Among the three areas provided, the one I will be discussing is r.docx

Among the three areas provided, the one I will be discussing is
representing my attitude towards an understanding of
communication visually. I strongly believe in effective
communication because I see it as the best way to have people
aware of things and focused on a specific set of goals.
Communication is defined as a process by which information
and meaning are conveyed (Lussier & Achua, 2016, p.184).
Although visual communication is important, it is necessary that
it consists of “shared languages” that will help facilitate
effective communication (Lambrecht, Hatchett, Walsh, Collins,
& Tolby, 2019, p. 562).
My art to depict how I understand communication
would be the drawing of signs, pointers, and arrows to indicate
things such as direction, places to avoid, and areas to be
focused on. I could draw a picture of two colleagues at a desk
discussing with one pointing at the computer to pass across a
message related to what has to be done in the business.
To accomplish this art, I would need materials like a
crayon, a pencil, and a piece of paper. These materials would be
used to paint and showcase my understanding of the subject
known as communication.
The kinds of colors I would use would be two primary
colors (red and blue) and a secondary color (green). The
rationale behind this choice of colors is that I would use red to
indicate bad ideas or information that consist of threats, while
green would represent positive information as well as good
ideas. Blue color would indicate stability in my visual
representations.
The kinds of images that would best represent my
feelings about communication would be a group of people
sitting together and talking about an important issue, an image
showing an individual speaking on the phone and responding to
what is being said on the other side of the line, and an image of
a manager pointing to the computer screen in front of an

employee who is working on a project.
Reference
Lambrecht K.M., Hatchett B.J., Walsh L.C., Collins M., &
Tolby Z. (2019). Improving Visual
Communication of Weather Forecasts with Rhetoric. Retrieved
from https://web-b-ebscohost-com.tu.opal-
libraries.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=5486adad-
e0e5-4be6-bdff-1d3b8a0b0dec%40sessionmgr104
Lussier R.N., & Achua C. F. (2016). Leadership: Theory,
Application & Skill Development. 6th
Ed. Cengage Learning. (p. 184).
Leader-Member Exchange and Followership
Chapter 7
Part Two: Team Leadership
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© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be
copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for
use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product
or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for
classroom use.
1
Learning Outcomes
Describe the two subgroups that can form under Vertical Dyadic
Linkage Theory.
Define the two kinds of relationships that can occur between a

leader and followers under Leader-Member Exchange Theory.
Describe the role of the leader and follower in influencing LMX
relationships.
Discuss the main criticisms of LMX Theory.
Describe the two behaviors used in the Kelley Model and the
resulting five follower types.
Briefly describe the three factors that can enhance a follower’s
influence.
List five things a leader should delegate.
An effective evaluation should accomplish at least three things
– Name them.
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2
From Vertical Dyadic Linkage Theory to Leader-Member
Exchange Theory
Some suggest the quality of relationship between a leader and a
follower is more predictive of follower outcomes than traits or
behaviors of leaders.
Vertical dyadic linkage (VDL) theory focuses on how the
relationship (or linkage) between a leader and follower can
affect leadership.
In the 1980’s VDL was renamed the leader-member exchange
theory (LMX).
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Vertical Dyadic Linkage Theory
Supporters of VDL believe leadership is better understood by
examining dyads (pairs of relations) made up of a leader and
follower (a vertical hierarchy).
Rather than focus on Average Leadership Style (ALS) which
treats all subordinates equally.
A dyad is defined as the individualized relationship between a
leader and each follower in a work unit.
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Dyadic Theory
Dyadic theory approaches leadership as an exchange
relationship which develops between a leader and a follower
over time during role-making activities.
VDL theory argues a leader will form different relationships
with different followers.
The leader treats followers differently leading to creation of in-
groups and out-groups.
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In-Groups and Out-Groups
The in-group includes followers with strong social ties to their
leader in a supportive relationship characterized by high mutual
trust, respect, loyalty, and influence.
Leaders influence with expert, referent, and reward power.
The out-group includes followers with few or no social ties to
their leader, in a strictly task-centered relationship
characterized by low exchange and top-down influence.
Leaders influence with position power.
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Discussion Questions
In your opinion, can a leader maintain a personal friendship
with some members of his or her work group or team without
creating the perception of in-groups (those in his or her social
circle) and out-groups (those outside his or her social circle)?
What should a leader do to dispel any notion or misperception
that there are in-groups and out-groups in his or her work unit?
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7
Leader-member exchange (LMX) is the quality of the exchange

