RPLP Book .pdf

Training Programme on
Rural Participatory
Learning and Planning
(RPLP)
The DHAN Academy (TDA),
Madurai

Sl.
No
Contents
1 Participatory Rural Appraisal Manual
By Quang Ngai Rural Development Program – RUDEP, Viet Nam
2 Approaches and Methods for Community Participation –
Participatory Tools and Techniques
By National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management
3 Participatory Rural Appraisal and Participatory Learning
Methods: Recent Experiences from Myrada and South India
By James Mascarenhas, Myrada

Participatory Rural Appraisal Manual
By Quang Ngai Rural Development Program – RUDEP, Viet
Nam

4
Socio-Economic Planning Process
Introduction to PRA

5
What is PRA?
Why is PRA Used?
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a set of tools and techniques used with
households to gather and analyse information on community resources, problems,
potential and needs.
How is PRA
Conducted?
• Analyse the current situation and potential in a Vil-
lage or Commune
• Analyse problems and their causes
• Support households to identify activities that re-
spond to difficulties and opportunities
• PRA is conducted with a group of households from a
Village or Hamlet that work with ‘Facilitators’
• Facilitators work with groups of households
• PRA is not teaching or lecturing:
• Households and Facilitators learn together
• Facilitators work with and listen to house-
holds
Why is PRA
Conducted in
SEPP?
• Understand the current situation, problems and op-
portunities according to households
• Analyse causes of particular issues or problems
• As a tool to identify and design implementation ac-
tivities with households and groups of households
• PRA builds facilitation and community development
skills
What are PRA Tools? • PRA is many different exercises—these are called
‘PRA tools’:
• Each exercise is conducted differently and has
a different purpose and outcome
• Facilitators work with the household/community
groups to conduct the PRA Tools
What is a PRA Field
Exercise?
• A PRA Field Exercise is conducted with households
in a Village or Hamlet
• The households and Facilitators conduct some of the
PRA Tools in groups at the PRA Field Exercise
• The results of the PRA Tools are reviewed at the
PRA Field Exercise and present to households at the
Village Planning Meetings

6
PRA Facilitators
Who are Facilitators
for PRA?
• District People’s Committee Officers
• Commune People’s Committee Officers
• Commune Mass Movement Representatives
• Village and Hamlet Leaders
• Households
What are Behaviours
of a Good
Facilitator?
• Enthusiastic
• Respect ideas raised by households
• Encourage women and the poor to voice their ideas
• Manage time effectively
• Create a warm atmosphere
• Have a sense of humour—PRA is enjoyable!
What are the Respon-
sibilities of Facilita-
tors?
What Should
Facilitators Avoid?
• Prejudicing or possessing a negative attitude to-
wards people
• Using complex terms with households
• Projecting one’s own ideas all the time
• Lecturing or teach households
• Facilitators are people that guide discussion between
households during PRA exercises
• Facilitators are not teachers—they guide household
discussion
What are
Characteristics of a
Good Facilitator?
• Encourage the participation of households
• An effective communicator
• Someone people like and respect
• Some background knowledge of the people and the
Commune
• Understand and respect the community culture
• A good listener and is willing to learn

7
Preparation for PRA Field Exercises
Preparation is required before conducting PRA Field Exercises. Good preparation will help
make the PRA Field Exercises run well.
Facilitators • You cannot conduct the PRA field exercises without
Facilitators—make sure that you arrange Facilitators
to attend!
• Inform Facilitators a few days before the PRA Field
Exercises so that they arrange time to come
• It is best when one Facilitator works with between
4—8 people—however situations may vary
• Some Facilitators might be good and can work
with large groups of households
• Some Facilitators might be not be familiar
with some of the PRA Tools and should work
with smaller group of households
• It is generally best not to invite more than 25 house-
holds to participate in PRA Field Exercises—if you
have 25 households then you would need a maximum
of 5 Facilitators
Location of the PRA
Field Exercises
• PRA Field Exercises should be conducted in the Vil-
lage in a location near where the households live
• There is no need to conduct PRA Field Exercises in a
Classroom or Meeting Room—you can conduct the
Field Exercises at someone’s house
• Try to choose a location or house that has a lot of
room outside and is shady—most exercises are con-
ducted outside and there are sometimes many groups
How many
Households and How
Many Facilitators?
Materials and
Equipment
• PRA Field Exercises don’t require much equipment
or materials
• Small pieces of coloured paper (‘cards’) are use-
ful—pictures can be drawn on them or they
can be labeled to represent things
• Some A0 Paper and pens—these are used to
record the results of exercises
• A4 folders, A4 paper and coloured pens are
needed for Facilitators to record the results
• Chalk can also be useful for making drawings
on the ground

8
Preparation for PRA Field Exercises
You now will have chosen your PRA Field Exercise location, arranged Facilitators and house-
holds and prepared some of the equipment and materials needed. You now should prepare a
small outline with Facilitators for the Field Exercises.
How Long Should
the PRA Field
Exercises Take?
• PRA Field Exercises should only take a half day if
you prepare well and watch the time
Do we have to use all
PRA Tools at each
PRA Field Exercise?
• If you only have a small number of Facilitators or
small number of households, you should choose some
Tools rather than conduct all Tools
• Some Tools don’t need to be conducted in every Vil-
lage—for example, it is often not necessary to conduct
Historical Timelines in each Village
• Each group should conduct no more than 2 PRA Tools
in a morning’s PRA Field Exercises—remember to
focus on quality rather than quantity
Preparing an Agenda
for the PRA Field
Exercises
• A small agenda should be prepared with the Facilita-
tors before you start the PRA Field Exercises
• The time activities will be conducted and com-
pleted
• Which Facilitators will conduct different PRA
Tools
• The agenda should make time for the following:
• Welcome to people, introduction to SEPP and
PRA Field Exercises—10 minutes
• Introduce the activities that will be conducted,
the Facilitators and the household groups—10
minutes
• PRA Field Exercises in groups with Facilita-
tors—2-3 hours
• Presentation and discussion of results with all
participants—up to 1 hour

9
PRA Tools
PRA Field Exercise Review

10
Participatory Rural Appraisal: Tools
PRA TOOLS PURPOSE
Historical Timelines
• Understand the history of the Village and Com-
mune
• Identify key events and trends throughout history
of the Commune or Village—either positive or
negative
• Discuss the effect (influences) of key events in his-
tory
Village Resource Mapping
• Visual map to represent the Village, different re-
source types and how these are used
• Identify resources that are scarce or abundant and
propose opportunities to develop
Transect Walks
• Facilitates discussion on the status, problems and
potential of different land types
• Discuss problems and the causes of problems asso-
ciated with land use
Wealth Ranking
• Identify household perceptions of wealth classes in
a Village or Hamlet
• Identify the resources and characteristics of each
wealth class
• Wealth class of individual households in a Village
Seasonal Calendars
• Exercise to identify and discuss seasonal events
and activities (cropping, livestock, migration, in-
come/expenditure)
Linkage Diagrams
• Identify and analyse household farming systems,
resources and their uses
• Identify options and activities to improve house-
hold farming systems, resource productivity and
income
Matrix Scoring and Ranking
• Analyse preferences of households of different in-
come generating activities and reasons for prefer-
ences
• Analyse common problems or issues and score or
rank these in order of importance (e.g. health or
social problems)
Problem-Cause-Effect-Solution
Trees
• Highlights the compounding causes and effects of
a specific problems faced by households in a Vil-
lage
• Propose activities to overcome some of the causes
and effects of problem faced by households in a
Village

11
1: Historical Timelines
Historical Timelines facilitate discussion on:
• Key positive and negative events and trends in
history in the Village or Commune
• Influences and affects of key positive and nega-
tive events and trends
What are Historical
Timelines?
How can you use His-
torical Timelines?
Historical Timelines can be used to:
• Provide orientation to development plans
• Learn lessons on events that have happened in
the past and their effects
• Identify issues associated with livestock/crop
production and their affects
• Identify community vulnerability to events (e.g.
natural disasters, etc) and their frequency
You can use Historical Timelines when:
• Initiating planning activities with households
in a Commune
• Looking at natural disasters and their influ-
ences in order to develop coping strategies
• Analysing the causes of some problems that
have occurred in the past that have affected
livelihoods
When can Historical
Timelines be used?
What else should I
know about Histori-
cal Timelines?
• Historical Timelines are very interesting as we can
collect a lot of information on Village or Commune
history
• Show your interest when you are facilitating!

12
1: Historical Timelines
Let’s look at an example of Historical Time-
lines!
Step 1: Draw a line on the ground or use A0 pa-
per
• One end of the line will be ‘now’
• Explain to the households that this is a
‘Timeline’ or ‘History Line’
Step 2: Ask the households to discuss the cur-
rent situation in the Commune (now)
• Record this information on a card or visu-
ally using symbols
Step 3: Ask the households to think of the earli-
est known date or event that they remember
• What were conditions like at this time?
• What were some of the effects on people’s
livelihoods?
Step 4: Ask the households to recall key events
(positive and negative) throughout history (from
the earliest to now) and the year they occurred
• Place the events and the corresponding
dates on the timeline
• Discuss with the households about the
influences or effects of these events
(positive and negative
Step 5: Facilitate discussion between the house-
holds on the Historical Timeline to ensure all
relevant information is placed on the timeline
• Discuss with households about future vul-
nerability to the events listed on the time-
line?
• Are households still vulnerable to some
events?
• What could be done to mitigate or prevent
such events happening in the future?
Ensure that one person records the results when
the exercise is fully completed
Try This!
• You can discuss with the households and learn lessons from the past that provide future
orientation on different topics (e.g. economics, political, cultural, social, education, etc.)

