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Editor CONTENTS
Richard Drummond

Editorial board 2 Dissemination of solar water heaters in
Mr J A Basson South Africa
Energy consultant Keh-Chin Chang, Wei-Min Lin, Greg Ross
Profesor K F Bennett and Kung-Ming Chung
Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town
Professor A A Eberhard
8 The challenges and potential options to
Graduate School of Business, University of Cape Town meet the peak electricity demand in
Dr S Lennon Mauritius
Managing Director (Resources & Strategy Division), Eskom Khalil Elahee
Mr P W Schaberg 16 Outdoor testing of amorphous and
Sasol Oil Research and Development
crystalline silicon solar panels at
Thohoyandou
Administration and subscriptions
Ms Ann Steiner
Eric Maluta and Vaithianathaswami
Sankaran
Annual subscriptions 2011 (four issues) 23 Renewable energy, poverty alleviation and
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developing nations: Evidence from Senegal
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Corporate (beyond Africa): US$218 (single copy US$77) 35 The impact of health behaviour change
Cost includes VAT and airmail postage. intervention on indoor air pollution
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indicators in the rural North West Province,
South Africa
Enquiries may be directed to:
The Editor, Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, Brendon Barnes, Angela Mathee and
Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town, Elizabeth Thomas
Private Bag, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
Tel: +27 (021) 650 3894
45 Experimental study on heat and mass
Fax: +27 (021) 650 2830 transfer for heating milk
E-mail: Richard.Drummond@uct.ac.za Mahesh Kumar, K S Kasana, Sudhir Kumar
Website: www.erc.uct.ac.za and Om Prakash
It is the policy of the Journal to publish papers covering the
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accepted; conference papers delivered but not published 56 Forthcoming energy and energy-related
elsewhere are also welcomed. Short comments, not conferences and courses: 2011–2012
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© Energy Research Centre ISSN 1021 447X

Dissemination of solar water heaters in South Africa

Keh-Chin Chang
Energy Research Centre, National Cheng Kung University

Wei-Min Lin
Department of Business of Administration, Tainan University of Technology

Greg Ross
Institute of International Management, National Cheng Kung University

Kung-Ming Chung
Energy Research Centre, National Cheng Kung University

Abstract Introduction
Global concern over a looming energy crisis, water The level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions tak-
scarcity and man-made climate change are driving a ing place today is staggering and unprecedented.
huge demand for clean technologies, which focus Many scientists, geologists and academics believe
on preserving the earth’s resources. In South Africa, that global warming and climate change have
the economy is very energy-intensive with coal indeed reached their tipping point. In particular, the
being the main national energy supply. In view of level and momentum of polar ice sheet degradation
the growing depletion of fossil fuel, it is important has stunned scientists. Applications of renewable
for South Africa to adopt a more sustainable energy energy technologies represent an opportunity for
mix. This study examines the potential for wide- systemic change. They have the potential to
spread dissemination of solar water heaters (SWHs) empower governments and individuals to con-
in South Africa. Barriers and constraints to market tribute to mitigate climate change, while at the same
expansion are analyzed to determine strategies for time facilitate employment and skill creation.
overcoming these barriers. It is found that payback Among the applications, solar water heating is a rel-
period of a SWH is shorter than the life-span of the atively simple technology which has been around
system itself, indicating that SWHs are economical- for over fifty years but has demonstrated tremen-
ly viable even with low production cost of electrici- dous potential in reducing the level of GHG emis-
ty and thus represent a profitable investment propo- sions. Thus, SWHs are rapidly becoming an integral
sition for end users, manufacturers and distributors. part of worldwide measures to combat the effects of
However, the subsidy programs offered by the gov- climate change. In 2008, the total capacity in oper-
ernment of South Africa may not be sufficient to ation worldwide was 150 683 MWth, which corre-
facilitate diffusion. This is attributed to the high ini- sponded to 215 262,126 m2 of solar collector
tial capital cost of the system and low affordability of installed (Weiss et al., 2010).
the majority of the South Africa population with low Since South Africa is located in the subtropical
income. Alternative financing mechanisms are belt between latitude 22°S and 34°S, there is abun-
required. dant sunshine throughout the year. It has one of the
highest insolation rates in the world, between 4.5
Keywords: solar water heater, South Africa, subsidy kWh/m2 and 6.5 kWh/m2, and receives about 2 500
hours of sunshine a year (over 300 days of sunshine
per year in some provinces) (Munzhedzi et al.,
2009). This high level of solar radiation enables
solar water heating to be the least-cost method of
meeting the national target for increased use of
renewable energy technologies. However, it is
known that SWHs are more expensive than con-
ventional forms of hot water production by lique-

2 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011

fied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas or electricity. 2009, the accessibility was at a high of 91.7% in the
Support mechanisms such as subsidies have the Free State (the second smallest province in number
effect of shortening the payback period, which of households) and a low of 69.8% in the Eastern
would make the investment more attractive and Cape (the third largest province in number of
therefore increase the likelihood of adoption. households). Note that 13.5% of households also
This study utilized complementary elements of had their electricity cut because of non-payment. In
both desk and field research. Data was acquired addition, electricity consumption in South African
through review of literature including journal households accounts for approximately 35% of
papers, official publications and websites. In addi- peak demand with hot water production constitut-
tion, a field survey was conducted using telephone ing 40% of that (Lumba et al., 2010). To alleviate
calls followed up by e-mail questionnaires to the burden on the national grid, Eskom launched a
approximately 20 SWH-related parties in South Demand Side Management Program in 2006. This
Africa, including manufacturers such as Suntank program, which is to facilitate a more sustainable
(Pty) Ltd, Solar Heat Exchangers cc, Genersys energy mix, focuses on reducing electricity demand
South Africa, Solar Harvest (Pty) Ltd, Kwikot (Pty) by 3 000 MW by 2012, and a further 5 000 MW by
Ltd amongst others, as well as governmental and 2025.
non-governmental institutions such as the
Department of Energy, the Central Energy Fund
(CEF), the Sustainable Energy Society of South National policy of South Africa on SWHs
Africa (SESSA) and Eskom. The survey aims to The government’s White Paper on Renewable
gain an in-depth understanding of barriers to wide- Energy Policy (2003) has supported the establish-
spread dissemination of SWHs in South Africa. ment of renewable energy technologies, targeting
Possible dissemination drivers are also proposed, the provision of 10 000 GWh of electricity (or 4% of
which would assist policy-makers in formulating projected electricity demand) from renewable
effective countermeasures and strategies. resources by 2013. SWHs could contribute up to
23% of this target. Note that currently less than 1%
Energy situation in South Africa of electricity generated in the country originates
The South African economy is very energy-inten- from renewable energy technologies (Visagie et al.,
sive and is dominated by the mining and manufac- 2006). According to the latest report by the
turing industries. The country uses a large amount International Energy Agency (IEA), Weiss et al.
of energy for every unit of output, requiring 0.24 (2010) mentioned that the total collector area
tons of oil equivalent to produce US$1 000 of GDP installed and operating in South Africa was 975 360
at purchasing power parity. Energy efficiency is thus m2 by the end of 2008 and the total capacity of all
a crucial part of energy planning. Further, the these systems combined was 682.8 MWth.
national energy supply in South Africa has been It is considered that the delivery of SWHs could
dominated by coal, which contributes to about 70% potentially reduce the overall national energy
of the primary energy supply and 92% of electricity demand and the load at critical peak times of the
production (Winkler et al., 2006). Between 2002 day in South Africa. The SWH industry, however, is
and 2006, South Africa alone raised its coal pro- faced with constraints in terms of standardization,
duction by more than half the world’s increase in awareness, affordability and financing which
the equivalent volume or primary energy from impede widespread dissemination. In particular, the
other forms of new renewable energy since 1990 high upfront capital cost of a system is of great con-
(Jefferson, 2008). However, the reliance on coal cerns. Thus, there is a significant body of knowl-
has resulted in high levels of GHG emission (379 edge in both industry and academia to support the
million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent per year, modelling and development of SWHs in South
or 8.61 tons per capita) (Banks et al., 2006 ), mak- Africa. In 2003, SolaSure (the solar water heating
ing South Africa one of the top 20 GHG emitters in division, SESSA) was established for the delivery of
the world. Moreover, Winkler et al. (2006) predict- services in the SWH industry. Several task groups
ed that future energy demand in South Africa will were initiated to address the following: (1) quality
double by the year 2050. This magnitude of expan- control and testing; (2) standards and testing facili-
sion in energy demand is neither feasible nor sus- ties/procedures; (3) marketing and membership; (4)
tainable. The state-owned power utility, Eskom, interaction with Eskom; (5) research and develop-
would no longer have excess capacity it had and is ment; and (6) interaction with international bodies
struggling to keep up with peak demand, not to (Visagie et al., 2006). The CEF also assisted
mention the great impact of fossil fuel consumption SolaSure in executing these tasks. Some initiatives
on the natural environment. were made to develop the skill base of the industry.
While electricity generated from coal in South These included in-house training by individual
Africa is among the cheapest in the world, its acces- companies and Eskom, and national programs
sibility is still a problem for many of its citizens. In granted by the Energy Sector Education and

Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 3

Training Authority (ESETA). lectors have always been 20%-30% those of
Since SWHs have considerable potential to unglazed solar collectors, as shown in Figure 1.
leverage electricity savings and reduce GHG emis- Presumably it was because unglazed solar collectors
sions, some promotion programs were initiated by have been used mainly in luxury swimming pool
some local governments, such as the Kuyasa low- applications. In 2008, the area of solar collector
cost housing project, the Johannesburg Climate installed was about 100 000 m2 and 21 000 m2 for
Legacy SWH project at Oude Molen, and the unglazed and glazed solar collectors, respectively.
Driftsands SWH housing project (Visagie et al., However, a greater impact on sales of unglazed
2006). Further, Eskom has granted rebates of up to solar collectors could be expected due to the recent
30% (the maximum incentive amount at ZAR 5 economic recession. Furthermore, the size of glazed
000) on accredited systems since 2008. Under the solar collector systems (domestic SWHs) is linked to
current initiative, each system is measured and allo- a hot water usage profile and the number of people
cated an amount of rebate calculated according to living in a household. Since electric auxiliary heat-
the energy footprint measured by the South African ing is usually not available in all areas, Holm (2005)
Bureau of Standards (SABS). To receive rebates, indicated that a weighted national average would
homeowners must take delivery of systems by offi- require 4.69 m2 of solar collector installed per
cial Eskom suppliers. To become an official Eskom household. This corresponds to the major market
supplier one must offer a five-year guarantee, have share of 200-litre SWHs (68%) in South Africa. In
a proven track record of viability, a certificate from 2009, the number of households was estimated to
the SABS and a membership with SESSA. It is be about 13 812 000 (SSA, 2010). For the poten-
noted the application process still foresees to have tial SWH demand, this would create a demand of
the customer pay the full cost of the system upfront about 64.8 million square metres (100% market
and claim the rebate thereafter. In 2010, Eskom penetration) or 19.4 million square metres (30%
announced an increase in rebates for high-pressure market penetration). However, for the real potential
solar thermal systems. The aim of this new program SWH market in South Africa, the dissemination
is to encourage as many South Africans as possible barriers (such as affordability) should be further
to move away from electric geysers (4.2 million in taken into account.
the country), and replace them with SWHs (76 873
operating units in 2009). Residential homeowners
or tenants could be granted a cash rebate of up to
ZAR 12 500. This would make SWHs more afford-
able to consumers, particularly for the rapid emer-
gence of a non-white middle class.

SWH market
A questionnaire survey was conducted by Eskom
(2009). It intended to gather technical, financial and
operational information about the SWH industry in
South Africa. Although there are over 100 suppliers
in SESSA, only 39 suppliers gave some inputs to
the process, revealing that many of the suppliers Figure 1: Area of solar collector installed per
were not active. From the historical data of the annum
SWH industry, significant growth took place during Source: IEA
the periods 1979-1983 and 2005-2008. The area of
solar collector installed hit the 100 000 m2 mark in Dissemination barriers
2008. However, the growth was accommodated by Dissemination of SWHs in South Africa is associat-
the industry with very little additional capital equip- ed with a number of factors, which include corpo-
ment apart from additional warehousing space for rate social responsibility (GHG emission and global
companies importing SWHs. climate change), consumer awareness (supporting
In the South African market, both glazed and education and information programs), economic
unglazed flat-plate solar collectors have been adopt- considerations (financial incentives, cost of electric-
ed for most SWHs. Domestic manufacturers can ity, capital cost, income and expenditure), technical
meet about 60% of the local demand in 2009. The support (training program, quality assurance and
evacuated tube solar collectors, which are mainly standards), strategic marketing (brand image and
imported from China and Germany, came on to the entire value chain) and regulations (housing proj-
market in 2005 and only accounted for slightly over ect) (Visagie et al., 2006; Eskom, 2009). In particu-
5% sales of glazed solar collectors. For the relation- lar, the economic feasibility of SWHs is considered
ship between glazed and unglazed solar collectors, vital for market expansion. For income sources,
a remarkable fact is that the sales of glazed solar col- most households in South Africa are dependent on