relationship between a leader and a follower.
Leaders have LMXs that vary in quality.
This relationship only extends to the formal employment
contract.
This relationship results in higher job satisfaction and better
performance.
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8
High-quality social exchanges
Low-quality LMX relationships
Factors That Influence LMX Relationships
LMX relationships are based on social exchanges,
meaning there is reciprocity.
According to LMX theory, a leader,
varies behavior according to the quality of the interpersonal
relationship with each individual.
The leader and the follower both influence the exchange

relationship.
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Discussion Question
High-quality LMX relationships create a circle of reciprocity
where followers feel like they should go the extra mile for a
leader who supports them and the leader feels like he or she
should offer the followers more support and benefits to keep
their loyalty.
Do you believe this is the case in the real world or is it
something different?
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The Role of the Leader
LMX relationships develop when leaders move from economic-
based exchange to socially based exchange.
Followers with the latter exhibit greater organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB).
Organizational citizenship behavior is individual behavior that
is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the
formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the
effective functioning of the organization.

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The Role of the Leader
A leader’s span of control is the number of direct followers to a
particular leader.
A positive work climate provides a setting for positive LMX
relationships.
Between leaders and followers and between followers.
Social identity is the degree to which members form close
social ties with the group and how it subsequently influences
interactions within and between group members.
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The Role of the Follower
A follower’s behavior and attributes influence how the follower
is perceived.
Proactive followers:
actively seek feedback about their role expectations,
show initiative,
possess a strong commitment to work unit goals,
show a sense of responsibility for unit success, and
have the right attitude.
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The Role of the Follower
Impression management is a follower’s effort to project a
favorable image to gain an immediate benefit or improve a long-
term relationship with the leader.
Performance-driven motive is the seeking of information to
improve work performance.
Impressions-driven motive is the desire to control how one
appears to the leader.
Ingratiation is the effort to appear supportive, appreciative, and
respectful.
Self-promotion if the effort to appear competent and
dependable.
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Discussion Question
What do you say to those who argue that tactics used by
followers to get noticed by their leader (such as impressions
management, ingratiation, and self-promotion) are shameful and
self-serving and should be avoided?
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Benefits of High-Quality LMX Relationships
High-quality LMX employees show more OCB,
And receive higher performance ratings in return.
The leader can help with follower’s career.
These relationships are a reciprocal exchange.
When the leader fears damaging the relationship, the follower
has earned:
Social capital the set of resources that inheres in the structure
of relations between members of the group, which helps them
get ahead.
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Criticisms of LMX Theory
The LMX-7 questionnaire takes only the follower’s perspective.
Attribution bias in favor of some group members,
raises the question of fairness and equality.
Some criticize the predictive power of LMX theory.
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Followership
Good followership is ‘upward influencing’.

Followership is a self-conscious choice.
Followership refers to the behavior of followers that result from
the leader-follower mutual influencing relationship.
A follower is a person who is under the direct influence and
authority of a leader.
Effective leadership requires effective followership.
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Follower Types
Exhibit 7.1
Kelley and Chaleff were two early pioneers who brought focus
to the role of followers in the leadership process
Kelley’s five types of followers are found in this exhibit.
Exhibit 7.1
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Types of Followers
The alienated follower is someone low on involvement yet high
on critical thinking.
They feel cheated for exemplary work.