13
2. Village Resource Mapping
What is Village
Resource Mapping?
Village Resource Mapping facilitates discussion on:
• Different resource types and how these are
used
• Resources that are scarce or abundant, identify
opportunities and propose activities to improve
or develop these
How can you use Vil-
lage Resource
Mapping?
Village Resource Mapping can be used to:
• Identify issues associated with local resources
and land types
• Identify appropriate solutions and opportuni-
ties to improve land use management
• Develop simple land use management plans
You can use Village Resource Mapping when:
• Doing farming systems or forestry surveys to
assess land use and potential
• Assessing different land types, their uses and
opportunities
• Planning large-scale activities in a community
(e.g. roads, irrigation, community forestry,
etc.)
When can Village
Resource Mapping
be used?
What else should I
know about Village
Resource Mapping?
• Village Resource Mapping is best conducted with
Transect Walks—you will learn about these next
• Having a beautiful map is not the most important
result of Village Resource Mapping
• Households should be making the Village Resource
Map—you are just asking questions and guiding
discussion as a Facilitator
• Try to always make the map on the ground first us-
ing local materials (rocks, sticks, grass, etc.) - you
can use chalk to draw some items

14
2. Village Resource Mapping
Let’s look at an example of Village Resource
Mapping!
Step 1: Start the exercise on the ground using
local products
• Ask the households to identify key loca-
tions in the Village that people are famil-
iar with (e.g. roads, houses, fields, moun-
tains, etc.)
Step 2: Use local products to identify the differ-
ent resource and land types
• Agree on which local materials represent
each resource or location
Step 3: Discuss the current use of the resource
and land types:
• Are resources abundant or scarce?
• Does everyone have access to land
• What are current problems associated
with each land type or resource
• What are some activities that could be
conducted to improve?
Step 4: When the household have prepared the
map on the ground—copy the map onto A0 paper
with different coloured pens
• Stick some of the items onto the map to
visually represent some of the land/crop
types
• You can write some of the problems or is-
sues that people discussed on the A0 pa-
per
Step 5: Continue to facilitate discussion between
households when finalizing the map on the A0
paper—households can sometimes lose interest
Step 6: The results of the Village Resource Map-
ping status, problems, potential and solutions
can recorded on A4 paper when the exercise is
completed
Try This!
• You can compile the results of the Village Resource Mapping and Transect Walk into a
Matrix—this highlights the Land/Resource Type, Current Status, Problems, Potential
and Activities

15
3: Transect Walks
What are Transect
Walks?
Transect Walks are often conducted with Village Re-
source Mapping and is an exercise to:
• View, discuss and analyse different resource
types
• Facilitate discussion on the status, problems
and potential of different land types in the Vil-
lage
How can you use
Transect Walks?
Transect Walks can be used to:
• Contribute to the status, issues and potential
outlined in the Village Resource Mapping exer-
cise
• Identify and view issues associated with local
resources and land types
• Discuss and visualize practical solutions and
opportunities to improve land use manage-
ment
• Develop simple land use management plans
You can use Transect Walks when:
• Planning farming systems or agricultural ac-
tivities with households
• Assessing different land types, their uses and
opportunities
• Planning activities in a Village (e.g. roads, irri-
gation, community forestry, etc.)
When can Transect
Walks be used?
What else should I
know about Transect
Walks?
• Transect Walks are best conducted after Village Re-
source Mapping
• As you walk through the Village, take some small
samples of leaves of crops—you can place these on
your Village Resource Map
• Remember that PRA Field Exercises and Transect
Walks are a process by which the households and
the Facilitator learn together—ask questions about
why households do/don’t do certain crops and land
use management practices

16
3: Transect Walks
Let’s look at an example of Transect Walks!
Step 1: Introduce the Transect Walk exercise
that you are about to conduct
• Review the Village Resource Map and al-
low the households to choose a transect
route that crosses the majority of land
types and resources
• Nominate one person to act as the ‘Tour
Leader’!
Step 2: Before you leave, prepare a folder with
some A4 paper to record information
• Prepare a simple Matrix on one of the A4
pieces of paper
• In the first column, write all the different
land types/resources that you will visit
(e.g. rice, forest, crop, roads, etc),
• In the top row, write the topics that you
will discuss (e.g. uses, status, issues,
problems, opportunities and activities) -
these will guide discussion on the Tran-
sect Walk
Step 3: Stop when you reach a land type/
resource—ask questions with the households and
begin to fill in the Matrix
• Ask questions about land and resource
potential (e.g. why they don’t try other
crops, etc)
Step 4: You have finished the Transect Walk
once you have viewed and discussed each of the
land type/resources
Step 5: Review the results of the Transect Walk
and the Village Resource Map with the house-
holds
• Transfer the Transect Walk results (A4
Matrix) onto A0 paper for all households
to discuss
Step 6: The results of the Transect Walk and
current use, status, problems, potential and solu-
tions can be recorded
Try This!
• You can use Transect Walks to design infrastructure projects—this can be very effective
if you encourage a designer to meet with households—remember that households know
more about local conditions than a designer (e.g. flood levels, water flow, etc.)!

17
4: Wealth Ranking
What is Wealth
Ranking?
Wealth Ranking facilitates discussion on:
• Household perceptions of wealth classes in a
Village or Hamlet
• Resources and characteristics of different
wealth classes in a Village or Hamlet
• Wealth class of individual households in a Vil-
lage or Hamlet
How can you use
Wealth Ranking?
Wealth Ranking can be used to identify:
• Characteristics and resource constraints of dif-
ferent wealth classes in a Village or Hamlet
• Characteristics of poor households and house-
hold perceptions of poverty
• Compare wealth classes and resource con-
straints of households between Villages and
Hamlets
You can use Wealth Ranking when:
• Targeting poor households for assistance
• Designing suitable activities for different
wealth classes based on their available re-
sources (especially the poor)
• Monitoring and evaluating of development as-
sistance over time to observe changes in asset
ownership
When can Wealth
Ranking be used?
What else should I
know about Wealth
Ranking?
• You need to prepare the names of each household in
the Village or Hamlet before conducting Wealth
Ranking—these names need to be written on small
cards
• Wealth Ranking is an essential tool to perform if
you want to target poor households—the results
will help you and households to identify poor house-
holds and design appropriate activities within their
resource constraints

18
4: Wealth Ranking
Now let’s look at one method to do Wealth
Ranking!
Step 1: Begin by asking households about the
number of classes of wealth in the Village or
Hamlet
• Write these classes down on a large sheet
of A0 paper in the top row—sometimes
there maybe a lot of different classes
• Give each of these classes of wealth a
name (e.g. poor, rich, etc.) and a number
Step 2: Now ask the households to discuss the
differences between each of the classes of wealth
• Try to break these into different criteria
(e.g. housing, income, productive assets,
etc)
• You should now have a small Matrix—the
different wealth classes in the top row
and different criteria in the first column
• Facilitate discussion between the house-
holds to fill in characteristics of each
wealth class for each criteria
Step 3: You should have the names of the house-
hold heads in the Village or Hamlet on small
pieces of paper (‘cards’)
• Split the cards (with the names on them)
between the households
• Each household in the Wealth Ranking
exercise will take turns to read the name
of the household
• The households discuss the wealth class
the household on each card belongs to
and places the card on the A0 paper on
the corresponding wealth class
Step 4: Once the households have finished allo-
cating all households to a wealth class, review
the characteristics of the different wealth classes
once again for each of the criteria.
Step 5: Once completed, transfer the results on
A4 paper outlining the wealth class of each
household in the Village
Try This!
• You can combine Wealth Ranking with Linkage Diagrams which you will learn later—
you can map household resources for some of the wealth classes and do income analysis.