salaries (a low of 49.1% in Eastern Cape and a high performance tests for SWHs with specified condi-
of 76.6% in Western Cape). However, grants also tions and apparatus. The SWH performance indi-
constituted another major income source. The cator is given as the ratio of incoming solar energy
national average was 43.7% in 2009 (a low of on solar collector area and useful heat absorbed by
28.9% in Gauteng and a high of 57.7% in a SWH. SWH products bearing the SABS
Limpopo). In some provinces (Eastern Cape, Approved Mark meet the required quality and min-
Limpopo, Northern Cape and Free State), grants imum performance. Further, thermal performance
were the main source of income for many house- of a SWH should be associated with quality of solar
holds (SSA, 2010). collectors. However, there are no South African
Sidiras and Koukios (2004) pointed out that one standards for quality testing of solar collectors at this
of the major dissemination barriers for SWHs moment. This could be a serious obstacle in devel-
among households is other investment priorities. If oping solar collector products for both local and
the capital cost is less than a specific fraction of fam- international markets. In addition, it is important to
ily income, the household might be willing to invest increase knowledge related to SWHs. Skill training
in the purchase of a SWH. In South Africa, expen- workshops for local SWH manufacturers and
diture on housing, transport and food dominated installers are required for quality products and
household consumption (close to 60% of the total), installation.
especially for low-income households which allocat-
ed a higher proportion of their expenditure to food, Financial analysis
non-alcoholic beverages, clothing and footwear As mentioned, the local market of SWHs in South
(SSA, 2008). Thus, a high initial capital cost of a Africa has been mainly impeded by the financial
SWH would be the biggest hurdle to market expan- barrier. The potential for widespread dissemination
sion. Visagie and Prasad (2006) indicated that the of SWHs is essentially associated with economic
housing plans made by the government of South profitability. Under this circumstance, some lesions
Africa should include extra grant for SWH installa- can be learned from Taiwan market development.
tion. Then SWHs could become affordable to the Indeed, the well orchestrated and concerted efforts
poor and fitted in new housing as well as retrofitted (the long-term subsidy programs, 1986-1991,
in old ones. The Clean Development Mechanism 2000-present) put forward by the government of
(CDM) also provides a financing mechanism. This Taiwan have played a significant role in market
could potentially make SWHs more accessible to expansion of SWHs during the last few decades
the less well-off majority of the population (Chang et al., 2011). Furthermore, payback period
Chang et al. (2009) indicated that the ownership is considered a critical element in the consumer
and architectural type of buildings would limit the adoption decision process. In this study, a net ener-
space available for SWH installation. Apartments gy analysis for SWHs by Sidiras and Koukios
and community housing are the major types of (2004) was adopted, in which the payback period is
housing in urban Taiwan. It would be difficult to calculated using the balance between the present-
install a standalone SWH in those types of build- time cost of the system (initial plus yearly costs
ings. In South Africa, the full and partial ownership including operation, repair and maintenance), and
of housing were 56.0% and 10.9% in 2009, respec- the benefits from conventional energy savings with
tively; with 20.9% of the households being rented reference to the present time. For the initial capital
(SSA, 2010). In terms of type of dwelling, most cost, the estimated unit price of a SWH (Eskom,
houses were built with bricks (63.5%) or traditional 2009) is shown in Figure 2.
materials (10.2%); and SWHs can thus be installed
on the roof of houses. Furthermore, it is also known
that there are many informal housing settlements
with a single water tap situated outside in South
Africa. This would be a significant barrier.
To reinforce a product’s intrinsic features in
South Africa, the SABS has issued the SABS
Approved Mark. An independent certification is
conducted by a third party. Thus, the mark is con-
sidered a highly recognizable symbol of credibility
and a powerful marketing tool. For SWHs, estab-
lishment of a standard is also one of the key factors
contributing to a positive acceptance of the con-
sumers. South African standard (SANS 6211-
2:2003) is in compliance with the existing local and Figure 2: Unit price of SWHs
international standards, which includes one-day Source: Eskom (2009)
outdoor and three one-day indoor basic thermal


As can be seen the average unit price increases with Thus, the Government of South Africa should lead
tank size, particularly for the 300-litre system. This by example and have government buildings fitted
is not consistent with the study by Chang et al. with SWHs, to encourage the general populace to
(2009), in which the unit price of a SWH decreases adopt. The installation of SWHs should be made
with a larger area of solar collectors installed. Then mandatory in all housing being constructed by the
in terms of cost breakdown, Holm (2005) indicated government.
that the local manufacturers were reluctant to share
information. However, the average price of a glazed
solar collector system in South Africa was estimated
to be 3 736 ZAR/m2. Materials and labour account- Acknowledgements
ed for 31.2% and 16% of the price, respectively. In Special thanks go to Mr. John Murray (former Vice-
addition, the cost of distribution, installation and President of Newbridge Telecommunications Networks)
maintenance of systems represented almost a third for his kind assistance in this study. Sincere thanks also go
of the total installation cost. to Andrew Janisch, Sustainable Energy Society of South
The benefit of using a SWH (output energy of Africa (SESSA), for providing essential data on SWHs in
solar collectors) instead of traditional alternatives South Africa. This work was also supported by the
(fuel price) can be realized in terms of the monetary Bureau of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Republic
value of electricity saving. In South Africa, the aver- of China.
age annual domestic electricity consumption for hot
water heating was about 3 400 kWh. With the solar
insolation and sunshine duration taken into References
account, there could be about 60% of hot water Banks, D. and Schaffler J. (2006), The potential
production (approximately 2 000 kWh) covered by contribution of renewable energy in South
SWHs (Ross, 2010). However, due to low electrici- Africa, Sustainable Energy and Climate Change
ty cost, the yearly benefit is estimated to be only Project (SECCP).
about ZAR 1 100. Furthermore, the discount rate Chang, K.C., Lin, W.M., Lee, T.S. and Chung, K.M.
(2009), Local market of solar water heaters in
(cost of system less discount by subsidy or tax
Taiwan: Review and perspectives, Renewable
rebate) and inflation rate could be also included in and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 13, 2605-
the payback period calculation (Sidiras et al., 2612.
2004). Ross (2010) pointed out that the payback Chang K.C., Lin W.M., Lee T.S. and Chung K.M.
period of SWHs in South Africa is estimated be 4 (2011), Subsidy Programs on Diffusion of Solar
years while their lifetime could be up to 25 years, Water Heaters: Taiwan’s Experience. Energy
indicating the feasibility of SWH expansion in Policy Vol. 39, Issue 2, 563-567.
South Africa. However, the vast majority of South Eskom Distribution (2009). The South Africa solar
Africans with lower disposable incomes still cannot water heater industry.
afford the high capital cost of SWHs without sub- Holm, D. (2005). Market survey of solar water heat-
sidy. Thus, alternative financing methods need to ing in South Africa for the Energy Development
be implemented to make SWHs more accessible to Corporation (EDC) of the Central Energy Fund
the general public. For example, SWHs could be (CEF), SolaSure.
offered on a lease basis where repayments are less Jefferson, M. (2008), Accelerating the transition to
than the electricity savings, so effectively the end sustainable energy systems, Energy Policy, Vol.
36, 416-425.
user is getting a system for free or for a very small
Lumba, P and Sebitosi, A.B. (2010). Evaluating the
.
monthly repayment sum.
impact of consumer behaviour on the perform-
Conclusions ance of domestic solar water heating systems in
This study aims to gain insight into what factors South Africa, Journal of Energy in Southern
influence the consumer adoption decision process, Africa, Vol. 21 No. 1; 25-34.
which in turn, determines possible dissemination of Munzhedzi, R. and Sebitosi A.B. (2009). Redrawing
SWHs in South Africa. As expected, economic con- the solar map of South Africa for photovoltaic
siderations are the key factors. Current subsidy pro- applications, Renewable Energy, Vol. 34, 165-
grams are not sufficient to facilitate diffusion. 169.
Alternative financing mechanisms such as third- Ross, G. (2010). Solar water heater diffusion in
party financing as well as low-interest loans and Taiwan and South Africa, Masters Thesis,
access to credit for SWH purchases should be con- Institute of International Management, National
sidered. This would make SWHs more competitive Cheng Kung University.
with traditional electric water heating systems. Sidiras, D.K and Kouhios, E.G. (2004). Solar sys-
tems diffusion in local markets, Energy Policy,
Indeed, the greatest benefit for South Africa is that
Vol. 32, 2007-2018.
SWHs can serve the greatest need. The challenge is
Statistics South Africa (SSA, 2008), Income and
how to make SWHs available to the people who expenditure of households 2005/2006: analysis
need it the most, the population with low income.


of results, Report number 01-00-01.
Statistics South Africa (SSA, 2010). General house-
hold survey.
Visagie, E. and Prasad, G. (2006), South Africa:
Biodiesel and solar water heaters, Energy
Research Centre. University of Cape Town,
South Africa.
Weiss, W., Bergmann, I. and Faninger, G. (2010).
Solar heat worldwide: markets and contribution
to the energy supply, 2010 editions,
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Nkomo, J., Sparks, D., Howells, M, and Alfstad,
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opment in South Africa, Energy Research
Centre. University of Cape Town, South Africa.
Received 3 September 2010; revised 3 January 2011


The challenges and potential options to meet the peak
electricity demand in Mauritius

Khalil Elahee
Faculty of Engineering, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius

Abstract OEP: Outline Energy Policy
This paper reviews the current challenges facing MID: Maurice Ile Durable (Mauritius Sustainable
Mauritius in terms of meeting peak electricity Island) project
demand. As a fast-developing island-economy with SIPP: Small ondependent power producer
a very high population density, this is a crucial issue.
The more so that it imports 80% of its energy
requirements in terms of fossil fuels, relies signifi-
cantly on tourism and needs to protect its fragile 1. Introduction
ecosystems. The nature of the peak electricity As a fast-developing economy, Mauritius has to
demand and its evolution is firstly analysed. meet increasing energy demand, particularly in
Reference is made to past scenarios for electricity terms of peak electricity as shown in Figure 1.
supply, the obstacles to their implementation and In 2009, the peak demand attained 389 MW
their relevance in terms of sustainability. The fore- (Hansard, 2009a), representing an increase of 17 %
casts underpinning the latter scenarios are found to over the last 5 years. The peak occurs during sum-
be over-estimated. Demand-Side Management mer with the difference in the maximum demands
projects are discussed and their potential to promote between summer and winter increasing from 25
an alternative scenario based on revised forecasts MW in 2004 to 40 MW in 2008. This difference is
are discussed. Hence a new Maurice Ile Durable due to the massive use of ventilation, air-condition-
(Mauritius Sustainable Island, MID) scenario is pro- ing and refrigeration during the summer months,
posed in view of stabilising the peak demand, particularly during the recent years that have been
reducing the rate of increase of total electricity marked with high average temperatures and the
demand and making the capacity margin positive. construction boom in the residential, tourism and
The newly-devised scenario is not only more sus- services sectors.
tainable but also addresses several political and It has been demonstrated that the correlation
socio-economic issues to bring holistic win-win solu- coefficient between peak demand and atmospheric
tions. Institutional and regulatory reforms as well as temperature is above 0.9 (Badurally et al., 2009).
a relevant Business Framework are also important This is illustrated for 2008 in Figure 2. It is to be
in order to meet the challenges of MID. The new noted that both average humidity and number of
scenario relies only on existing technology with an hours of sunshine increase in summer and, hence,
excellent track-record and provides the transition to tend to increase the peak demand.
a more sustainable future.
1.1 Supply
Keywords: peak demand, electricity, Mauritius, Figure 3 illustrates how the peak demand is typical-
demand-side management, sustainability ly met at the supply end. From the bottom of the
chart upwards, electricity is generated from base-
load coal or bagasse power plants owned by inde-
Acronyms pendent power producers or IPPs (CTDS, Beau-
CEB Central Electricity Board Champ, FUEL, CTSAV and CTBV). The other
CSO Central Statistics Office plants are owned by the Central Electricity Board
DSM Demand-side management (CEB), the sole distributor and supplier of grid
DST: Daylight Saving Time power. It is to be noted that the CEB generates
GDP: Gross development product power from hydro (including Champagne), fuel oil
IPP: Independent power producer (Fort George, St Louis and Fort Victoria) and


Figure 1: Peak electricity demand from 2004 to 2008
Source: CSO (2008a)

Figure 2. Impact of GDP, temperature, humidity
and number of hours of sunshine on peak Figure 3. Typical load supply curve of electricity from
electricity demand for 2008 power plants (listed from bottom first)
Source: Badurally et al. (2009) Source: Kassim (2010)

kerosene (Nicolay). The latter, using a 76 MW gas even more expensive when compared to bagasse at
turbine, is normally reserved for emergency pur- market prices. The latter is fully utilised but the effi-
poses and is occasionally run for peaking only, ciency of its conversion can be improved by the
given that its cost is at least four-fold higher. introduction of high pressure cogeneration plants.
It is to be noted that the distribution losses Together with the use of other biomasses like cane
amount to about 10% (CEB, 2008). The total tops and leaves, at least three times more electricity
installed capacity is now 504 MW, including can be produced using currently available technol-
allowance for maintenance, repairs and a 10% ogy (Autrey et al., 2006). This will ensure also a
spinning reserve (Hansard, 2009b). Currently more stronger substitution of coal, used during the inter-
than 60% of electricity is generated by the IPPs, the crop season, by renewable biomass. Figure 4 shows
CEB being responsible mostly for the semi-base the energy mix for power generation for 2008. The
and peak load power supply areas. Much of the wind power indicated is negligible and refers to the
CEB capacity is not fully exploited because of bind- island to Rodrigues.
ing contracts with IPPs to give priority to their base-
load supply and because of the dependence on 1.2 Demand-side management
rainfall for hydropower. In 2009, the amount of power generated was
It is to be noted that fuel oil and kerosene used almost the same as in 2008. Moreover, the peak
by CEB are more costly compared to coal, and demand moved to the morning during the summer


Table 1: Power generation by source in 2008
understood that there is a growing awareness on
Source: CSO (2008b)
DSM resulting in an effective drop in power
Source of energy GWh % demand, particularly in the evening. It is difficult
Primary energy 108.4 4.2 to estimate its exact impact but it is possible that
Hydro (renewable energy) 108.0 4.2 it may reach as much as 15 MW occasionally,
comparable to the drop noted immediately after
Wind (renewable energy) 0.4 0.0
sharp rises in prices like in 2007.
Secondary energy 2 448.8 95.8
iv) As a pilot project, Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Gas turbine (kerosene) 6.6 0.3 was adopted from October 2008 to March 2009.
Diesel & fuel oil 827.1 32.3 The project has now been dropped primarily
Coal 1 128.7 44.1 because of public outcry related to social and
Bagasse (renewable energy) 486.4 19.0 cultural disruption, but also because the expect-
Total 2 557.2 100.0 ed energy savings were not achieved. The sum-
Of which: renewable energy mer of 2009-2010 had ended without DST and
(hydro, wind & bagasse) 594.8 23.3 there is no evidence to prove that the pilot proj-
ect had a significant positive impact. Above all,
since December 2008, but more regularly ever
after, the maximum peak electricity demand has
months, instead of occurring in the evening as usu- been occurring in the morning during weekdays
ally observed in the past. In fact, a plateau of about in summer. Nevertheless, it cannot be over-
380 MW was recorded in the morning and early looked that DST did reduce the evening peak.
afternoon during hot summer weekdays (Assirva- However, the actual amount may be much less
den, 2010). This confirms the trend noted recently than the 15 MW average that was been put for-
with the massive use of ventilation, air-conditioning ward by the CEB (Elahee, 2008).
and refrigeration in residential, touristic, commercial
and office buildings. 2. Forecasts
The stabilisation of the demand for electricity in In the light of the above, electricity demand fore-
2009, together with a peak demand growth of only casts were revised slightly downwards in 2009
2%, were the direct results of Demand-Side (Hansard, 2009d). Figures 4, 5 and 6 depict the ini-
Management (DSM) measures coupled with a slow- tial forecasted demands as from 2003 and the actu-
ing of the economic growth to 2.5% in 2009. The al figures up to 2008. As noted, the demand for
influence of GDP on peak electricity demand has 2009 is now known to be very close to that of 2008.
already been evoked above. The obvious deduction from the graphs is that
There were four DSM measures that interacted the forecasted CEB figures are well above actual
to achieve the situation in 2009. values. The difference for 2010 stands at 50 MW
i) Some 1 million Compact Fluorescent Lamps between the CEB forecast and the trend based on
(CFLs) were distributed at subsidized costs to the the recent values recorded. In 2015, this gap
general public from August 2008 to early 2009. increases to 100 MW. Even considering the latest
As a result, the Government estimates that an forecasted values made public in 2009, the differ-
average saving of 14 MW has been achieved ence is not less (Hansard, 2009d). The DSM impact
during the evening peak (Hansard, 2009c). discussed amounting to a total average drop of
Studies conducted at the University of Mauritius about 25 MW had not been considered in the CEB
on Energy Management in the residential sector forecasts in 2003 and in 2007.
indicates that the impact of CFLs was probably It can be argued that under the combined effect
even more significant, of up to 25 MW (Baha- (1) of sustained DSM to bring a total reduction of
door, 2009; Ramnarain, 2009). peak demand of 30 MW by 2012 and (2) of mod-
ii) More than 25 000 solar water heaters were erate economic growth of between 2 and 5 % of
installed in 2008 with the introduction of a direct GDP over the same period, the peak electricity
subsidy of Rs 10 000 (approx. USD 300) per demand is likely to stabilise at about 400 MW. This
unit. This has led to a reduced utilisation of elec- is close to the extrapolated trend shown in Figure 6.
tric water heaters. It is reasonable to estimate an Similarly, Figure 5 depicts a more realistic trend
average reduction of about 5 MW on the if DSM is pursued, along with moderate economic
evening peak resulting from the latter measure. growth as is now predicted to happen over the next
Iii) The Government introduced a national energy- few years by most specialists (EconomyWatch,
saving campaign under the Maurice Ile Durable 2010). In any event, one of the key objectives of
(MID) project focusing on all sectors. Sensitiz- DSM is to decouple GDP and energy requirement.
ation on peak demand reduction was the focus This is made easier by the ongoing transforma-
of a sustained campaign. Although the last tions in the economy of Mauritius as the services
increase in electricity prices was in 2007, it is sector grows and diversifies at the expense of the


