The document discusses the commercial life and economy of Pompeii. It describes Pompeii as a vibrant port city with extensive economic activity, including over 600 shops. The economy encompassed primary production like wine, olives, and textiles, as well as secondary industries like pottery, metalworking, and fish sauce production. Tertiary industries like restaurants, hotels, and retail were also important. While some experts view Pompeii as purely a consumer city dependent on agricultural imports, others argue evidence like shipments of Pompeian wine abroad and the scale of workshops indicate some export trade as well.

1. ommercial Life of Pompeii & Herculaneu
Producers or Consumers?

2. “ The location of Pompeii as a port and central to the
fertile Campanian hinterland and Italian penninsula
ensured its vibrant and cosmopolitan economic
activity in primary secondary and tertiary activity.
The excavation of up to 600 shops indicates the scale
of such economic activity”
“Profit is Joy” – Mosaic at House of Umbricius Scaurus

3. PRODUCERS-Profit is Joy
• The traditional view was that the purpose of Pompeian
economic activity was the production of material wealth for
consumption by the local population.
• Current debate centres around the possibility of some
export and import trade, particularly with wine and olives
• Production, however , rarely went beyond the scale of the
household.
• The production of staple food, bread , wine, grapes and fish
sauce, combined with processing industries in cloth
manufacture, metallurgy, wheelwrights and potters served
to create self sufficiency

4. • The cost of transport, dependence on local resources
and slavery all served to limit expansion
•Pompeii’s position , near the sea and the navigable
river Sarno did encourage some trade
•The economy of Pompeii encompassed Primary,
Secondary and Tertiary levels of Production
•Major industries were Wine, Olives, Wool and Textiles
•Smaller industries were fish sauce, pottery, perfume,
Soap, Metal work

5. Primary Production; Wine Production
Villa Rusticae at Boscoreale
The villa was excavated between
1978-1980. It is made up of 10
rooms, loosely arranged around
a courtyard, which had 18
sunken dolia, which could have
held a maximum of 10,000 litres
of fermenting wine. Although
viticulture was the most
important activity other vines
and trees eg oloves, almond, fig,
apricot, cherry and walnut were
found

6. Model of Villa at Boscoreale museum

7. AMPHORAE EVIDENCE
The names of several types of wine
grown on the slopes of Vesuvius
are known from literature.
Horconian wine, possibly thought
to be connected to the Holconian
family of Pompeii and Vesuvinum
has been found on amphorae
located in both Pompeii and
Carthage.
Pompeian wine amphorae have also
been found in Ostia, Spain, Alesia,
Germany and as far as Britain.

8. VETTI BROTHERS
Wine Production and
the Villa of Mysteries

9. House of the Ship Europa
From the 1960’s Jashemski’s ground
breaking study of root cavities revealed the
existence of food producing areas such as
commercial market gardens within the walls
of Pompeii
Excavation of the gardens of this house
revealed extensive plantings of not only
grape vines but also fruit and nut trees as
well as vegetables. The range and extent
suggested commercial production but
probably sold at the local markets
Animal bones were also found from dog,
sheep, goats, pig and chicken

10. OLIVE PROCESSING
Table Olives and Olive Oil
Processing of oil seems concentrated in rural
areas where large quantities could be
extracted using the lever and windlass type
press commonly used for pressing grapes,
such as has been found in the Villa of the
Mysteries just outside Pompeii's
Herculaneum Gate. These presses were
expensive and so were probably reserved for
high volume production on villas and not for
household use in the city. Following
separation from the amurca, the oil was
placed in amphorae and then taken into town
to be distributed or sold in the market.
In a handbook on Agriculture
Cato, a Roman politician
recommends Pompeian oil
presses as the best