The conformist follower is someone who is high on involvement
but low on critical thinking.
These are the “yes people”.
The passive follower is someone who is neither high on critical
thinking nor involvement.
They simply don’t get involved.
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Discussion Question
As a leader, how will you motivate the alienated follower?
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Types of Followers
The effective follower is someone who is high on critical
thinking and involvement.
They have the courage to take risks for the organization.
The pragmatic follower exhibits a little of all four styles –
depending on which style fits the prevailing situation.
Advantage is this follower knows how to “work the system to
get things done”.
Disadvantage is this same behavior may be viewed as “playing
political games”.

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Becoming an Effective Follower
How individuals see their role as followers informs how they
function.
Effective followers combine two roles:
to execute decisions made by a leader, and
to raise issues about those decisions when they are deemed
misguided or unethical.
Effective followers have a high self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is a person’s beliefs in his or her capabilities to
produce at a certain level of performance.
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Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower
Exhibit 7.2
These behaviors distinguish followers on top-performing teams
from their counterparts on marginally performing teams.
Exhibit 7.2

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Discussion Question
Can someone have a successful career by aspiring to be an
effective follower?
Explain.
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Factors that can Enhance Follower Influence
Power position.
Several power types may boost upward influence.
Locus of control.
Locus of control is on a continuum between an external and
internal belief over who has control of a person’s destiny.
Internal locus of control – masters of their own destiny.
External locus of control – pawns of fate.
Education and experience.
Followers can use expert power, skills, and experience.
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Factors That Can Enhance Follower Influence
Exhibit 7.3
Exhibit 7.3
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Discussion Question
Movies dealing with the prison or college environment often
depict one or two prisoners/students who seem to have more
influence over other prisoners/students than even the guards or
administrators.
Can you think of one such case and explain why the individual
was influential over other prisoners or students?
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Dual Role
Leaders are still considered followers by those higher up in the
organization.
Common to switch from being a leader to being a follower
several times a day.
Executing both roles effectively is a challenge, but it can be
done.

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Delegation
Delegation is the process of assigning responsibility and
authority for accomplishing objectives.
Effective delegation considers task, time requirement, and
follower characteristics.
Leaders should delegate when:
Time is short for priority tasks,
Followers desire more challenges and opportunities, or when
Tasks match follower skill levels and experience.
Effective delegation allows people to prosper.
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Benefits of Delegation

Managers have more time to perform high-priority tasks.
Gets tasks accomplished and increases productivity.
Trains employees and improves their self-esteem.
Eases the stress and burden on managers.
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Obstacles to delegation

Managers become used to doing things themselves.
Managers fear employees will fail to accomplish tasks.
Managers believe they can perform tasks more efficiently.
Managers don’t realize importance, or know what/how to
delegate.
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Delegating too little

* Taking work home. * Performing employee tasks.
* A continual feeling of pressure/stress.
* Requiring employees seek approval before acting.
* Being behind in work. * Rushing to meet deadlines.
Delegation Decisions
What to delegate
Anything you don’t have to be personally involved with due to
your unique knowledge/skill.
Examples include:
Paperwork,
Routine tasks,
Technical matters,
Tasks with developmental potential, or
Employees’ problems.
What not to delegate

Anything you must be in involved with due to your unique
knowledge/skill.
Examples include:
Personnel matters,
Confidential activities,
Crises, or
Activities delegated to you.
Successful delegation is selecting the task to delegate
and whom to delegate it to.
Delegate to an employee with the capacity to get the job done
right by the deadline.
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Steps in the Delegation Process
Model 7.1
The delegation model steps are:
For step 4, it is helpful to:
List the control checkpoints in writing,
All parties should record control checkpoints on their calendars,
Evaluate performance at each control checkpoint, and
Upon completion, provide feedback that develops knowledge of
the results of work.
Model 7.1