19
5: Seasonal Calendars
What are Seasonal
Calendars?
Seasonal Calendars facilitate discussion on:
• Seasonal activities and events related to pro-
duction, cultivation, social activities and con-
sumption
• Planning activities with households and identi-
fying appropriate times for implementing ac-
tivities
• Identify seasonal problems and trends of spe-
cific activities
How can you use
Seasonal Calendars?
Seasonal Calendars can be used to identify:
• Timing and duration of different activities
• Seasonal problems and issues
• Appropriate times to plan activities
• Identify activities to solve potential problems
or issues
You can use Seasonal Calendars when investigating and
planning seasonal events and activities with households
related to:
• Cropping
• Livestock
• Income/Expenditure
• Household consumption
• Social or community activities
When can Seasonal
Calendars be used?
What else should I
know about Seasonal
Calendars?
• Seasonal Calendars are often only used for cropping
and livestock—Seasonal Calendars can be modified
to cover other topics of interest (e.g. income/
expenditure, social events, migration, etc.)
• Use local materials and pictures when conducting
Seasonal Calendars—it makes it easier for house-
holds to conduct the exercise and visualize

20
5: Seasonal Calendars
Let’s look at an example of Seasonal Calen-
dars!
Step 1: Draw 12 columns on a table and explain
that these are the months of the year
• Place the lunar calendar and Gregorian
calendar at the top
Step 2: Place weather and key dates at the top of
the calendar (e.g. rain, temperature, Tet, etc.)
• Use boxes or lines to demonstrate inten-
sity (e.g. the higher the box or line the
higher the amount of rain)
Step 3: Choose a topic of the Seasonal Calendar
and ask probing questions to investigate all sea-
sonal activities and events related to the topic:
• Livestock (feed availability, diseases, vac-
cinations, buying, selling, etc.)
• Crops (sowing, harvesting, pest/diseases,
buying, selling, fertilizer/pesticides, etc)
• Income and expenditure (labour, income
sources and timing, expenditure, etc.)
• Household consumption (food varieties,
availability, food price, consumption, etc.)
Step 4: You now will look at the occurrence and/
or intensity of each of the activities
• Use sticks or rocks to identify intensity
• Write intensity or activities on the A0 pa-
per using marker pens
Step 5: Discuss problems identified in the Sea-
sonal Calendar
• Highlight the problems and be specific
• Identify solutions or activities to solve
these problems
These problems and solutions can be recorded on
the seasonal calendar using coloured cards or on
a separate sheet of A0 paper
Step 6: Once completed, write the results on the
A0 paper (to replace the local materials and col-
oured cards) and transfer the results to A4 paper.
Try This!
• You can combine the Seasonal Calendar exercise with Matrix Scoring and Ranking—the
results of both exercises support each other and are very useful.

21
6: Linkage Diagrams
What are Linkage
Diagrams?
Linkage Diagrams are used to facilitate discussion on:
• Household farming system resources, their
uses and resource flows
• Farming system and resource analysis at the
household level
• Gender roles and responsibilities within the
household farming system
How can you use
Linkage Diagrams?
Linkage Diagrams can be used to identify:
• Farming systems and the flow of resources in
the local area
• Labour divisions and labour flows
• Input and output markets and products
• Resource constraints and opportunities to util-
ize existing resources
You can use Linkage Diagrams when:
• Analysing farming systems
• Analysing labour and gender roles in house-
hold farming system activities
• Identifying resource constraints, problems and
opportunities
• Economic analysis of a household farming sys-
tems (e.g. input and output market costs to
analyse household income)
• Comparing and analyzing household resources
of different wealth classes (combined with
Wealth Ranking)
When can Linkage
Diagrams be used?
What else should I
know about Linkage
Diagrams?
Linkage Diagrams—it makes it more enjoyable for
households to conduct the exercise and visualize
• An economic analysis can be conducted using a
Linkage Diagram (for a single household as an ex-
ample) by looking at input costs and income from
the sale of products – this can estimate annual in-
come

22
6: Linkage Diagrams
Let’s look at an example of Linkage Dia-
grams!
Step 1: Ask the participants to start by drawing
or making a simple house
• Use local materials (e.g. sticks and
stones)
Step 2: Ask questions about different household
resources and make little diagrams to represent
these (e.g. livestock, rice, crops, forest products,
markets, food, etc.)
• Discuss flows of the different products
and the use of by-products
• Inputs – what they are, quantity and
where they come from?
• Outputs – what they are, quantity and
whether they are sold or used?
• Use of by-products – what they are and
what they are used for?
Step 3: Use coloured chalk lines demonstrate re-
source flows
Step 4: Identify the roles of men and women in
conducting each activity
• Which activities are men or women re-
sponsible for?
Step 5: Identify some constraints or problems
associated with different products (e.g. quantity,
quality, sale price and locations, etc.)
Step 6: Discuss opportunities:
• Resources available but not use not used
• Activities to overcome specific problems
or issues
Step 7: These problems and solutions can be re-
corded on the Linkage Diagram using coloured
cards or on a separate sheet of A0 paper
A0 paper (to replace the local materials and col-
oured cards) and transfer the results to an A4
sheet.
Try This!
• Look at the Wealth Ranking results and the characteristics of poor households—compare
the Linkage Diagram results with a poor household—you can identify resource con-
straints and opportunities specifically for poor households!

23
7: Matrix Scoring and Ranking
What Matrix Scoring
and Ranking?
Matrix Scoring and Ranking facilitates discussion on:
• Preferences of households of different activi-
ties, resources or items and reasons for prefer-
ences
• Preferences of households for particular activi-
ties or varieties and reasons for these prefer-
ences
• Household-perceived importance and rank of
community issues or problems (e.g. health or
social problems)
How can you use Ma-
trix Scoring and
Ranking?
Matrix Scoring and Ranking can be used to identify:
• Household preferences and the reasons for
these preferences
• Problems and opportunities of different items,
varieties or activities
• Activities that are suitable and favoured by
households
You can use Matrix Scoring and Ranking when:
• Planning activities with households and iden-
tifying preferred activities, varieties or items
of households
• Cropping
• Livestock
• Social or community activities
• Understanding the household-perceived impor-
tance of community problems and reasons for
their importance
When can Matrix
Scoring and Ranking
be used?
What else should I
know about Matrix
Scoring and
Ranking?
Matrix Scoring and Ranking—it makes it more en-
joyable for people to conduct the exercise and visu-
alize things
• Most Facilitators only use Matrix Scoring and
Ranking for livestock and crops—you can use Ma-
trix Scoring and Ranking to look at social, health,
women’s and community issues by simply modifying
the columns!

24
7: Matrix Scoring and Ranking
Let’s look at an example of Matrix Scoring
and Ranking!
Step 1: Start by discussing the topic that will be
analysed and ask the households to list all the
varieties or activities currently raised/cultivated
in the Village
• Place the varieties or activities in the
first column using pictures or drawings to
represent these
Step 2: Discuss some criteria to compare these
varieties or activities in the top row:
• Prepare some simple criteria in advance
• Or, by asking households about what is
‘good’ about each variety or activity—use
the different answers as your column
headings
Step 3: Conduct the scoring exercise with the
households
• Rank each of the varieties or activities in
based on each of the criteria (1 = highest
ranking)
• Use locally available products – it is eas-
ier for people to count with and move
around if they change their mind
• You can compare women’s and men’s pri-
orities using different scoring products
(e.g. men use stones, women use sticks)
Step 4: Count and tally the results to identify
the most preferred variety or activity—this is the
variety or activity with the lowest count
Step 5: Review the results and scores with the
households
• Identify these problems and issues and
discuss solutions or activities to solve
these problems—use coloured cards
Step 6: Write the results on the A0 paper (to re-
place the local materials and coloured cards) and
transfer the results to an A4 sheet.
Try This!
• Use Matrix Scoring and Ranking for social, health, women’s and community issues—
simply choose a topic (e.g. women’s health), identify the health problems, discuss some of
the impacts (these become your criteria to score and rank) and the start the exercise!

25
8: Problem-Cause-Effect-Solution Trees
What are Problem
Trees?
Problem-Cause-Effect-Solution Trees (’Problem Trees’)
facilitate discussion on:
• A problem affecting households in the Village
and the causes and effects of the problem
• Linkages between different causes and differ-
ent effects of problems
• Solutions and activities households can do that
will contribute to solve the problem
How can you use
Problem Trees?
Problem Trees can be used to identify:
• Household perceptions of causes of problems
facing households in a Village
• Household perceptions of effects of problems
facing households
• Linkages between different causes and effects
of problems
You can use Problem Trees when:
• Planning activities, especially social programs,
with households
• Health
• Education
• Gender and women’s issues
• Analysing social or community problems with
households
• Looking at issues and problems facing women
in a Commune
When can Problem
Trees be used?
What else should I
know about Problem
Trees?
• Use different coloured cards for Problem Trees—one
colour for causes, one colour for effects and one col-
our for solutions
• Problem Trees can also be used with Matrix Scoring
and Ranking (for social or health problems) - you
can use the Problem Tree to analyse in more detail
the most serious social or health issue ranked in the
Matrix Scoring and Ranking

26
8: Problem-Cause-Effect-Solution Trees
Let’s look at an example of Problem Trees!
Step 1: Start by discussing the problem that will
be analysed
• Write this problem on a coloured card and
place this in the middle of the A0 paper
• Draw a line across the middle of the A0
paper (through the problem)
• Write ‘Causes’ above the line and ‘Effects’
below the line
Step 2: Ask the households to discuss some of
the causes of the problem
• Write each cause on a card—make sure
the cards are the same colour
• Discuss each of the causes and identify
any contributing and flow-on causes
• Remember that causes are linked—draw
lines to show these links
Step 3: Start to discuss the effects of the problem
once you have identified all the contributing
causes and their links
• Write each effect on a card—these cards
are a different colour to the ‘Causes’
• Discuss each of the effects and identify
any contributing and flow-on effects
• Remember to show that effects are linked
and use lines to draw these
Step 4: You should have all the causes and ef-
fects of the problem—now you can start to iden-
tify some activities that households can conduct
to solve some of the causes of the problem
• Write each of the activities on a card—
these cards are a different colour to the
causes and effects
• Review some of the causes to make sure
they a clear and more appropriate and
feasible activities are proposed
A0 paper and transfer the results to an A4 sheet.
Try This!
• You can use Problem Trees for almost any type of problem raised by households—you can
investigate livestock, cropping, natural disaster or rural infrastructure problems as well!