Figure 4: Forecast of peak electricity demand made in 2003
Source: CEB (2003)

Figure 5. Forecast of total electricity demand and comparison with actual
Source: CEB (2007a)

energy-intense manufacturing and agricultural sec- ensure energy efficient practices related to appli-
tors. ances and buildings respectively.
DSM can be the key to meeting the energy iii) Solar-water heating, including in air-condition-
demands, including morning peaks during week- ing and refrigeration, sustainable design of
days in summer, provided the following specific ori- buildings and energy-efficiency improvement in
entations are urgently adopted: industry and tourism should a full priority by the
i) The Energy Management Office to facilitate private sector.
DSM in all sectors, already announced by the iv) The onus should no more be on the CEB to pro-
Government in the 2010 Budget, should be set vide 100% of electricity needed by industrial,
up without delay (MoF, 2009). hotel and commercial promoters. The latter
ii) The Energy Efficiency Act under preparation and should be required to ensure optimal design and
the Building Code should be promulgated to energy use on their facilities, including the


Figure 6. Forecast of peak electricity demand and comparison with actual
Source: CEB (2007b)

implementation of Energy Management pro- have had an estimated extra cost of 5%. The 15
grammes and recourse to renewable energy. MW coal/bagasse project scheduled for 2008 did
New cities and similar projects should be sub- not happen. Thus far, no project has been complet-
jected to strict environmental standards, included. The current intention of the CEB to promote the
ing energy use. The proposed Land-Based construction of a 110 MW coal-fired plant and to
Oceanic Industry (MLBOPL, 2009; MRC, 2010) invest in a 30 MW fuel oil-fired plant implies that
is an example of such a new approach where the Base Scenario is very much the one on course,
promoters are responsible for sustainable energy albeit with a delay of two, if not three years.
input. The Compromise Scenario would have also
v) Pricing policy for energy, including Time-of-Use included the closing down of the 20 MW Beau
Tariff for electricity and feed-in tariffs, as well Champ plant in 2009 and its replacement by an
energy taxes should be integrated within a MID equivalent power plant in FUEL in 2009. This did
Business Framework, together with incentive not happen. A 20 MW Waste-to-Energy project and
packages for sustainable energy. a 25 MW wind farm, concomitant with the
Compromise Scenario and expected to start oper-
3. New MID scenario ating in 2009, are also behind schedule. In fact, the
In 2007, the Outline Energy Policy (OEP 2007c)
, former has now been degraded to a 7 MW propos-
was published focusing on changing the depend- al and is subject to much controversy just like the
ence of the country on oil to one on coal. The coal-only power plant.
Compromise Scenario shown in Table 2 was the The concept of Maurice Ile Durable (Mauritius
one retained by the CEB. The All Sugar Cane Sustainable Island, MID) started to be formally
Scenario was rejected on the basis that it would implemented in 2008. At the heart of the MID

Table 2: Scenarios for power generation
Source: OEP (2007d)
Year Base Sugar cane Compromise
Scenario Scenario Scenario
2008 30 MW diesel 42 MW coal/bagasse 15 MW coal/ bagasse
2009 42 MW coal/bagasse 50 MW coal
2010 50 MW coal 42 MW coal/bagasse 50 MW cCoal
2011 42 MW coal/bagasse 15 MW coal/bagasse
2012 50 MW coal


vision is the need to shift from fossil fuels, including top residues will be promoted. Biogas also can
coal, to renewables and to promote Demand Side be used. It favours the active and urgent imple-
Management (DSM). The vision is that in 2028, as mentation of the wind power projects. It
much as 65% of the energy mix for electricity gen- assumes the coming into operation of a 30 MW
eration in Mauritius should come from renewables fuel-oil power plant in 2010, as already pur-
(MID Fund, 2008). This was confirmed by the chased by the CEB. In the long term, this facili-
Prime Minister in December 2009 in Copenhagen ty should, however, switch to biofuels.
with an appeal to help Mauritius achieve its objec- ii) Small plants: It also envisages the emergence of
tive (IELS, 2009). Small Independent Power Producers (SIPPs)
The delays imply that the capacity margin is at producing electricity either for the grid or for
an extremely dangerous level of -70 MW currently local use (biogas, hydro, photovoltaic and wind
with respect to the initial planning made in 2007 power units of less than 50 kW). A number of
(OEP 2007e). Catastrophic black-outs would have
, higher capacity renewable power projects
happened had it not been for the success of the should also start within that scenario (e.g. bio-
DSM efforts explained earlier. Moreover, it has been gas, micro-cogeneration, trigeneration or
reported that CEB is stretching the use of its hydropower projects of up to 2 MW). Stored or
resources and this is not without undue risk. pumped hydropower will also be optimally
Possible accidents due to regular switching on-and- exploited to reduce peak demand.
off of generators designed to operate constantly iii) DSM: The peak reduction due to DSM should be
cannot be excluded (Bibi, 2009). Similarly, equip- sustained under the MID Scenario and consoli-
ment is being used beyond their normal lifetime. dated to reach a total of at least 30 MW by
The Sugar-Cane Scenario offers best safe-guard 2012. This corresponds to an annual growth in
in the medium-to-long term against negative capac- demand of 2 to 3 % as compared to the unsus-
ity margins. The argument that it would have cost tainable 5 % average noted over the past
5% more than the Compromise Scenario is not a decade.
sound one to justify, alone, its rejection. Moreover,
the re-engineering of the cane sector is a matter of Table 3: New MID Scenario
strategic importance for the country. 2010 30 MW fuel oil at Fort Victoria (confirmed, later
Figure 7 illustrates the consequent evolution of switch to biofuel)
the capacity margin in MW, including the benefit
2011 50 MW bagasse/coal cogeneration + 20 to
related to DSM, for a new MID Scenario that is 40 MW wind + SIPPs
described in Table 3. The initial planning with
2012 50 MW Bagasse/Coal Cogeneration + 50 MW
respect to the timely retirement of CEB old engines
wind + SIPPs
is retained in this scenario. The capacity margin is
the difference between the forecasted peak demand
and the available capacity, allowing for mainte- Whilst being more sustainable, the new MID sce-
nance, repairs and spinning reserve. The CEB initial nario also responds to immediate priorities related
forecast for demand is used as benchmark in this to energy security, the re-engineering of the cane
case. sector and ensuring availability of electricity. These
The new MID scenario rests on three pillars: projects are technically ready to be implemented,
i) Large plants: It replaces the controversial coal- some having lingered in the development stage for
fired power plant by bagasse-coal plants that more than five years. The new scenario paves the
operate in cogeneration with high efficiency in way towards reaching the key targets of the MID
the context of the re-engineering of the cane project. The Compromise scenario, and even more
industry. The use of other biomasses like cane- the Base Scenario, will drift the country away from

