2. Other reaction pathways

3. Fructose can enter and be converted to F6P to generate 2-glyc-aldeh.

4. Glycerol is a storage sugar

5. Can be converted to gly-3-phosp

6. Mannose Mannose-6-phosphate

7. Just be aware of other molecules

8. Slide 15

9. Polysaccharides have to undergo

10. Glycogen undergoes phosphorolytic cleavage, a breakage of alpha 1,4 bond to release glucose unit.

11. Slide 16

12. Glycolysis can be reversed

13. It requires ATP to generate glucose

14. Gluconeogenesis

15. Used when muscles undergo stress

16. If cells are deprived of nutrients or food

17. Slide 17 – The Krebs Cycle

18. Pyruvate enters and mito. Matrix, it moves through facilitated diffusion due to charge.

19. Conversion reaction

20. Convert pyruvate to acetyl coa

21. Acetyl coa is oxidized in krebs cycle and used to make CO2

22. NADH contributes to ETC

23. Coenzyme a is acetylated to generate acetyl CoA

24. Pyruvate to acetyl CoA enzyme

25. Pyruvate dehydrogenase

26. Acetyl CoA generates krebs cyele

27. For each pyruvate you get 3 NADH and FADH2 and 2CO2

28. We also generate a GTP for each pyruvate

29. Total: 6NADH 2FADH2 4CO2 2GTP

30. GTP

31. Sister molecule to ATP, it can transfer a Pi group to ADP as well

32. E- transport carriers tranport e- to ETC

33. Slide 18

34. When pyruvate moves into mito, converted to acetyl CoA, krebs cycle, generates CO2 NADH, FADH2, and the e- carriers will donate e- to specific and concentrated protein in inner mito matrix

35. Inner mit. Matr. Has a high ratio of proteins to lipids in membrane. 90% protein

36. Citric Acid Cycle

37. Generate CO2

38. Tranfers protons to NAD+

39. Protons come from H20, which is used to provide extra protons

40. ETC, molecular O2 is used to make H20 at end of chain.

41. Slide 19

42. Inner membrane has cristae which increase surface are for ETC. more cristae = more ETCs/more energy made

43. Matrix: enzymes to power krebs cycle, DNA, ribosomes for mito proteins

44. ETC

45. Involve movement of H from inner matrix to intermembrane space.

46. Pyruvate dehydrogenase drives reaction of reaction and it is a complex of 3 enyzmes that converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA

47. Transfers Acetyl group from pyruvate to CoA and bind the two to make acetyl CoA

48. Acetyl CoA can now enter Krebs cycle!

49. Slide 21

50. Step 1 of Krebs cycle

51. Association of 3 carbon acetyl coa sugar with 4 carbon oxaloacetate

52. The reaction that bring these two together generates citric acid (citrate), using H from water.

53. Step 2

54. Citrate converted to isocitrate

55. Step 3

56. Iso is alpha-keto

57. Generated one NADH

58. Step 4

59. Another NADH is produced

60. Step 5

61. Succinyl CoA to succinate

62. GDP becomes GTP

63. Coenzyme A is produced

64. Used again at conversion reaction to make acetyl CoA

65. Succinate will continue to produce oxaloacetate

66. 2 turns of the citric acid cycle produces 6NADH 2FADH2 2GTP

67. NADH is a reduced b-vitamin

68. FADH2 is a riboflavin, reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide, which arises from b vitamin riboflavin

69. Slide 22

70. 1 glucose yield 6CO2 2ATP 2GTP 10NADH 2FADH2

71. 12 high energy e- carrie molecules to inner matrix of mito

72. Slide 23

73. Niacin reduced to make NADH

74. FADH2 also made from riboflavin

75. Hot-potatoe protons

76. Loses H readily in inner mitochondrial matrix

77. Powers ETC

78. GTP

79. Guanine instead of adenine (ATP)

80. Regulatory Steps of Krebs Cycle

81. Pyruvate dehydrogenase is activated by low levels of ATP and vice versa

82. Hexokinase converts glucose to G6P

83. In citric acids cycle - 3 steps

84. Conversion of isocitrate to alpha-ketogluterate is regulated by the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase which produces the first NADH

85. INHIBITED BY HIGH LEVELS OF NADH AND ACTIVATED BY HIGH LEVELS OF ADP

86. Converstion of alpha-keto to succinyl coa

87. Alphaketo dehydrogenase puts H of NAD+ and regulated by high levels of NADH or high levels of succinyl CoA, if high, will shut don enzyme

88. Malate to oxaloacetate

89. When NADH is high, maltate dehydrogenase is inhibited, which converts maltate to oxaloacetate.

90. Oxidative Phosphorylation

91. ETC generates a proton motive force used to power ATp synthase to make ATP

92. High energy e- transfer from FADH2 to O2

93. At the end of the ET water will be produced and ~34 ATP are produced due to ETC

94. For a singe NADH, 1/2 O2 and H removes H from NADH to make water

95. The last structure of ETC can hold O2 until the O2 obtains both e- to make H20, same for FADH2, instead of releasing a reactive ion.

96. Oxidative Phosphorylation

97. Electron Chemical Gradient

98. Makes Chemiosmotic Coupled system

99. The unequal distribution of Hydrogen ions and charge across the membrane in which ATP synthase sits

100. NADH and FADH2 are in the inner mitochondrial membrane and they’re donating the electron hot potatoe hydrogens and the e-s that go along with them.

101. As e-s are donated, the proteins and complexes pump out H into the intermembrane space from membrane space across inner membrane

102. More positive charge is out of matrix and moved to inter membrane space

103. E-s transported provide mechanism of energy to move H and create a chemisomotic gradient w/ negative charge on inside.

104. The driving force that goes through the ATP synthase is so large that it doesn’t require energy to make ATP.

105. Uses protons to rotate and that rotation sucks in ADP

106. Concentration gradient is less

107. pH differential across membrane

108. more acidic in intermembrane space than in matrix space

109. ETC Proteins

110. There are 4 protein complexes that accept high energy e-s

111. They are complexes, not individual proteins

112. Complex I and II refer to the NADH dehydrogenase complex

113. Ubiquinone is an intermediate e- transfer protein is aka coenzyme Q

114. Tranfers 2 hydrogens from intermembrane space

115. For transfer of 2 e- from NADH 4 protons across the membrane

116. Cytochrome b-c1 is the complex III

117. Cytochrome c is another intermediate

118. Does not transport H

119. 2 H move

120. Cytochrome oxidase complex IV

121. Makes water and holds oxygen until all H and e-s are transferred

122. 2 H move

123. 10 total H moved across membrane

124. we have dehydrogenated NADH

125. as we remove from NADH, you convert into a H+ proton, 2 e- and the 2- are transported along the complexes, and at each stage H are pumped, and eventually allow the transfer of molecular H2 to make water.

126. Reduction Potentials (slide 29)

127. NADH dehydrogenase has the largest reduction

128. The energy left is used by cytochrome oxidase complex to make H20

129. Coenzyme Q and cytochrome c

130. Cytochrome c is embedded in the membrane

131. Does not transport H across, simply accepts e-s

132. Has an iron heme that hold e-s that is linked to a copper ion that allows that O2 to be held until enough H has moved through complex 4 to make water stable

133. Complex 4 is important to make sure cell isn’t damaged by the oxidative phosphorylation