27
Reviewing and Concluding the Results of PRA Field Exercises
Nominating a
Presenter from each
Group
Now all the groups have finished the PRA Field Exercises—you can now review and discuss
the results with all the people.
• Each household group should nominate a Presenter—this person presents their
group’s results to all people at the meeting
• The Lead Facilitator brings all households together and explain that everyone will
now look at the results of other groups
• All households visit each group to see the Diagram, Map, Matrix or A0 sheets of
results and discuss the results
• The Lead Facilitator summarises the results of all exercises and identify common
issues and proposed activities
• The Lead Facilitator informs people of how the PRA results are used in Socio-
Economic Planning and thank all households for their attendance
• The Facilitators asks each group to nominate a pre-
senter from each group
• Choose an active and enthusiastic presenter—try to
encourage women!
• As a Facilitator, go through the presentation with
the Presenter just to make them feel a more comfort-
able
Lead Facilitator • The Lead Facilitator plays an important role in the
review and presentation of PRA results by each
group—they encourage discussion between house-
holds
• Make sure that all people can see the presentation of
each Presenter—encourage people to stand or sit in a
circle close to the exercise
• Always encourage discussion between the house-
holds—try to encourage households to ask questions
and encourage the Presenter to answer—not you!

28
Reviewing and Concluding the Results of PRA Field Exercises
Content of
Presentations
• Each group presentation is a maximum of 10 min-
utes
• The Presenter explains the following:
• Brief overview of the exercise that was con-
ducted
• Explanation of the diagram, map, Matrix or
A0 sheet of results
• Overview of the main problems/ issues identi-
fied and activities proposed that households
can conduct
• Give an opportunity for other households to raise
questions and ideas
Collecting Recorded
Group Results
• The Lead Facilitator collects all group results before
leaving
• Make sure that the Recorder has recorded all results
on A4 paper—check that the name of the Village,
date, PRA exercise, Facilitator and number of house-
holds conducting the exercise are written on each A4
sheet
• A0 sheets are also collected—make sure that cards
and other items are strongly attached to the A0 sheet
• You will use these sheets later at the PRA Re-
view Meeting
• These A0 results are posted at the Village
Planning Meetings for households in the Vil-
lage to see
Summary of PRA
Results by the Lead
Facilitator
• The Facilitator makes notes when each group pre-
sents results—record the common problems and is-
sues and proposed activities
• The Lead Facilitator gives a brief summary of the
PRA tools conducted and some of the main results
• Inform the households that the PRA Field Exercise
results will be compiled and presented to households
at the Village Planning Meetings conducted under
Socio-Economic Planning
• Thank the households and the Facilitators for their
effort and time—you look forward to seeing them at
the Village Planning Meetings!

29
PRA Field Exercise Review Meeting

30
Inviting Lead
Facilitators and
Facilitators
Now all PRA Field Exercises are completed! This is now the time to hold a small meeting at
the Commune People’s Committee to review the results and prepare presentations for the
Village Planning Meetings.
• Invite the Lead Facilitators and some of the Facilitators from each of the PRA
Field Exercises in each Village
• Bring all the A4 recorded results and the A0 sheets from each PRA Field Exercise
in each Village
• The Lead Facilitator or a Facilitator from each PRA Field Exercise presents the re-
sults of the exercises
• PRA presentations are prepared by each group for each Village and a Presenter is
nominated
• Lead Facilitators from each PRA Field Exercise are
invited to attend the PRA Field Exercise Review
Meeting
• It is also important to invite some of the Facilitators
to attend the Review Meeting
Results of PRA Field
Exercises
• Remember to bring the PRA Field Exercise results
from each Village
• A4 results recorded by the Recorder
• A0 results of each PRA tool
• Check the results before the Review Meeting to
make sure all results are collected
• Make sure the A0 Diagrams, Maps and Matrixes are
clear and visually attractive—you can improve these
by colouring different elements of the sheets and
highlighting results
• Remember that the A0 sheets will be posted at the
Village Planning Meetings—take care of them and
try to make them visually attractive

31
Presentation of
Results from each
PRA Field Exercise
• Each Lead Facilitator or a Facilitator presents the
results of the PRA Field Exercises conducted in their
Village
• The A0 results of each PRA Tool are presented—
focus on the problems/difficulties and solutions/
activities
• Encourage discussion between the Facilitators when
presenting results—identify some common prob-
lems/difficulties and solutions/activities
Preparing
Presentations for
PRA Field Exercises
• The presentation of PRA results at Village Planning
Meetings is conducted using 2 simple methods:
• A0 Matrix outlining the topic, current status,
difficulties and solutions/activities—the Ma-
trix is similar to the Matrix used to compile
the results of Transect Walks
• Village Resource Map that highlights some of
the main problems/difficulties and solutions/
activities identified through different PRA
tools— use different coloured cards highlight-
ing difficulties (one colour) and solutions (a
different coloured card)
• PRA Field Exercises might not have been conducted
in all Villages—in this case it might be appropriate
to apply results from a nearby Village (excluding Vil-
lage Resource Mapping and Transect Walks)
• Nominate Facilitators that will present the PRA
Field Exercise results at each Village Planning Meet-
ing
Practice
Presentations of PRA
Field Exercises
• It is now time to practice presentations—invite the
Commune People’s Committee officials to view these
presentations—it is very useful for them to see the
results from each Village!
• Give advice to Presenters after their presentations—
be constructive and supportive to help them improve
• Finalise the presentations after all comments and
suggestions are received—inform the Facilitators of
the Agenda of the Village Planning Meetings so they
can prepare

Approaches and Methods for Community
Participation – Participatory Tools and
Techniques
By National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management

Approaches and Methods for Community Participation Course -104
27
Unit-2
Participatory Tools and Techniques
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Space related PRA Methods
2.3 Time Related PRA Methods
2.4 Relation Related PRA Methods
2.5 Graphs and bar charts
2.6 Flow diagrams
2.7 Other Methods
2.8 Constraints of PRA Methods
2.0 Objectives
• Understand different methods of PRA related to space, time and relationship
• Identify and select suitable methods for the specific purposes
• Conduct/different PRA methods in a systematic way
2.1 Introduction
Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques are typically used in the field to gather
qualitative data, often to complement quantitative data derived from traffic counts and
origin and destination data.
Pretty and Guijit (1992): 'It will have to begin with the people who know most
about their own livelihood systems. It will have to value and develop their knowledge
and skills, and put into their hands the means to achieve self-development.
The emerging participatory development 'paradigm' suggests two perspectives:
• Substantively involving local people in the selection, design, planning and
implementation of programmes and projects that will affect them, thus ensuring

Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM)
28
that local perception, attitudes, values and knowledge are taken into account as
fully as possible.
• To make more continuous and comprehensive feedback an integral part of all
development activities.
PRA and RRA emerged as an alternative to the two common qualitative methods,
• Questionnaires which often proved lengthy, costly and prone to errors, and
• Rushed site visits by researchers to collect haphazard data from local elites. PRA
uses a combination of approaches and methods to enable rural people to share
enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act.
The PRA approach is particularly useful as it enables vulnerable groups in a
community to have a voice and impart their views on issues of transportation and access
from which they are most often excluded. Hence, participation by different groups such
as women, the elderly, disabled and even school children, researchers and other
professionals are able to paint a realistic picture of community life; and through use of
the different PRA techniques.
2.1.1 Key Principles for Conducting PRA's
Preparation
Preparation is undertaken prior to the surveys to ensure that all available
secondary data on the locality and subject has been reviewed, allowing suitable villages
to be identified to capture a broad sample, before surveying commences. It is also
sensible to enlist the help of external collaborators, preferably with detailed knowledge
of the locality, and bearing no prejudice or hierarchical position.
Facilitation
The external professional displays good facilitation skills, which aims to enable
local people to undertake some or all of the investigation, mapping, modelling,
diagramming, ranking, scoring, quantification, analysis, presentation and planning

29
themselves. Analysis is then shared with outsiders, but the information stays with the
people who generated it. In order to capture all that is to be observed and recorded
during a PRA, it is recommended that a minimum of two external facilitators
(sometimes three depending on the method used) are employed. This will allow
information to be recorded in detail, whilst a facilitator observes the interaction between
participants. It is also useful to generate some feedback from the villagers surveyed on
design methods employed.
Behaviour and attitudes
The behaviour and attitudes of external facilitators are of primary importance,
more important than methods even. All important attitudes include: critical self
awareness and embracing error, sitting down, listening and learning, not lecturing but
allowing the villagers to be the main teachers and analysts. It means that outsiders must
take time to reflect on how their role in community interactions change and what they
must learn to do and to stop doing, if local people are to benefit from this.
Longevity
Participatory approaches are not substitutes for, but are rather an integral part of,
long term dialogue and sustained interaction. A single, brief participatory exercise with
a group of local people will not lead to positive and lasting change. PRAs are not a
panacea to qualitative surveying. PRAs work most effectively where they are carried out
over a sufficient length of time, with the facilitators living amongst the community
under survey and absorbing themselves in community life. In this way, mutual respect
will be gained, and less formal information can be extracted. In addition, the longer the
survey, the greater and more representatives the sample will be.
2.1.2 Problem Identification: The problems were identified using triangulation process
involving several participatory tools and techniques. Depending upon the problems, we
have to select suitable tools. For integrated rural development of village, use mapping,
transect, venn diagram and semi structured interviews. General solid interest groups