Figure 7. Capacity margin (MW ) for New MID Scenario


that vision with the reliance on coal peaking at 54% towards implementing DSM (including institutional
for electricity generation by 2013 (MPU, 2007f; and regulatory measures) and introducing a coher-
MREPU, 2009). It is to be recalled that the price of ent Business Framework to favour the new MID
coal has known a rapid increase recently and that its Scenario for both centralized large plants and
access costs, as well as other hidden costs, are more decentralized small power producers. The survival
than 40% of the mine-to-user cost. Above-all in an of the cane industry as well as the opportunity of
era of global climate change, turning towards producing bioethanol from the latter industry are
imported coal at the expense of indigenous closely related to the implementation of efficient
resources is simply ridiculous. cogeneration plants where the use of bagasse, cane
The main obstacle to the new MID Scenario, tops and leaves as well as biogas is promoted.
however, is of a politico-administrative nature. A Sensitization, education and training should also
new partnership must be defined between the pub- not be neglected both for the sake of DSM as for the
lic and private sectors. The agreement reached by emergence of a green economy.
the Prime Minister with sugar cane-producers in The need of back-up for renewable energy proj-
December 2007 should serve as basis for innova- ects will be best handled through the integration of
tive win-win agreements between the two parties. intermittent sources as well as the combination of
The Cane Democratization Fund is an initiative in scattered decentralized units of diverse nature.
the right direction opening up the ownership of Storage of energy and the recourse to forecasting of
bagasse-coal cogeneration plants to all stakeholders output from intermittent sources will be extremely
in a spirit of equity (MLP 2 010).
, useful. Phased-out diesel or fuel-oil equipment as
The controversial and over-delayed projects for well as disused hydropower facilities can still be
a coal-only power plant and a Waste-to-Energy used to provide emergency response.
plant are discarded under the New MID Scenario This paper discusses the transition to a sustain-
and replaced by a more sustainable alternative. able energy future. After 2012, more ambitious
projects like photovoltaic parks or geothermal
4. Conclusion power can be considered in the context of a long-
The maximum peak electricity demand will still term energy master plan.
occur during week-days in summer, but in the To conclude, a holistic approach will have to be
morning rather than in the evening. Base and adopted putting politics and economy in the service
Compromise scenarios for electricity supply have of society and its environment. This is the essence
been proposed in the past based on overestimates of the MID project.
of actual demand. DSM opens the way to a New
MID Scenario favouring energy efficiency and the
use of renewables.
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Outdoor testing of amorphous and crystalline silicon solar
panels at Thohoyandou

Eric Maluta

Vaithianathaswami Sankaran
University of Venda, South Africa

Abstract the community members generally resort to seeking
The use of solar panels is becoming one of the advice from us about the use and the installation of
options for some of the rural communities in solar panels to generate electricity. It has become
Limpopo Province, South Africa, to get electrical necessary to assist the rural community regarding
energy for their radio and television sets as the the optimal use and the maintenance of the photo-
national grid may not reach them in the near future. voltaic (PV) system that are usually available on the
Hence, dissemination of knowledge of how to use market. To provide a meaningful suggestion to the
the solar devices and their maintenance is crucial community, it is important to carry out field tests on
for these communities. This will be possible only if the suitability of the panels. Effecting a successful
there is appropriate information available for the comparison between two different types of PV
potential end-users, installers and extension work- modules, would require the determination of their
ers. With this in mind, an attempt has been made to outdoor performance at known irradiance and tem-
evaluate the performance of an amorphous and a perature. For this purpose, we need to measure the
crystalline solar panel at our experimental site. open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current
Outdoor tests were conducted to measure solar (Isc), which will in turn, lead to the measurement of
radiation, open-circuit voltage, short circuit current, the output power of the modules. We will also
current-voltage (I-V) curve, fill-factor and conver- require the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of
sion efficiency and hence to compare the perform- these modules to make a useful comparison of their
ance of the two types of panels. It was found that efficiency.
both types give a satisfactory performance for the The choice of a suitable PV module for a given
climate of this region. location is generally guided by the actual energy
output under outdoor conditions, the validity of the
Keywords: Amorphous and crystalline silicon solar data supplied by the manufacturer and the implica-
panels, solar radiation, peak power, I-V curve, con- tions on cost of installations. Though the power out-
version efficiency, standard testing condition put and the efficiency rating of the panel given by
the manufacture can be taken as the starting point,
it is important to test these panels under outdoor
conditions to access the validity of the data in a
given location.

1. Introduction 2. Experimental considerations
In the north-eastern Limpopo, a large number of The present study was carried out at Solar Research
villages are yet to be connected to the national elec- Site situated at the University of Venda, Thohoyan-
tricity grid. People living in these villages opt for dou, Limpopo Province, South Africa, latitude
solar panels to get power for their television and 22.95°S and longitude 30.48°E. The site has a
radio sets, which form a major source for accessing Delta-T Weather Station Mast, which was used to
information from the regional communication sta- obtain the solar radiation and the temperature data
tions about the events taking place in the country during the performance of the study.
and the world at large. The University of Venda is a In the present investigation an amorphous (a-Si)
tertiary institution situated in the rural area of the far and a crystalline (c-Si) PV module are considered
north of the Limpopo Province in South Africa and for evaluation and comparison. The module de-


Table 1: Specifications of the solar panels
Specification Crystalline solar module Amorphous solar module
Manufacturer Astropower (AP-7105) Unisolar ( US-42-001416)
Peak power (Pmax) 75W 45W
Maximum power current (Imp) 4.4A 2.54A
Maximum power voltage (Vmp) 17.0V 16.5V
Short-circuit current (Isc) 4.8A 3.17A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 21.0V 23.8V

