (in
French) and their motor performance at the pretest, treatment,
posttest or transfer phase. These results reject the third
hypothesis of the present study, which states that high-vivid
imagers will outperform low-vivid imagers during the execution
of a closed motor skill. However these results support previous
conclusions found byCorlett et al. (1989), Taktek et al. (2004),

51. and also Taktek and Rigal (2005). The principal reason put
forward with regards to the absence of correlation between the
imagery capacities and motor performance relates to the validity
weakness of the QVIM. To this reason could be added other
impressions expressed by the participants of the present study:
(a) The complexity of the scale measure of the QVIM, which is
composed of 24 items evaluated on 5 Likert points for each
imagery perspective (internal and external); (b) the length of the
QVIM procedure (75 to 85 minutes), which was a source of
disinterest and distraction; and (c) the subjectivity of the
evaluation of the clearness and vividness of his proper mental
images of movement in response to the 24 items of the QVIM.
The experimental task of the present study (an underarm throw)
corresponds to the criteria underlined by Schmidt's
(1975) motor schema theory (see also Shapiro & Schmidt,
1982; Taktek, 2000, in press-a, in press-b;Taktek & Hochman,
2004; Van Rossum, 1987, 1990). In addition the improvement of
performance from the initial pretest phase to the subsequent
posttest and/or transfer phase shows probably that this
experimental task relies on the participant mental imagery
capacity. Therefore, the absence of correlation between the
QVIM and the participants' performance is more likely due to
the fact that this questionnaire is not valid for use with 8-to-10-
year-old children. Therefore the results of the present study
support those found by several researchers (Corlett et al.,
1989; Hall et al., 1992; Ryan & Simons, 1981; Taktek & Rigal,
2005; Taktek et al., 2004) and suggest that, although it could be
administered to a wide range of participants (as underlined
by Fournier et al., 1994 and also Isaac et al., 1986), the QVIM
should be adapted for use to the level of children 8-to-10-years
of age.
Gender's Mental Imagery Capacity and Motor Performance
During Retention and Transfer of a Closed Motor Task
The results of the ANOVAs applied to the scores of the QVIM
revealed that the imagery perspectives were homogenous

52. between the six experimental groups and thus, satisfied the
requirements of the mental imagery research assumption
(Decety & Mick, 1988; Hall et al., 1992; Taktek, 2004).
Moreover, these results showed that the imagery perspectives
(internal vs. external) were equivalent between genders and
that, only for boys, the internal imagery perspective was
significantly more vivid than the external imagery perspective.
These results do not support those of Campos and Péretz (1988).
In fact, the latter found that “women gave higher scores on
vividness of movement imagery than men” (p. 608) and that the
external imagery perspective was significantly more vivid than
the internal perspective. The inconsistencies of these results are
more likely due to the age of participants as well as the version
of Questionnaire. Whereas in the present study the participants
were aged between 8 and 10 years old and used the QVIM (in
French), in Campos and Péretz's study, the participants were
aged between 18 and 23 years old and employed the VMIQ
(English original version). However, the results of the present
study seem to be more congruent with those of Fishburne's
(1990) study in terms of the equivalence between the visual or
kinesthetic imagery of children.
As for the motor performance, the gender variable did not show
any significant difference during the experimental phases
(pretest, treatment, posttest, and transfer). These results reject
the last hypotheses of the present study, which states that boys
produce higher performance than girls. The experimental task of
this study relies on dynamic imagery capacities rather than
static imagery capacities because the parameters of movement
(force and space) relate to a motor action, notably an underarm
tennis ball throw. Because the dynamic mental capacities of
boys and girls were equivalent during each experimental phase
(pretest, posttest, and transfer), the results reported by Linn and
Peterson (1985) and also Harshman and Paivio (1987) might
apply to those revealed by the present study. Nevertheless, it is
important to specify that the dynamic imagery capacity could be
developed similarly with boys and girls (Taktek & Rigal,