30
have to participate in this process. Then facilitate villagers to make consolidated list and
prioritization will be done by general consensus, matrix ranking etc. The problems /
issue which received maximum score was assigned first rank and so an.
For an integrated rural development plan the problems identified by the villagers
were given below:
Problem Analysis
In the course of the diagnosis, the various socio-interest groups identify the major
problems. In order to seek valid solutions, it is necessary to describe and understand
the problem in detail by posing the following questions:
• What exactly causes the problems?
• Who are affected by these problems? How?
• What will happen if the problems are not solved?
• So far the problems have not been solved. Why?
• Do we intend to solve the problems?
• What can be done to solve the problems?
In the problem analysis phase, the village residents are request to make an analysis
of these problems in order to understand their causes and effects. The problem analysis
enables the village residents to formulate objectives and seek for solutions.
Objectives: The objectives of problems analysis are:
1. To identify the causes and effects of priority problems indicated by the village
residents.
2. To select the most relevant causes which the village residents can and wish to
address
Methodology: The methods and tools used for problems analysis are:
a) Village introductory meeting and
b) Problem tree

31
a) VILLAGE INTRODUCTORY MEETING
The objective of village introductory meeting is to make an overview of activities
that have been done during the diagnostic phase and to present the priority problems
to be analyzed in the mixed groups. The steps followed are:
Step I: Selection of problems for analysis
This is carried out by the multidisciplinary teams before the start of the meeting.
Priority problems are categorized into Simple and Complex problems.
• A problem is considered simple if the numbers of causes are few and easy to identify
e.g. incidence of pests and diseases.
• A problem is considered complex if the causes are many and difficult to identify.
Often, the various causes responsible for the problem are interrelated. Example of
complex problems is low milk yields and depleted soils.
It will be difficult to analyze all problems simultaneously; therefore a selection
must be made. The criteria for the selection of a problem for further analysis are:
• A problem for which numerous causes have apparently been responsible.
• One of the priority problems indicated by the majority of socio-interest groups; this
may indicate that a large number of people in the village have been affected by the
problem.
• Problems in the priority list which are of interest to the service agencies represented.
Step II: Course of the Meeting
• The facilitator explains the objectives of problem analysis
• The residents are divided into sub-groups and allocated problems analysis
• The number of sub-groups should depend on the number of complex problems and
the number and the number of the facilitators available.
• It is important that the technical staff from relevant service agencies participate in the
problem analysis.

32
b) PROBLEM TREE
Introduction
The problem tree is one of the tools used to analyze problems. The image of a tree
is used for identifying causes and effects. The roots represent the causes. The trunk
represents the main problem while the branches and fruits represent the effects and
consequences. Like the roots of the tree, the causes of a problem are hidden and not easy
to identify unless you dig into the ground. That is why it is important to have a detailed
analysis of the problem are easy to identify just as it is easy to see the branches and
fruits of the tree. Figure 1 demonstrates a design of problem tree.

33
Objectives
• To enable village residents to analyze with a visual tool the causes and effects of the
problem.
• Identify the most relevant causes for the search for solutions
Methodology
The steps in developing the problem tree include:-
• Explanation of the problem tree tool and the procedure
• Making an inventory of causes
• Construction of roots of the tree
• Making an inventory of effects and consequences
• Construction of the branches of the tree and fruits
• Verification of the tree
• Selection of causes on which actions are feasible
• Presentation of the problem tree to the plenary
i) Explanation of the problem tree tool and the procedure
• The facilitator uses the image of the tree to introduce the tool
• He/she explains the steps to follow in its construction
ii) Making an inventory of Causes
• The facilitator of the sub-group stimulates discussion by asking the village
residents “why the problem exists”, and encourages everyone to propose causes.
• The recorder notes each cause agreed on a card/paper / chalk board. A list of all
caused is then obtained without dissatisfying them.
iii) Construction of the roots
• After all causes have been identified; the sub-group members are requested to
choose from among those causes the one directly responsible for the problem.
• For each direct cause, the sub-causes are identified from the list and placed below
it.

34
• In case new causes not listed earlier are identified, they are written on new cards
and placed in the relevant positions.
iv) Making an inventory of efforts and consequence
• The facilitator asks what would happen if the problem is not solved i.e the effect
of the problem.
• Participants submit ideas which are then discussed
• Every idea agreed upon is recorded on a card or paper/board. A list of effects is
then developed.
v) Construction of the Branches and Fruits
• The same procedure is followed as for roots
• The effects of the problem should be studied
• Facilitator requests the participants to select the direct effects of the problem
• For each direct effect, its consequences are selected and placed above it.
• It is important to consider the realistic effects, not those, which are imaginary.
vi) Verification of the tree
• During the development of the problem tree, it is important to verify the logic
of reasoning.
• Reasoning is done starting from the sub-causes, to main causes, to the trunk
(problem), effects and consequences (leaves and branches).
vii) Selection of cause on which actions are feasible
• The facilitator explains that the impact of certain causes may be greater than
other, and it may be more difficult to deal with certain causes.
• He requests the village residents to identify causes which they could and would
like to deal with.
• A selection of causes on which actions are feasible is then made.
viii) Presentation of the problem tree to the plenary
• Each sub-group selects one of the members to present the problem tree

35
• A simulation exercise is carried out in the sub-group
• Following each presentation, the facilitator asks the village residents to make
comments
• The facilitator summarizes the major points and concludes the discussions of the
problems tree
• The causes and effects of simple problems are presented in tabular form during
the plenary.
Based on the solutions action plans will be prepared to address the issue / problem
2.2 PRA methods (Spatial PRA Techniques)
2.2.1 Social Map
Social mapping is the most popular method in PRA. For many, in fact, it
synonymous with PRA itself. Quite a potent method, it seeks to explore the spatial
dimensions of people’s realities. The focus here is on the depiction of habitation
patterns and the nature of housing and social infrastructure: roads, drainage systems,
schools, drinking-water facilities, etc. Social map is different from other regular maps
in significant ways. For one, it is made by local people and not by experts. For another,
it is not drawn to scale. It depicts what the local people believe to be relevant and
important for them. Thus it reflects their perceptions of the social dimensions of their
reality with a high degree of authenticity. In spite of there being many overlaps, a social
map is different from a resource map. The latter depicts the natural resources-land,
water sources, flora and fauna, etc. In certain cases, though, a map could be a rich
combination of the two (Village map). This is quite often so in the case of areas having a
dispersed settlement pattern.
Objective: The chief feature of a social map is that it is a big help in developing a
broad understanding of the various facets of social reality, viz., social stratification,
demographics, settlement patterns, social infrastructure, etc. The diverse applications of
social maps include:

36
• Developing a comprehensive understanding of the physical and social aspects of
village life.
• Collecting demographic and other required information household-wise
• Providing a forum of discussion in which to unravel the various aspects of social
life
• Serving as a guiding instrument during the process of planning interventions
• Serving as a monitoring and evaluating tool.
Fig. 1 illustrates a typical social map. The village mapped out is Chetlamallapuram
in Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. The map neatly depicts the lanes, sub-lanes, school,
railway track, temple, post- office, well, community hall, etc., in the village. In addition,
using different symbols, it provides household-wise details on the educational status of
children both by age and by gender. In fact, the exercise helped in arriving at the exact
number of boys and girls who are out of school. It also revealed that more boys go to
school than girls; more girls are un enrolled than boys; and that more girls drop out than
boys in the (6-11) year age group.
Fig.1 Social Map of Chetlamallapuram

37
Fig.2 Social Map of Dhanigopera
Process of Social Mapping
Steps: The process of social mapping should include the following steps:
• Fix the location and time for the exercise in consultation with the local people.
Invite them for it.
• Explain the purpose of the exercise to the participants. Request them to start off
with drawing the prominent physical features of their locality. Leave it to them
to use whatever materials they choose-local as well as other materials as
creatively as possible.
• Watch the process alertly. Listen to the discussions carefully. Take notes in as
much detail as possible.
• Do not rush things. Avoid chipping in. Try to ‘hand over the stick to them’, that
is, involve them deeply and actively. Let them have total control and initiative.
Have faith in them and show it too.
• Keep track of who is actively involved, which sections of the society they belong
to, and who is being left out. Take proactive steps to involve those left out in the
process.
• Your role is limited to facilitation. Intervene only when necessary, especially
when the participants are going through a rough patch.