scriptions and the manufacturer data are given in (STC) (Treble, 1991).
Table 1. Module or array open-circuit voltage and mod-
The area of cross-section of each of the module ule cell temperature should be read concurrently,
is 0.63m2, so that the radiation (energy) falling on since open-circuit voltage is a function of cell tem-
the panels at any given time of the day is almost the perature. The module must be left in an open-circuit
same. The modules were purchased in South condition for a minimum of 15 minutes prior to the
Africa. taking of the open-circuit voltage reading to ensure
In order to evaluate the performance of the two representative cell temperature reading (Markvart,
panels under consideration, the solar radiation data 1994). Modules or arrays can contain cells, which
as well as the I-V curves are essential. Data Logger vary significantly in temperature throughout the
(Delta-T 2000) was used to measure the radiation module due to hot spot heating, caused by cracked
falling on the experimental location and to measure cells, mismatched cell or cell shading. Short-circuit
the temperature (daily and ambient temperature), currents should be measured immediately after the
while the DS tracer (DS Tracer 1996) was used to measurement of open-circuit voltage so that the test
record an I-V curve by varying the electrical imped- conditions are nearly identical (Markvart, 1994).
ance connected across the PV arrays terminals. Readings of the short-circuit current and irradiance
Varying the impedance from zero to infinity causes must be made concurrently to minimize errors. The
the array operating point to change from Isc to Voc. input signal (current-voltage to the DS Tracer) can
When the module is connected, the DS-Tracer also be used to calibrate the DS Tracer for radiation
accomplishes the impedance change through its and temperature. The input signals provide neces-
operating range and presents a set of current and sary details and after calibration they will be dis-
voltage values that form the I-V curves. played along with the I-V curve (DS Tracer 1996).
For designing and predicting the potential of any The calibration of the temperature can be carried
solar appliances at a location, we need monthly out by recording the ambient temperature of the
average daily solar radiation data on a horizontal panel using a thermometer and the details provided
surface. The operation and performance of PV could be utilized to get the temperature data on the
modules mainly depend on system configuration curve. Apart from those methods, the temperature
and weather conditions. Furthermore, the module of the solar cell can be determined by the equilibri-
temperature and solar irradiance determine the um between the sun’s radiation, the energy con-
module’s operational curve and the coupling of the verted to electrical energy and the energy re-radiat-
PV modules. In addition, the system components ed to cold space (Krishna et al., 2009)
determine where a system will operate on the PV
operational curve (Hecktheuer et al. 2004). It is 3. Results and discussion
desirable to operate a system near the maximum It is a generally accepted fact that the performance
power producing point on the module’s operational of crystalline silicon solar cells varies from location
curve either at all times (during the sunshine hours) to location (Lund et al., 2001). This variation is
or during worst-case operation condition (Fitz- caused by the difference in irradiation at different
patrick, 2004). locations, together with spectral response of the
The outdoor conditions under which a PV mod- solar cell, temperature effects, etc. For solar cells
ule is exposed are likely to be varying from the con- with a wide band gap (amorphous silicon solar cell)
ditions stipulated by the manufacturer. Hence, the it was observed that no long-term light induced
module may not perform at the desired points on degradation exists in the recent modules
the I-V curve in order to harness the maximum (Gottschalg et al., 2004). Lund et al., have studied
expected output. Commercially available PV mod- the stability of the amorphous silicon modules
ule rating and operating parameters are provided under outdoor conditions and reported that the effi-
with respect to the standards of American Society ciency of the amorphous solar cell is stabilized after
for Testing Materials (ASTM) at Standard Reporting the initial degradation. It was also deduced that
Condition (SRC) or Standard Testing Conditions under the actual working conditions the amorphous


solar cell could generate electrical power more Commercially available panels are rated with a
steadily compared with the crystalline solar cell peak power, but it should be noted that generally
(Lund et al. 2001). this peak power (observed maximum powers) will
not be harnessed since the factory testing condition
and the outdoor conditions are not similar. The
observed maximum powers for the crystalline and
amorphous modules for different months are given
in Table 2. Though the sunshine duration is about
10 hours on a sunny day at the experimental site,
readings are only presented from 10H00 to 15H00.
From Table 2, it can be noted that the observed
maximum power increases until it reaches a maxi-
mum at mid-day and drops as it moves to the
evening. It is observed that a maximum of 60W is
obtained for crystalline against the rated value of
75W and 33W for amorphous against the rated
Figure 1: Solar radiation at 12H00 for a period value of 45W (Maluta & Sankaran. 2007). The vari-
of one year ation in the observed maximum power is more in
crystalline module.
3.1 Solar radiation characteristics and peak It may also be seen that the observed maximum
power power variation from the average value does not
For the evaluation and assessment of the perform- vary significantly in the case of amorphous. In this
ance of a photovoltaic module at a given location, work, we have compared the variation by looking
it is necessary to get an overview of the solar radia- at the difference between the hourly observed max-
tion characteristics. Measurements of solar radiation imum powers for each month. It can be observed
at different times of the day during a period of one from the data that the variations of the crystalline
year were made. Figure 1 represents the radiation at and amorphous for the whole year are almost simi-
12H00 for different months under study at the lar in magnitude. These results are consistent with
experimental site. It can be seen that an average earlier results observed for amorphous PV
maximum per month of 870 W/m2 was measured (Gottschlag et al., 2004).
on a horizontal plane.
Peak power is the maximum power, which is 3.2 I-V characteristics
generated by a solar panel in full sunshine. The other important electrical characteristics of a

Table 2: Observed maximum power for crystalline and amorphous PV modules

Observed maximum power for Observed maximum power for
crystalline module (in W)1 amorphous module (in W)2
Time of the day(in –H00) Time of the day(in –H00)
10 11 12 13 14 15 10 11 12 13 14 15
Jul 39 46 48 42 38 36 19 26 26 25 24 20
Aug 46 47 52 48 47 45 21 27 29 27 24 23
Sep 49 54 55 55 52 48 23 29 30 29 26 25
Oct 50 55 57 54 51 50 25 29 31 28 27 26
Nov 52 55 59 53 52 50 28 30 32 29 28 26
Dec 52 58 60 56 53 50 28 31 33 29 28 25
Jan 54 55 58 53 52 50 27 29 32 28 27 25
Feb 48 50 55 51 45 43 27 28 30 28 26 24
Mar 48 50 54 47 46 44 25 26 29 27 26 21
Apr 44 49 53 51 50 46 24 26 28 27 26 25
May 44 48 51 50 46 45 23 27 28 26 25 23
Jun 43 46 49 44 42 41 20 28 27 25 25 23
Notes:
1. The maximum rated output power for crystalline (c-Si) module is 75W.
2. The maximum rated output power for amorphous (a-Si) module is 45W (the data was taken from July 2003 until
June 2004)


module are, short-circuit current (Isc), open-circuit
voltage (Voc) and maximum power point (Pmax). A
few sample curves obtained in the present study are
given in Figure 2. Maximum power is generated at
only one point on the I-V curve, at about the ‘knee’
of the curve, which represents the maximum effi-
ciency of the solar device in converting sunlight into
electricity.
The maximum Voc obtained for amorphous
Figure 2A1: for c-Si Figure 2A1: for a-Si solar panel is about 21.78V, whereas for the crys-
module (Oct) module (Oct) talline solar panel the maximum Voc obtained is
19.83V both in the month of December, when we
get the maximum radiation. The open-circuit volt-
age increases with an increase in the incident radia-
tion and time of the day. It can be noted from Table
3 that the values of Voc during mid-day for the
entire period of study for both modules do not vary
significantly.
Though variations in the values of the open-cir-
cuit voltage of an amorphous module and crys-
talline module are very small, it is noted that the Voc
Figure 2A1: for c-Si Figure 2A1: for a-Si is nearly the same for the amorphous module from
module (Nov) module (Nov) September to June. The maximum value for Isc,
obtained for amorphous solar panel is 2.736A,
while the maximum value for Isc obtained for the
crystalline panel is 4.566A. It is interesting to note
that these maximum values are recorded in
December 2003.
A sample curve of the variation of Isc with the
irradiation data collected for the month of May in
the present study is given in Figure 5. It may be
observed from this figure that as the irradiation
increases the short circuit current also increases.
Figure 2A1: for c-Si Figure 2A1: for a-Si This observation is concurrent with the observation
module (Dec) module (Dec) that the current generated by the solar energy is
proportional to the flux of photon with above-band-
Figure 2: Sample I-V curves for c-Si (crystalline) gap energy. This is because the irradiance increases
and a-Si (amorphous) modules for the months in the same proportion of the photon flux, which, in
of October, November and December, 2003 turn, generates a proportionately higher current