11. Garum- Fish Sauce
• Because the the garum vats would have smelled particularly
unpleasant, scholars think that garum production did not take place
within the walls but instead at Pompeii’s port facility on the Sarno
River
• Inscriptions painted on pottery vessels reveal the name Aulus
Umbricius Scaurus, who ran a number of workshops producing
Garum. Around 30% of inscriptions on fish sauce containers in
Campania relate to his workshops

12. VATS FOR FISH SAUCE
“The entrails of sprats or sardines…were
mixed with finely chopped portions of fish
and roe and eggs and then pounded,
crushed and stirred. The mixture was left
in the sun and beaten into a pulp when
fermented.”
Michael Grant
Containers called urcei

13. SECONDARY PRODUCTION
• Most primary production took place in the rural hinterland
although Jashemski’s studies using pollen and seed analyses
indicate some market garden activities close to the
amphitheatre.
• Secondary production occurred in small to medium
workshops , generally using slave labour
• “The workshops at Pompeii did manufacture goods that
were exported; …..initially exchanged at the port of Puteoli,
the port of Rome, from where they were taken to the
markets of the capital. Traders in Rome and Puteoli would
have distributed the products throughout the Empire.” Ray
Laurence Space and Society in Pompeii

14. Fuller’s House of Stephanus

15. EUMACHIA, patroness of the Fullers
Guild

16. Wool and Textile Industry
• The scale of textile production is disputed with some
claiming it as a major activity, arguing that the number of
fulleries and dye shops far exceeded demand.
• Of the fulleries found, 4 are large. The F ullery of
Stephanus contained several rooms with a clothes press,
basins for washing, foot basins for treading ( using animal or
human urin since no soap to remove grease or dirt existed)
and 3 large basins for rinsing. There was also a large balcony
overlooking the atrium from which finished clothes could be
dried.
• Near the entrance, a skeleton was found with gold, silver
and bronze coins to the value of 1,089 sesterces, thought to
represent the days takings.

17. Bread production; From grain to table
The traditional view is that the
ancients purchased their flour from
the miller and made their own bread
at home.
However there is little evidence from
the ovens located in houses.
Commercial bakeries are found
throughout both towns. The Bakery
of Modestus was found with 81 loaves
still in the ovens at the time of the
eruption

18. BASALT MILLS. Large bakeries with several mills were
located some distance from the Forum, generally
where more land was available.
Small stones from the basalt were often incorporated
in the flour. Estelle Lazer found that the dental remains
showed evidence of wear from bread.

19. Distribution of Bread
Closer to the Forum and located along main
thorough fares such as Via Dell Abbondanza
were shops which sold bread. Paintings such as
the one on the right were found decorating the
walls of such shops
Some controversy exists over whether the
painting depicts the free distribution of bread
given to the poor as a type of welfare.
Evidence tells us that bread was
formed into round shapes and formed
into 8 segments, although small rolls
and biscuits were also sold

20. Arts and Crafts
depicted in wall paintings
From frescoes , paintings and graffiti we can
establish a list of occupations found at Pompeii;
Auctioneer, baker, barber, bath attendant,, builder,
carpenter, dyer, gem cutter, innkeeper, miller, money
lender, mason, musician, painter, cook, prostitute,
scribe, sign writer, surgeon, teacher, weaver and wine
seller

21. Metal Work, Bronze, Iron, Copper, Silver
and Gold
More than a dozen workshops have been found
to be associated with metal work of some sort.
Shop signs and graffiti also support evidence for
such activity
A marble relief has been found which shows
copper smiths at work
A tinkers shop has been found at Herculaneum
with a forge for heating metal with bellows

22. Tertiary Industry
The number of bars, taverns and brothels in the
archaeological remains, suggests a buoyant service
industry.
Hotels with dining rooms and guest accommodation
have been found at both sites
Large numbers of people gained employment as staff
at baths, masseurs, barbers, carriers, and muleteers
In the narrow streets to the east of the Forum as many
as nine buildings have been identified as brothels. To
date none have been excavated at Herculaneum