38
• If you have something to add or clarify, wait for just the right moment. Do not
disrupt the process. Ask them ‘what about …’, ‘what does this symbol
represent?” etc.
• Once the mapping is over, ask some people to identify their houses in the map
• Number the household wise details you are particularly interested in, like caste
composition, school age children, etc. This will, of course, depend on the purpose
of the exercise.
• Interview the map ask probing questions on the aspects you are not clear about
ask for more information on them, if necessary.
• Triangulate the information generated with others in the locality.
The following social information are elicited from the social map which helps
extension professionals to design and plan various interventions
• Information on caste distribution in a village
• Neighborhood of a village, spatial distribution of castes and the related
information
• Community information about the village
• Social institutions information
• Family information
• Religion information
• Economy information
• Government institution information in the village
• Education background of villagers information
• Social groups information in the groups
• Leadership patterns existing in the village
• Value systems information of the village
• Social interactions information
• Cooperation information
• Competition information
• Conflict information
• Assimilation information
• Accommodation information
• Caste structure information

39
• Media of communication information
• Social norms, folkways, mores information about the village
• Social evils like dowry, alcoholism, child labour, prostitution information
• Religion, leadership pattern and customs existing in the society information
Selection of Site for Mapping: Location of the site for mapping is quite crucial.
Hence you would do well to keep the following points in mind while selecting the site:
1. Capacity to Hold People
• Does the site have enough capacity to hold the required number of participants?
• Does the site get cluttered up in the case of large gathering?
2. Location
• Is it a central place?
• Will it be convenient for everyone?
3. Exclusion
• Will it comfortable for all sections of society to come there?
For example, a temple courtyard could be a good site for social mapping, but in
some of the Indian villages the weaker sections of society may not get entry there. For
that matter, other caste women are not allowed entry into certain temples during
their menstrual period (Sheelu, 1996). Likewise, areas dominated by particular social
groups may not be easily accessible to others. Similarly, domination of particular
individuals may keep away those who do not get along with them
4. Suitability
• Is there enough shade for the participants?
• Is the surface fairly smooth for the exercise?
Even as you must keep these points in mid while selecting the site, the best bet is to
ask the local people to do it. Then visit the proposed site along with the participants and
see if it is suitable in view of the factors mentioned above. Just in case, check with some

40
local people if there is anything about the site which could hinder the participation of
any section of the society. In case the perspective of a specific group is particularly
important for you, mapping a site in their locality could prove useful.
5. Transferring onto Paper
Social maps can be drawn on the ground or directly on a large sheet of paper.
Social maps are commonly made on the ground with locally available material. Hence
they are not safe and permanent. They need to be copied onto paper immediately.
Usually the map is copied onto a large sheer of paper with all the details. This is
necessary for other exercises, discussions, and later, for monitoring purposes.
Moreover, it saves the trouble of doing the map all over again.
6. Number of Participants
Of all the PRA methods, social mapping makes for the active involvement of the
largest number of participants. This is all the more so when it is done on the ground.
Each person has something or the other to look for in the map. It is quite often seen that
when the mapping is over, old persons and young children alike try to locate their
houses. And mostly, they are not only able to identify their own houses but those of
others too. Moreover, those who appear to be mere onlookers tend to point out errors
and omissions while the process is on. What is remarkable is that all of them follow
avidly whatever is happening even if they are not actively involved in it.
Material Required: A wide range of materials has been used for social mapping. It
can well be extended further. Usually leaves, twigs, matchboxes, seeds, colour soils and
powders, utensils, thread, etc., have been used. The list is by no means exhaustive.
Time Required: The time required for social mapping may very quite a lot. It is
influenced by various factors including the size of the locality, the interest of the
participants, the nature and extent of the details sought and the type of materials used.

41
Scope for Improvisation and Complementarity with Other Methods. Social
mapping has been a versatile method in that it is amenable to innumerable
improvisations at the villagers’ levels.
2.2.2 Participatory Mapping
Maps can be used to identify the comparative location and importance of different
resources within an area. They can examine a great breadth of subject matter, and allow
for a range of different types of map to be produced for one area or for comparative
analysis by different groups within the same area. Maps are also a useful tool to aid
communication and to generate the following:
• Provide a framework for discussion over the relative location of resources Highlight
resources of importance, using maps as a spatial guide
• Raise issues which affect or are affected by these resources
• Analyse the present status or condition of a location
Create a focus for interest in a discussion over resources Social maps can be used to
locate houses, services and infrastructure within an area. Maps should be used as a
visual stimulant, to identify the parameters faced by local people and to facilitate
discussion about the importance people place on infrastructure provision etc.

42
Participatory Map, Farm Sketch from Kyevaluki (Source: NES, 1990)
2.2.3 Resource Map
Resource map is one of the most commonly used PRA methods next to social map.
While the social map focuses on habitation, community facilities, roads, temples, etc.,
the resource map focuses on the natural resources in the locality and depicts land, hills,
rivers, fields, vegetation, etc. A resource map may cover habitation as well. At times,
the distinction between the resource map and social map may get blurred.
A resource map in PRA is not drawn to scale. It is not done by experts but by the
local people. The local people are considered to have an in-depth knowledge of the
surroundings where they have survived for a long time. Hence the resource map social
map drawn by the local people is considered to be accurate and detailed. It important
to keep in mind, however, that it reflects the people is perceptions rather than precise

43
measurements to scale. Thus, a resource map reflects how people view their own
locality in terms of natural resources.
Objectives: Resource maps have been used for depicting of various aspects related
to the natural resources management of a locality including:
• Topography, terrain and slopes
• Forest, vegetation and tree species
• Soil-type, fertility, erosion and depth
• Land and land use, command area, tenure, boundaries and ownership
• Water, water bodies, irrigation sources, rivers and drainage.
• Watershed development, various soil and water conservation measures,
denuded areas, etc.
• Agricultural development, cropping pattern, productivity, etc.
The following information is elicited from resource map
• Transport facilities information
• Communication facilities information
• Health and welfare societies information
• Supply and service agencies information
• Agricultural implements found in the village information
• Animals used for agriculture information
• Marketing facilities information
• Processing industries information
• Financial facilities information
• Advisory facilities information
• Community pastures or grazing land information
• Natural service versus AI for various animals information
• Labour availability for various purposes information

44
• Storage facilities information
• Carcass disposal facilities for animals’ information
• Other resources used for agriculture information
Resource maps have been found especially useful because they provide a focused
spatial structure for discussion and analysis. They help to create a common
understanding amongst the participants as well as a baseline for monitoring and
evaluation. The process of creating a resource map is full of joy and it instills self-
confidence amongst the participants, which later makes the interaction more
meaningful. Resource maps have been found particularly useful for analysis of
problems, looking at solutions and planning for action. Resource maps have been used
to generate discussions among the participants about natural resources, their
entitlement and utilization, problems related to deforestation and soil erosion, etc. The
focus gradually shifts from gradually shifts fromthe identification and prioritization of
problems related to the natural resources, to planning for intervention.
Resource Map: Examples from DSIR Funded Project on ‘Diffusion Farm
Technologies to Farm Women through User-Friendly Interactive Multimedia Compact
Disc” Implemented by TNAU at AC & RI, Madurai during 2006-2009.
It is the construction of a map of the village by the participant village using rangoli
powder /chart and marker pens. The map shows the resources, infrastructure facilities
available in the village and also depicts the social set up of the village. Further, it gives
an idea about the resources like soil, water, forest etc.
Participants: The purpose of PRA is to identify and prioritize their felt
technological needs; all farmers were required to participate. The Research scholars,
Assistant Agriculture Officer, TANWA group leader, Village traditional leader went
door to door to invite the villagers and farmers. Men and women irrespective of age,
caste, education, land holdings etc took part in the exercise readily accepting the
invitation. The research scholars took intense efforts to compare the perception of
officials and villagers on cropping pattern, seasonality and technological needs of

45
villagers. The felt needs as expressed by farmers have been crossed checked through
triangulation with office bearers of State department of Agriculture and Horticulture.
Each of the research scholars took different role such as facilitator, observer and
documentary while conducting the PRA exercise.
Methodology
For the above exercise, charts which were pasted together to form a big sheet was
given to the participants along with a lot of colour marker pens. The participants were
given a briefing on the exercise and its purpose. TANWA leader, one of the participants
initiated the exercise by marking the entrance of the village followed by drawing the
road and the path entering into it. Having felt that the exercise was very interesting,
many more joined her assisting in locating few important structures of the village such
as Temples, Schools, Water tank, Shops, Phone booths, Public latrines, Primary health
centres, Milk society unit, etc. They differentiated each structure using different colours
like green colour for paddy, yellow colour for settlements, blue colour for water bodies
so on and so forth. It took around one to one and a half hour to finish the exercise.
All the participants involved themselves very enthusiastically and extended their kind
cooperation till the end of the exercise. Soon after the completion of the exercise, one participant
volunteered to elicit some of the important resources, infrastructure facilities, farming community
settlements using the map drawn and they are as follows:
Fig. Resource Mapping in Process at Mettuneerathan village, Madurai District, Tamil
Nadu

46
Outcome of Social resource mapping exercise
Infrastructure facilities, available resources, social settings of the village were
obtained as a result of social resource mapping exercise. They are given as below:
Sl.No Particulars Description
1 Water Source of Periyar dam channel and wells
2 Temple Five temples among which Durgai amman
temple is very famous as it is one among the
five temples in Tamilnadu
3 Infrastructures Water Tank, Good road and transport, Primary
school, Primary Health Centre, Milk Society,
Public telephone booth, Grocery shop and tea
shops, Public latrines
4 Farming community
Settlement pattern
Settlements were found in the centre bordered
by four sides with greenish blossoming cropping
field
Village Map: Fig 5 illustrates a typical village map. The village mapped out is
Annasagar in Mahabubnagar District, Andhra Pradesh. The map neatly depicts the
lanes, sublanes, post office, key persons houses, Mosque, tank, hills, fields, S.C Colony,
B.C Colony, rice mill etc in the village. The exercise helped in understanding social
stratification, settlement patterns and social infrastructure etc.
Fig.5 Village map of Annasagar

47
Process of Resource Mapping
Steps: The mapping process remains quite similar to that of a social map. Only the
focus is different. The main steps include:
• Select a proper place for preparing a resource map of the area in consultation with
the local people. Fix the time and invite people from different sections of the
society. Ensure that the marginalized groups and women definitely participate.
• Start the exercise at the fixed time. First explain the purpose of the exercise.
• Ask them to start showing the major resources. Encourage them to use locally
available material in a creative way and to make the map as representative as
possible.
• Do not interfere. Allow them to do it on their own. In case they get stuck, help
them out.
• Listen carefully to the discussions they have, while preparing the map. Note down
the relevant points.
• In case the participants are not representing the aspects you are interested in, have
patience.
• Wait till the mapping process comes to an end. Ask them unintrusive question
without disturbing the process. Some helpful questions include:
- What about…?
- Can you show me…in the map?
• Ask them to explain the map including the various symbols, visuals and colours
used.
• Ask them to depict and discuss the problems and opportunities in keeping with the
objectives of the resource map.
• At the end, ask them whether anybody would like to make any modifications or
additions.
• Keep an eye on who is actively involved and who is marginalized. Try to involve
the marginalized groups and women in the process.
• Interview the map. Interviewing it provides valuable insights into the status of
natural resources. It helps you to clarify your doubts and know about aspects you
are interested in.