Table 3: Open-circuit voltage and short circuit voltage for both crystalline
and amorphous solar cells at 12H00
Radiation (Wm-2) Crystalline Amorphous
Voc (V) Isc (A) Voc (V) Isc (A)
Jul 2003 460 19.00 3.552 20.50 2.136
Aug 2003 500 19.30 4.268 21.78 2.220
Sep 2003 513 19.37 4.180 21.25 2.443
Oct 2003 500 19.42 4.468 21.59 2.642
Nov 2003 810 19.78 4.542 21.50 2.549
Dec 2003 870 19.83 4.566 21.10 2.736
Jan 2004 801 19.58 4.540 21.08 2.478
Feb 2004 792 19.32 4.455 21.70 2.378
Mar 2004 500 19.75 4.345 21.57 2.565
Apr 2004 510 19.54 4.435 21.56 2.363
May 2004 533 19.20 4.260 21.50 2.400
Jun 2004 490 19.30 3.752 21.70 2.236


(Markvart, 1994). It must be noted that in this work, increases. It can be seen from equation (1), that as
only the solar radiation on a horizontal surface have the irradiation increases the parameters in the
been considered. Other factors such as the differ- numerator also increase and we generally expect an
ence in the spectral responses to irradiance at vary- increase in the conversion efficiency. As stated by
ing incidence angle, and to irradiance of varying Dinçer et al., the effect of increase in the cell tem-
spectral composition are not considered. perature also play a role on the conversion efficien-
cy as Voc will decrease at high cell temperature
(Dinçer et al., 20101). However, the increase in the
open-circuit voltage and hence the peak power, is
not remarkable while the irradiation increases.
Hence, it is generally expected that the conversion
efficiency decreases as the irradiation increases
(Gottschalg et al., 2004; Markvart, 1994 & Stone,
1993).
As evident from Figures 4 and 5, a similar trend
Figure 3A: Variation of ISC versus irradiation is observed in our calculation. The average conver-
for May 2004 for c-Si module sion efficiency of the crystalline module during our
present study is 15.3 whereas the amorphous mod-
ule conversion efficiency is 8. These values com-
pare favourably with the generally expected values
which are approximately 15-17 for crystalline mod-
ules and approximately 5-7 for amorphous mod-
ules (Valizadeh 2001; Graham & Ficher 1994).

Figure 3B: Variation of ISC versus irradiation
for May 2004 for a-Si module

3.3 Conversion efficiency
The conversion efficiency of a solar cell is the per-
centage of the solar energy shining on a PV device
that is converted into electrical energy. The efficien-
cy of energy conversion is still low, thus requiring
large areas for sufficient insulation and raising con-
cern about unfavourable ratios of energies required
for cell production versus energy collected (Dinçer Figure 4: Conversion efficiency of the
et al., 20101). Thus, not all energy from sunlight crystalline and amorphous module at different
reaching a PV cell is converted into electricity. This times of the day (July 2003–June 2004)
may be due to the reflection and scattering of solar
radiation in the afternoon and also the increase in
the cell temperature (Dinçer et al., 20101). Hence, 3.4 Transposing to standard testing
there is an increase in the amount of light reflected condition
away from the cell surface. Therefore, minimizing Commercially available solar panels generally list
the amount of light reflected away from the cell’s the data for short-circuit current, open-circuit volt-
surface can increase the module’s conversion effi- age at standard test condition (STC). When these
ciency. modules are exposed to the outdoor conditions at
The conversion efficiency can be computed an experimental site, it is generally not possible to
using the following relation (Markvart, 1994): get the same values for the module parameters.
Obviously the irradiation and temperature of the
(1) modules will not remain constant. Hence, an
attempt was made to transpose the values of Voc
and Isc obtained in the present investigation to the
The fill factor (FF), short-circuit current (Isc) and STC. For this purpose, the following two equations
open-circuit voltage (Voc) increase as the irradiation (Hammond Backsus, 1994) were used.


i. (2) obtained using the conversion equations to trans-
pose the measured values of open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit current to STC did not compare
well with the manufacturers’ value at low irradiation
levels. The results of the peak power and conver-
ii. (3) sion efficiency measurements suggest that, with
proper installation and maintenance, both these
modules can be used by rural communities for cli-
where ns is number of series cells, Tc is measured mate in this region.
Temperature in 0C, Voc is the open circuit voltage,
Isc is the short circuit current and G is the measured
irradiance. References
The difference between transposed values and Delta-T Data Logger Dl2e, 2002, user manual, ver-
the manufacturer values are presented as ∆Voc and sion 2.02.
∆Isc for both amorphous and crystalline panels for Dinçer F. and Meral M. E. (2010). Critical Factors
different radiation in Table 4. It can be seen that the that Affect Efficiency of Solar Cells, Smart Grid
difference is minimum when the radiation is high. and Renewable Energy, Vol. 1, p 47-50.
The difference between the manufacturer’s value DS Tracer, 1996, I-V curve user manual, Daystar
Inc.
and the transposed values of Isc are significant for
Fitzpatrick, S. (2004). A method for predicting PV
the values of irradiance less than 600 W/m2.
Module and Array Performance at other than
From the results of the present investigation, it is Standard Reporting Conditions, North Carolina
noted that the equations (2) and (3) need some Solar Centre, NC 27695-7401.
modification for the type of modules under study Gottschalg, R., Belts T. R., Williams, S. R., Sauter,
and also for the present location as these equations D., Infield D.G. and Kearney M.J. (2004). A crit-
are developed for the northern hemisphere. We ical appraisal of factors affecting energy produc-
hope that due to the irradiation level and ambient tion from Amorphous Silicon Photovoltaic
temperature, latitude and climate, there will be a Arrays in Maritime Climate, Centre for Renew-
difference between the Northern and Southern able energy system technology, www.ati.survey.
hemisphere. ac.uk/print_docs/kearney2004sep15142827.pdf
Graham, W. R. and Ficher, J. E., (1994). Compari-
4. Conclusions son of single-crystalline, poly-crystalline and
A close perusal of the measured values of open-cir- amorphous silicon materials for solar cells, MSE
570, http://staff.ub.tuberline.de/~harloff/resint/
cuit voltage and short-circuit current for crystalline
engmat/solcel.pdf.
and amorphous modules reveals that these values
Hammond, R.L., and Backsus, C.E. (1994). Photo-
are very close to the values given by the manufac- voltaic System testing, Renewable Energy, Vol.
turer under STC. However, in the crystalline mod- 5, part 1, p 268-274.
ule the variation is more prominent in comparison Hecktheuer, L.A., Krenzinger, A. and Prieb, C.W.M.
with an amorphous module. The fill factor and the (2002). Methodology for Photovoltaic Modules
sharpness of the I-V curves are almost similar for the Characterization and Shading Effects Analysis,
crystalline and amorphous modules. The results J. Braz.Soc.Mech.Sci, Vol. 24 No 1.

Table 4: Difference between the transposed Voc and Isc from the manufacturer values
Radiation (Wm-2) Amorphous solar cell Crystalline solar cell
∆ Voc (V) ∆ Isc (A) ∆ Voc (V) ∆ Isc (A)
Jul 2003 460 1.75 1.473 1.53 2.767
Aug 2003 500 1.47 1.270 1.23 3.736
Sep 2003 513 1.98 1.592 1.12 3.723
Oct 2003 590 1.65 1.308 1.09 4.136
Nov 2003 810 1.64 0.023 0.64 0.810
Dec 2003 870 1.64 0.025 0.56 0.450
Jan 2004 801 1.51 0.080 0.87 0.868
Feb 2004 792 1.48 0.167 1.15 0.825
Mar 2004 500 1.60 1.960 0.70 3.890
Apr 2004 510 1.64 1.463 0.94 3.896
May 2004 533 1.76 1.333 1.30 3.192
Jun 2004 490 1.79 1.393 1.24 2.920


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