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Evaluating Followers:
Guidelines for Success
Evaluations help followers correct weaknesses.
Followers respect leaders showing honesty, understanding, and
empathy.
Followers want a fair, effective evaluation.
Leaders must specifically state deficiencies and calmly explain
impact on objectives.
At conclusion, follower must believe the leader desired to help
and both must agree on action steps for improvement.
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Effective Evaluation and Feedback
Exhibit 7.4
Exhibit 7.4
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Key Terms
alienated follower
conformist follower
delegation
delegation model
dyad
dyadic theory
effective follower
follower
followership
impressions management
ingratiation
in-group
leader-member exchange (LMX)
locus of control
organizational citizenship behavior
out-group
passive follower
pragmatic follower
self-efficacy
self-promotion
social capital
social identity
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38

Communication, Coaching, and Conflict Skills
Chapter 6
Part Two: Team Leadership
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1
Learning Outcomes
List the steps in the oral message-sending process.
List and explain the three parts of the message-receiving
process.
Describe paraphrasing and state why it is used.
Identify two common approaches to getting feedback, and
explain why they don’t work.
Describe the difference between criticism and coaching
feedback.
Discuss the relationship between the performance formula and
the coaching model.
Define the five conflict management styles.
List the steps in the initiating conflict resolution model.
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2
Communication
Communication is the process of conveying information and
meaning.
True communication happens only when all parties understand
the message (information) from the same perspective (meaning).
Communication and leadership.
There is a positive relationship between communication
competency and leadership performance.
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Sending Messages and
Giving Instructions
Managers give instructions, which is sending a message.
How well you give instructions directly affects performance.
Before sending a message, plan it.
What is the goal of the message?
Who should receive the message?
How will you send the message?
When and where will the message be transmitted?
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The Oral Message-Sending Process
Model 6.1
The oral message-sending process: (1) develop rapport; (2) state
your communication objective; (3) transmit your message; (4)
check the receiver’s understanding; and (5) get a commitment
and follow up.
Small talk.
Receiver should know desired end result.
Give instructions.
Ask direct questions and/or paraphrase.
Important step.
Model 6.1
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Written Communication
Lack of organization is a major problem.
Set an objective, keeping audience in mind.
Make an outline and transfer to written form.
Write to communicate, not to impress.
Keep the message short and simple 1-5-15.
Use active voice rather than passive voice.
Edit your work and rewrite if needed.
Have others edit important work.
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The Message-Receiving Process
Exhibit 6.1
The message-receiving process includes listening, analyzing,
and checking understanding.
Listening is the process of giving a speaker your undivided
attention.
Analyzing is the process of thinking about, decoding and
evaluating the message.
Checking understanding is the process of giving feedback.
The number one thing lacking in new college grads is listening
skills.
Exhibit 6.1
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How would you assess communications in organizations?
Give examples of good and poor communications in
organizations.
State your plan for improving your listening skills.
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Feedback
The importance of feedback:
Feedback is the process of verifying messages and determining
if objectives are being met.
Role of feedback in verifying messages:
Paraphrasing is the process of having the receiver restate the
message in her/her words.
Role of feedback in meeting objectives:
Ongoing feedback increases motivation.
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The Need to Be Open to Feedback
To improve your performance, you have to be open to feedback
also called criticism.
People do not enjoy being criticized.
When receiving criticism, view it as an opportunity to improve.
Stay calm,
Don’t get defensive, and
Don’t blame others.
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Common Approaches to Getting Feedback
And Why They Don’t Work
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Assuming
Send the message and assume mutual understanding without
getting feedback.
“Do you have any questions?”
Give entire message and ask for questions, feedback does not
usually follow – people do not ask questions.
Another common error is assuming no questions means there is
mutual understanding.
Getting feedback ensures mutual understanding.