48
Material Required: The resource map along with social map has been the favourite
of local people who let loose their creativity using a range of materials. Seeds of
different types, soil, chalks, coloured powder, stones and pebbles, twigs, leaves, paper,
and cardboard have all been used for making resource maps. The list, however, is not
exhaustive.
Time Required: Two to three hours may be required for doing resource mapping. The
time may vary considerably depending upon the details aimed at.
01. Thematic mapping
Using general sketch maps as a basis, specific themes or topics can be mapped,
such as land ownership, poverty distribution, and water run-off.
02. Historical mapping
Maps prepared by local people to illustrate the way a community or area has changed.
Old maps can be used as a source as well.

49
03. Sketch mapping and modelling
These can use either maps prepared in the field with the participation of local
people or base maps prepared prior to the RRA. Mapping with local people can become
an important forum for discussion of local problems and needs and involve a large
number of people in the RRA. Use of base maps is more for team members.
2.2.4 Transect
Transect is another PRA method used to explore the spatial dimensions of people’s
realities. It has been popularly used for natural resource management. It provides a
cross-sectional representation of the different agro-ecological zones and their
comparison against certain parameters including topography, land type, land usage,
ownership, access, soil-type, soil fertility, vegetation, crops, problems, opportunities
and solutions.
Though natural resources remain the focus of any transect, this does not mean that
there is no place for the depiction of social aspects. Various social aspects for e.g., the
caste and ethnic determinants of a settlement access and control and gender-related
dimensions are captured in detail, depending upon the objectives of the exercise.

50
A transect is different from resource map despite areas of overlap. The resource
map provides a bird’s-eye view of the locality with a focus on natural resources. A
Transect, however, depicts a cross-sectional view of the different agro-ecological zones
and provides a comparative assessment of the Zones on different parameters. It is
generally done after a resource map and therefore helps in triangulation. It also helps
in taking forward the process of problem identification and planning for the
development of the natural resources in the area.
Transect differs from a historical transect in that the focus here is geographical
while the focus in the latter is on trends or changes over time on aspects related to
natural resources. It is generally like a snapshot of the same transect at different points
of time.
Objectives
• Appraisal of natural resources in terms of status, problems and potential
• Verification of issues raised during other PRA exercises particularly during social
mapping, natural resources mapping, etc.
• Planning of various interventions and checking the relevance of the planned
interventions
• Monitoring and evaluation of interventions and projects.
A Typical Transect
A transect map of Ghantabahal village of Bolangir district in Orissa, India. The
whole area has been divided into six agro-climatic zones. The details for each of the
zones on six features viz., land type, water source, species of trees, uses and ownership-
have been collected and listed in a tabular form. In the discussions that followed, the
participants also identified the various problems which infest each of the agro-ecological
zones. Encroachment by local people on government land and common property
resources has become one of the severest problems. Soil erosion has been another
problem on all types of land but particularly in the upland leading to a significant drop
in soil fertility and thereby in productivity.

51
The Process
Steps: The transect could comprise of the following steps:
• Locate a group of local people having some knowledge of the area and who are
willing to walk with you for the exercise.
• Explain the purpose of transect to the people and involve them in the process of
decision making regarding the transect path you should take to maximize the
observing of details of the locality.
• Have a discussion and arrive at the parameters according to which you would like
to collect data during the walk.
• Fix a time for the transect walk with the local people.
• Go along with the people at the prefixed time on the already decided transect path.
If the situation on the field so demands, do not hesitate to make modifications. Also
carry the list of parameters and preferably the resource map for the walk. They
come handy for reference during observation and discussions en route.
• Observe the surroundings. Make mental notes if you could manage with it.
However, it is preferable to take detailed notes: with local terms flooding you, it is
not advisable to rely on your memory too much.
• Ask questions to clarify things you are not clear about to the local people
accompanying you. Listen carefully to what they say. Also listen to the
discussions they have amongst themselves. Encourage them to explain as you
move.
• If necessary, stop at certain locations for detailed discussions on the points
emerging. It also gives you a breather and time to not down details.
• Use this opportunity to clarify issues emerging from the social map, resource map
and other methods.
• Collect and bring some leaves, grass, etc., which you find interesting but are not
familiar with. It helps to refer to them in discussions later and also in
documentation.

52
Fig: 6 Transect of Ghantabahal village
Fig: 7 Transect map of Kotha Molgara village
Two Sets of Processes
• After returning, draw a transect on a large sheet of paper. Let the local people take
the lead in drawing the transect diagram. Use your notes and the notes of other
members of the transect team, while making the diagram.

53
• Show the transect to others in the locality and ask them their views. Clarify your
doubts
This helps you to triangulate the details. You can also use details generated from
other methods to triangulate the findings of transect.
• Thank the participants for their active participation and time.
2.2.5 Mobility Map
Mobility map is a PRA method used to explore the movement pattern of an
individual, a group, or the community. The focus is on where people go and for what.
Other aspects, like the frequency of visits, distance, and the importance of the place
visited, may also be studied and depicted. It reflects the people’s perception of
movement patterns and the reasons there of.
Objectives
• Understanding the mobility pattern of local people where they go and for what
• Increasing gender sensitivity and awareness by using them for highlighting the
difference between the mobility patterns of men and women
• Evaluation of the impact of certain interventions in terms of their effects on
mobility patterns
• Planning for intervention and projects
A Typical Mobility Map: Fig. 7 Mobility Pattern of Women of Saltarpalli village
in Orissa which depicts the 15 places they visit. It is quite elaborate and deals with
several aspects including:
• Frequency of visit (from daily to once within 6 months)
• Distance (between the places of visit and their village)
• Mode of transport (bus or walk)
• Purpose of visit (weeding, sale purchase, wage labour, medical facility etc.)
• Accessibility (in terms of size – the bigger the size the easier the access)

54
In addition it also specifies the places that they visit only in groups or with a male
member. The use of symbols makes the diagram more interesting. A detailed gender
analysis of the mobility pattern of men and women was also carried out as part of the
discussion that followed.
Overlap with Services and Opportunities Map: The mobility map at times
overlaps with the services and opportunities map. Both the maps look quite similar. In
the mobility map, however, the focus is on the places which people visit and the reasons
thereof, while in the services and opportunities map, the focus is on the services and
opportunities. In a mobility map the village is at the centre and the other places visited
are placed around it. The distance of other places from the centre may or may not be
proportionate to the actual distance. In the services and opportunities map, the services
and opportunities available in the village are also represented.
Fig: 8 Mobility map of Saltarpalli (Bolangir) Women
Process
Steps: The suggested steps for mobility mapping are as follows:
• Select the person, group or community whose mobility pattern you are
interested in understanding.

55
• Explain the purpose of the exercise and initiate a discussion on the places they visit.
List down the places. As they close the list, ask them whether they would like to
add some more or delete any of the places in the list.
• Ask them to write the name of the places on small pieces of paper in bold letters.
Encourage them to depict the places using symbols or visuals, particularly if the
participants are non literate
• Draw a circle in the middle of a paper or ground, representing the village/locality
and ask them to locate the pieces of paper with the names of the places they visit
around the circle in such a way that they are properly represented.
• Ask them to link the cards representing the places visited with the circle depicting
their locality by lines. The thickness of the lines could represent a particular feature,
such as, the frequency of the visits.
• Ask them to follow a similar process, for all other places that they visit, one by one.
• Encourage them to represent other aspects in the form of visuals, symbols or in
writing.
Brainstorm and arrive at the aspects which could be represented including.
- Purpose of visiting the places
- Importance of the places visited
- Distance of the places
- Mode of transport
- Frequency of visits
- Whether alone or with someone
• Ask them whether they would like to make any alterations once the
diagram is ready.
• Encourage them to do so at any point in the process.
• Request them to explain the map and their learning from it.
• Ask them to explain the diagram in detail. Interview the diagram to clarify your
doubts by asking probing questions. In case you are interested in more details you
can ask them questions like: ‘what about…’ etc.
• Listen carefully to their discussion and take any necessary notes.
• Copy the diagram onto paper with all the details.
• Triangulate the diagram and other details generated during discussions with others
in the locality.