23. RETAIL
Carbonized remains of eggs,
paintings and shop signs give
abundant evidence of the variety
and number of retail shops
distributed throughout Pompeii
and Herculaneum

24. GLOSSARY
• CAUPONA- Tavern or Inn, with or without rooms for rent.At the Inn
of Asselina there were tables and chairs, hot wine was served. The
kettle for heating wine was found with the lid still on. The names of
the 3 women who worked there were written on the walls.( Maria,
Smyrna, Aegle- slaves have only one name)
• THERMOPOLIA- Small hot food and drink bars which did not provide
seating

25. FOOD AND DRINK BARS
Public eating took place at Thermopolia ( snack
bars)and Tabernae, in which large dolia in a
marble bench held hot drinks and dishes. 200
found in Pompeii. One of the largest found in
Herculaneum opposite Palaestra had 2 entrances

26. Asselina's Caupona
Valeria Hedone, Innkeeper “ Handsome
soldier, drink here for just 1 as, for 2 asses
you can drink better, and for 4 asses have
some really good Falernian wine.”

27. DEBATE
• Argument centres around whether the rooms at the back or upstairs
served as brothels
• Prostitutes , although low in social status were free to wander the
streets. Others had their services advertised.
• There is some debate about Asellina’s caupona because of the
mention of the three girls names. However there is no evidence to
confirm that the establishment was anything more than an Inn

28. BROTHEL PAINTING
Lupinariums

29. Commerce; Evidence
Work by the Bradford Team in the Anglo Forum
Project identified 1000 coins found at Pompeii.
The large number of local copper and bronze
coins known as pseudo ebusus coins suggest the
use of a largely localised monetary economy. To
date no mint has been excavated
A long list of food prices was found scratched on
the Wall of an atrium

30. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
COUNTER
Mensa Ponderaria
located next to the Temple of Apollo in the Forum
We also know from an inscription that Herculaneum had an
official set of weights and measures

31. Wax Tablets of Caecilius Jacundus
Receipt for sale of 1 mule at auction by Caecilius
Felix
Receipt for 38,079 sesterces from auction for Marcus
Lucretius Lerus
Receipt for auction of slave of Lucius Iunius Aquila

32. Herculaneum
• Allowing for the problem that only 1/3 of Herculaneum has been
excavated it appears that the resort nature of the town limited
economic activity to retail and tertiary industry such as bakeries, food
shops, taverns.
• There is some evidence of fishing, boats and nets, however it is seen to
be small scale and supplying the needs of the local population

33. Bakery at Herculaneum
25 bronze baking pans were found with
mixing bowls. By the mills, skeletons of
donkeys that once turned the mills were
found

34. MARKET DAY
• Food and items were sold , direct from workshops, general shops, inside
and outside the Macellum, the meat and fish market.
• But not all vendors required permanent shops. Wall paintings from the
Villa of Julia Felix depicts stalls in the Forum and graffiti advertizes
market days held at Pompeii, Nuceria, Nola, Cumae and Puteoli at
different times of the month

35. The Debate; Export/Import or
Consumer city? Jongman vs Moeller
• Pompeii was a consumer city, economically dependant on the agricultural
products of the hinterland ~ Weber
• No. of production facilities within the region is sufficient for Pompeii & an
export market ~ Moeller
• Jongman believes that spinning and weaving were household crafts
• Small no. of workshops would service city not export market ~ Jongman
• Presence of looms in houses indicates weaving was small scale ~ Jongman
• Inscriptions record the use of wool in private residences
• Six dye houses found in Pompeii ~ Moeller
• Moeller identified a number of workshops in the archaeological record with
processes associated with wool and cloth cleaning. ~ Ray Lawrence
• Involves 700 – 1000 workers ~ Moeller
• Large flocks of sheep for wool
• Implication of commercial & ornamental gardening shows the distinction
between town & country is blurred ~ Jashemski