How to Get Feedback on Messages
Be open to feedback.
If questions upset you, you will get no questions.
Be aware of nonverbal communication.
Make sure yours encourages feedback.
Ask questions.
Ask direct questions on specific information.
Use paraphrasing.
How we ask for paraphrasing affects attitude.
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360-Degree Feedback Sources
Exhibit 6.2
360-degree feedback is based on receiving performance
evaluations from many people.
After looking at informal ways of getting feedback, here is a
formal process.
Exhibit 6.2

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How would you assess managers at giving feedback?
Specifically what should managers do to improve?
Is 360-degree multi-rater feedback really better than a boss-
based assessment?
As a manager will you elect to use 360?
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Coaching
Coaching is the process of giving motivational feedback to
maintain and improve performance.
Based on feedback and communications.
Boosts performance.
Coaching is not just for athletes, managers should look for
steady performance and continual improvement.
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Coaching Guidelines
Exhibit 6.3

Specific feedback is needed to avoid confusion.
Descriptive feedback can be based on facts (observed and
proven) or inferences (unproven).
Feedback should be given as soon as possible but be flexible;
withhold feedback when pressed for time or when emotions are
high.
Exhibit 6.3
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Job Instructional Training Steps
Model 6.2
The job instructional training (JIT) steps include (1) trainee
receives preparation; (2) trainer presents the task; (3) trainee
performs the task; and (4) trainer follows up.
Put the trainee at ease, create interest in the job and encourage
questions.
For complex tasks with multiple steps, give employee a copy of
written steps.
Correct any errors, be patient and helpful, continue until trainee
is proficient.
Correct any errors or faulty work procedures before they
become a habit.
Model 6.2

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Criticism vs. Coaching Feedback
Criticism is rarely effective, employees get defensive and
develop a negative attitude.
Coaching feedback is based on a good, supportive relationship;
it is specific and descriptive; and it is not judgmental criticism.
Criticism makes employees feel like losers, coaching feedback
makes them feel like winners.
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Do you agree with the statement “Don’t criticize”?
Do mangers tend to give criticism or coaching feedback?
How can mangers improve?
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Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is used to explain the process managers go

through in determining the reasons for effective or ineffective
performance and deciding what to do about it.
Manager’s reaction has two stages:
First, they determine the cause of poor performance,
Second, they select an appropriate corrective action.
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The Performance Formula
Model 6.3
The performance formula explains performance as a function of
ability, motivation, and resources.
When ability is the reason:
The corrective action is training (JIT).
When motivation is lacking:
Motivational techniques, such as praise, may help.
When resources are the problem, get the resources.
Model 6.3
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Coaching Model

Model 6.4
In detail, with examples, describe behavior to change.
Tell employee desired performance, in detail.
Unless the reason was ability and employee seems willing to
change.
To ensure employee is behaving as desired.
Improving performance with the coaching model.
Model 6.4
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Mentoring
Mentoring is a form of coaching in which a more-experienced
manager helps a less-experienced protégé.
Primary responsibility is to coach by providing good, sound
career advice and help develop leadership skills.
Seek out a good mentor – formal or informal.
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Women and minorities are less likely to have mentors, so should
they get mentors?

Will you seek out career mentors?
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Managing Conflict
A conflict exists whenever people are in disagreement and
opposition.
All human relations rely on the:
psychological contract – set of unwritten implicit expectations
of each party in a relationship.
Often unaware of our expectations until they are unmet.
Conflict arises when the contract is broken.
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Broken Contract

We fail to communicate our expectations or ask about
expectations of other party.
We further assume other party has same expectations as us.
Conflict can be
Functional conflict – opposition supports objectives.
Dysfunctional conflict – prevents the objectives from being
met.
What are your psychological contract expectations of your boss
and coworkers?
Give examples of conflicts you have had at work, listing the
expectations that were not met.
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Conflict Management Styles
Exhibit 6.4
Exhibit 6.4
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Avoiding Conflict Style
The avoiding conflict style user passively ignores the conflict
rather than resolve it.
Appropriate use:
When conflict is trivial,
When your stake is not high,
When confrontation would damage relationship, or
When time is short or emotions are high.
Maintains relationships.
No resolution.
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Advantage
Disadvantage
Accommodating Conflict Style
The accommodating conflict style user passively gives in to the
other party.
Appropriate use:
The person enjoys following,
Maintaining the relationship is priority,
Changes are not important to accommodator, or
Time is limited.
Maintains relationships.
May be counterproductive.
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Advantage
Disadvantage