56
Sequence: Mobility maps are generally not done in the beginning of PRA. They
are done only after developing some rapport and identifying a group or individuals
whose mobility pattern you are interested in studying. After the map has been
completed, it is necessary to triangulate the findings of the map.
Material Required: Locally available material including stones, seeds, chalks and
cards of different colours can be used for the mobility map.
Time Required: Time required for the mobility map may vary between one to two
hour. This depends, however, on various factors such as the subject of the exercise, the
interest of the participants in the topic, details aimed at, etc.
Scope for Improvisation and Complementarily with other methods: Mobility maps
can be used effectively in combination with other PRA methods.
2.3 Time Related PRA Methods
2.3.1 Time Line
Time line is an important PRA method quite commonly used to explore the
temporal dimension from a historical perspective. Time line captures the chronology of
events as recalled by local people. It is drawn as a sequential aggregate of past events.
It thus provides the historical landmarks of a community individual or institution. The
important point to note here is that it is not history as much the events of the past as
perceived and recalled by the people themselves.
Objectives
• To learn from the community what they considered to be important past events.
• To understand from the community the historical perspective on current issues.
• To generate discussions on changes with respect to issues you are interested in e.g.
education, health, food security, gender relations, economic conditions, etc.
• To develop a rapport with the villagers, since a discussion about the past of the
village can be a good non-threatening and enjoyable starting point.

57
The following information is elicited from the time line
a. Information on technological time line in a village
b. Year wise information
c. Preferable select an old person in the village for this technique
Below the information provides a historical perspective of Bannur village, Kurnool,
Andhra Pradesh. As in most cases, this time line depicts the time landmarks on the left
side and a brief description of the major events as recalled by a group of villagers on the
right. They traced their history back to 1905 when an irrigation tank was constructed in
the village. A number of other major events mostly related to developmental activities,
e.g., construction of school buildings, roads, wells and two droughts of 1931 and 1960,
were also recalled. The exercise was carried out in the initial stages of the PRA in 49
Bannur villages and was helpful in developing a rapport with the participants.
Process
Steps: The suggested steps in the process of doing a time line include:
• Identify some elderly persons in the village willing to talk about the history of the
village invite.
• Explain them the purpose of the exercise. Initiate a discussion on the history of the
village.
• The key questions you can ask may include: - When was the village established?
Time line of 49 Bannur village
1905 Construction of irrigation tank Main crops were jowar, horse gram and a coarse
cereal locally known as Korr
1931 Drought-20 families migrated
1940 Private school building constructed
1945 10 irrigation wells excavated. Led to changes in crops cultivated later
1950 Church built
1954 First ‘sarpanch’ (chief of the local self government at the village level) was
elected

58
1960 Drought
1969 Gravel road laid
1977 Electricity connection to the village
1983 Government school buildings-one Telugu and one Urdu medium Constructed
1985 Two drinking water tanks built
1991 Bus services started to the village
1992 Savings and credit programme started
1995 First woman elected as ‘sarpanch’
1996 Sanction of government housing colony for the weaker section
1997 Intervention of BIRDS-a voluntary organization in village and First television set
in the village
Participants: Fakruddin (male, 70 years), Sarojamma (female, 50 years),
Subbamma (Female about 90 years), Tirapalu (male, 55 years) and others Facilitator:
Anil Kumar

59
Fig: 9 Time Line of Khairmal village – Child Labourer
• Preferably, ask one of the participants to note down the major events in brief on
cards in bold letters. If the participants are unable to do so, ensure that one of the
facilitators takes this role. Anyway, make a note of the key points and be willing
to do this task yourself if necessary.
• Ask them for more such events that they would like to add. Once you feel that
the list is more or less complete, ask them to keep the cards in a chronological
order- the earlier events on the top and the later events lower down. Read out the

60
events and ask them whether they are happy with the order of if they would like
to modify it.
• Add years to the left side of the list of events. Failure of memory, use of different
time frames and calendar systems may present a big obstacle for the participants
in arriving at the exact years. You may have to use your own improvement or
your best judgment to arrive at the years.
• You can focus on those aspects that are your area of interest. Suppose you are
interested in education in the village, and then try to make the participants focus
on events related to education after getting the events of general nature.
• Initiate a discussion on the time line to help the participants analyze and reflect
on it. Some key questions which can be helpful in this regard may include.
- What is the situation in the past?
- What were the major events?
- What changes have taken place?
- What were the reasons for change?
• Interview the time line by asking questions to clarify your doubts or to get an in-
depth understanding. Certain questions which can be helpful include.
• Can you tell me more about ….?
• What does the mean…?
• Copy the details onto paper. Note down the names of participants, facilitators,
location details, dates, legends, etc.
• Triangulate with other elderly persons in the village to see the correctness of the
information given in the time line. Secondary sources of information can also
prove to be helpful in triangulation.
There are no set procedures to get over these problems. You have to use your own
ingenuity and improve methods.
Material Required: The material required for time line includes cards, chalks, and chart
paper, bold markers of different colours, seeds and pebbles.

61
Time required: Around 1 ½ to 2 hours should suffice for time line analysis. However,
the time requirement may vary with the skills of the facilitators, details aimed at and
scope for discussion.
Scope for Improvement and Complementarily with other Methods: Time line provides
enough flexibility for innovation and improvisation depending upon the context and
your requirements of the content as well as of the form of presentation.
Time line can also be used as a precursor to taking up other time related methods like
historical transect, trend analysis, etc, More focused information can be collected
using other time related methods and the community can analyses how changes have
taken place over the years. In fact, irrespective of the PRA method you have planned to
use, a quick time line on the topic of your interest by participants can be helpful. It can
set the right kind of historical perspective for further analysis using other methods.
Many issues may go unnoticed if a time line is not done to the beginning.
2.3.2 Trend Analysis
Trend analysis is a popular PRA method used to explore temporal dimensions
with a focus on change. It captures and trends related to certain variables over different
spans of time. It is, thus, people’s account of the pat and of how things have changed
and hence also provides a historical perspective.
The local people have a good understanding of the present situation and the
changes that have taken place over the years. Trend analysis can provide a good idea of
the quantitative changes over time in different aspects of village life, such as yields,
population, livestock population, the number of trees, area under cultivation, rainfall,
etc., it helps to understand increases and decreases in the variable under study over a
period of time. It generally charts broad movements in different aspects of the local
peoples lives rather than precise shifts. The discussion that follows a trend analysis may
also look into the causes of changes and thus provide an understanding of the dynamics
of change.

62
Objectives
• Learn from the community as to how they perceive change over time in various
areas/aspects of their lives.
• Integrate significant changes in the village profile.
• Discuss village problems and any increase or decrease in the severity of the
problems over the years rather that asking direct questions.
• Discuss interventions and measures which had worked out or failed in the past and
the reasons thereof.
• Understand people’s perception of not only the past and present but also of the
shape of things to come in the near or distant future with or without intervention.
• Produce a conductive environment, after discussions on reasons for the present state
of affairs to plan the possible interventions.
The following are elicited from time trend analyses
1. Trend analysis of production,
2. Productivity,
3. Price of major enterprises in a village?
It starts from major cropping season eg. KHARIF-RABI-SUMMER, Variation in
Seasonality of labour, crops, pests, activities or any other agriculture operation.
Other possibilities
It is also possible to carry out trend analysis across places, groups, individuals.
Community, etc., rather than over time alone. What has happened to particular aspects
across various communities can also be called a trend, through it has been popularly
used a time related method.
A Typical Trend Analysis
Fig 9 A typical trend analysis done by a group of women from a Nigerian village:
Aukpa Adoka. The items covered are the three most import natural resources, i.e.,
water, trees and farm-land over four decades. The group itself selected and prioritized
the resources. The land mark years selected were: 1960, when Nigeria got independence;

63
1970, when the civil war ended; 1979-80, Shagari‘s regime; and 1999, the year of the field
work.
Water was not a problem as the Onaji river never dried up. No dug wells were
there, as they were not needed. In the 1970s, rainfall during June reduced to once in 2-3
days and occurred upto once in four days in the 1980s. Now it rains only once in 8-10
days. The number of dug wells is 19 but they are dry even before and real summer sets
in.
Trees have dwindled significantly over the four decades and now handly 30
percent of tree cover is left. Belief that trees are nurtured by gods and not by human
efforts has led to this situation. With increasing population pressure, the left-over cover
is under severe pressure.
Farm land was in abundance at the time of independence. The per capita
availability, however, has been declining at quite an alarming rate. It is likely to become
a significant problem soon. The skewed distribution would further worsen the situation.
Process
The suggested steps in the process of trend analysis are as follows:
• Select a group of local people who are interested in the exercise. Explain to the them
the purpose of the exercise.
• Initiate a discussion on the present situation and then move on to the aspects you
are interested in pursuing. This sets the climate for trend analysis.
• You may be interested in the trend analysis related to forest with respect to its
different aspects: density of trees, grass, wild animals, collection of minor forest
produce, income from forest, moisture content, etc. in the spirit of a participatory
approach, however, ensure that the participants themselves arrive at the aspects
to be studied.

64
Fig: 10 Trend Analysis of Aukpa-Adoka, Nigeria (Natural Resources)

65
Fig: 11 Trend Analysis of Dhauradadar village forest

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