Forcing Conflict Style
The forcing conflict style user uses aggressive behavior to get
their way.
Appropriate use:
Unpopular action must be take on important issues,
Commitment is not crucial to implementation,
Maintaining relationships is not critical, or
Conflict resolution is urgent.
Better decisions if forcer is correct.
Overuse leads to hostility.
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Advantage
Disadvantage

Negotiating Conflict Style
The negotiating conflict style user attempts assertive, give-and-
take concessions.
Also called compromising style.
Appropriate use:
When issues are complex and critical,
Parties have equal power and differing solutions, or
A solution will only be temporary or if time is short.
Conflict is resolved quickly.
Can lead to subpar decisions.
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Advantage
Disadvantage
Collaborating Conflict Style
The collaborating conflict style user seeks joint resolution with
best solution for all.
Also called problem-solving style.

Appropriate use:
When compromise would result in sub-optimization,
When group goal comes first and members collaborate,
Maintaining relationships is important, or
Time is available or when it is a peer conflict.
Can lead to the best solution
Time consuming
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Advantage
Disadvantage
What percentage of the time do you think a manager can
actually use the collaborating conflict management style?
Give detailed examples of when managers have used
collaboration at work.
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Initiating Conflict Resolution
The initiating conflict resolution model steps are (1) plan a BCF
statement that maintains ownership of the problem; (2) present
your BCF statement and agree on the conflict; (3) ask for,
and/or give, alternative conflict resolutions; and (4) make an
agreement for change.
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Plan a BCF Statement
Step 1. Plan a Behavior, Consequence, and Feeling (BCF)
statement that maintains ownership of the problem.
Three things that do not belong in BCF statements.
The BCF model describes a conflict in terms of behavior,
consequences, and feelings.
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Don’t make judgments.

Don’t make threats.
Don’t give solutions.
Present BCF Statement
Step 2. Present your BCF statement and agree on the conflict.
Make your short, planned statement and wait for a response –
persist if needed.
Repeat by explaining in different terms until you get an
acknowledgment or give up.
If you cannot agree, change your approach, using another of the
four conflict management styles.
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Alternative Conflict Resolutions
Step 3. Ask for, and/or give, alternative conflict resolutions.
Ask what can be done to resolve the conflict.
If agree, great; if not, offer your resolution.
Remember you are collaborating.
When other party is unresponsive about resolving conflict,
appeal to common goals.
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Agreement For Change
Step 4. Make an agreement for change.
Try to reach an agreement on specific action you will both take
to resolve the conflict.
Clearly state, or write down, specific behavior changes
necessary by all parties to resolve the conflict.
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Responding to Conflict Resolution
These conflict resolution model steps help those in the role of
responder to a conflict.
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Listen
And paraphrase the conflict using the BCF model.

Agree
With some aspect of the complaint.
Ask for/Give
Alternative conflict resolutions.
Make
Agreement for change.
Mediating Conflict Resolution
Frequently, parties cannot resolve disputes alone.
A mediator is a neutral third party who helps resolve a conflict.
Nonunionized organizations use managers as mediators.
Unionized organizations use professional mediators.
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Mediating Conflict Resolution
The mediator should follow these steps:
Have each party state his/her complaint using the BCF model,
Agree on the conflict problem(s),
Develop alternative conflict resolutions,
Make an agreement for change, and
Follow up to make sure the conflict is resolved.
An arbitrator is a neutral third party who makes a binding
decision to resolve a conflict.
6 - ‹#›
classroom use.
The Collaborating Conflict Style
Model 6.5
Model 6.5
classroom use.
6 - ‹#›
Key Terms
arbitrator

attribution theory
BCF model
coaching
coaching feedback
communication
conflict
feedback
initiating conflict resolution model
job instructional training
mediator
mentoring
message-receiving process
oral message-sending process
paraphrasing
performance formula
360-degree feedback
6 - ‹#›
classroom use.
44

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