As the geographic territory under Roman control grew, the use of Latin as a common language also spread. In areas under Roman control, Latin was the spoken and written language of the courts and commerce, as well as the language of the Christian church. As the Roman Empire expanded, Latin served as a common language that allowed for people of diverse linguistic backgrounds to be able to communicate. Latin, like other languages past and present, had more than one form and changed over time because it was both written and spoken, and the educational level or social status of the writer or speaker often determined the final form of the language. Latin was also influenced by local languages spoken or written within the larger territory under the influence of what later came to be known as the Roman Empire. During the Carolingian Renaissance, throughout the reign of Charlemagne and his successors, the development of Latin literacy was greatly promoted. Although reading and writing were skills that some people had, literacy was not widespread before that time. Literacy in Latin was generally limited to people of the upper classes and members of the clergy. Charlemagne invited Alcuin of York to become his personal tutor and the head of his court school. Charlemagne charged Alcuin with the development of a literacy curriculum for children that would provide for their instruction in reading and writing, as well as for further study in the liberal arts and theology, thereby also furthering the Christian teachings that Charlemagne’s court promoted. The promotion of literacy impacted education and language throughout the region. The demand for material relating to the interests of the ruling military class increased. Over time, vernacular languages, the languages commonly spoken, began to be used by writers. Until the 12th century, Latin was the primary language used by writers. French writers began the trend of using vernacular language in the 12th century, and by the end of that century, some government and legal documents in England and France were composed in the vernacular. In the 12th century, literacy among women was also increasing. Though literacy in Latin was still somewhat limited to specific social classes, literacy in local vernacular languages was increasingly common. Eleanor of Aquitaine established the city of Poiters as a center for a literary movement focused on the art of courtly love. The troubadour and the female counterpart, the trobairitz, used poetry to share stories of romantic longing and unattainable love. This poetry represents the beginning of written expressions of love in the way romantic love continues to be perceived today. It focuses on the feelings associated with romantic love: longing, suffering, loss of appetite, temptation, loyalty, and a desire to do whatever possible to have the feeling of love reciprocated. As the poetry of the troubadour or trobairitz was recorded, it was written in the vernacular of the day. ...

1. As the geographic territory under Roman control grew, the use
of Latin as a common language also spread. In areas under
Roman control, Latin was the spoken and written language of
the courts and commerce, as well as the language of the
Christian church. As the Roman Empire expanded, Latin served
as a common language that allowed for people of diverse
linguistic backgrounds to be able to communicate.
Latin, like other languages past and present, had more than one
form and changed over time because it was both written and
spoken, and the educational level or social status of the writer
or speaker often determined the final form of the language.
Latin was also influenced by local languages spoken or written
within the larger territory under the influence of what later
came to be known as the Roman Empire.
During the Carolingian Renaissance, throughout the reign of
Charlemagne and his successors, the development of Latin
literacy was greatly promoted. Although reading and writing
were skills that some people had, literacy was not widespread
before that time. Literacy in Latin was generally limited to
people of the upper classes and members of the clergy.
Charlemagne invited Alcuin of York to become his personal
tutor and the head of his court school. Charlemagne charged
Alcuin with the development of a literacy curriculum for
children that would provide for their instruction in reading and
writing, as well as for further study in the liberal arts and
theology, thereby also furthering the Christian teachings that
Charlemagne’s court promoted.
The promotion of literacy impacted education and language
throughout the region. The demand for material relating to the
interests of the ruling military class increased. Over time,
vernacular languages, the languages commonly spoken, began to
be used by writers. Until the 12th century, Latin was the
primary language used by writers. French writers began the
trend of using vernacular language in the 12th century, and by

2. the end of that century, some government and legal documents
in England and France were composed in the vernacular.
In the 12th century, literacy among women was also increasing.
Though literacy in Latin was still somewhat limited to specific
social classes, literacy in local vernacular languages was
increasingly common. Eleanor of Aquitaine established the city
of Poiters as a center for a literary movement focused on the art
of courtly love. The troubadour and the female counterpart, the
trobairitz, used poetry to share stories of romantic longing and
unattainable love. This poetry represents the beginning of
written expressions of love in the way romantic love continues
to be perceived today. It focuses on the feelings associated with
romantic love: longing, suffering, loss of appetite, temptation,
loyalty, and a desire to do whatever possible to have the feeling
of love reciprocated. As the poetry of the troubadour or
trobairitz was recorded, it was written in the vernacular of the
day. In fact, the word romance derives from the word romans,
the old French term for the vernacular language specific to the
region. Having poetry and prose in the vernacular of the people
allowed a much wider audience to access this romantic
literature.
By the early 14th century, the trend toward the use of
vernacular language had spread throughout most of Europe. As
monarchies throughout the region began to consolidate, the use
of vernacular languages contributed to an increasing
nationalism, or feeling of pride in one’s own nation, and in this
case among people of similar linguistic backgrounds. People
began to feel more connected to local leaders than they did to
influences from afar. These sociopolitical shifts, along with the
development of moveable type (the printing press), helped to
ensure the success of the vernacular languages during the
Renaissance.
As the name implies, the Renaissance was a rebirth of culture
and learning that took place in Europe over a period of several
hundred years. Although it began in Italy during the 1300s and
ended in the late 1500s, it also spread northward, where it

3. peaked in the 16th century before dying out in the mid-1600s in
that area. During this period, scientific and geographic
discoveries were championed. It was discovered by Copernicus
that the sun was the center of the solar system and the planets,
including Earth, orbited the sun. Exploration of new trade
routes gained the support of ruling families. Major changes to
the long-standing authority of the Catholic Church were brought
about by challenges made by Martin Luther during this time.
The works of one of the best-known writers, William
Shakespeare, were composed and presented in England. The
Renaissance was a time in which the various possibilities for
human expression and discovery within the world were
championed.
Humanism is defined by Sayre (2010) as “the recovery, study,
and spread of the art and literature of Greece and Rome, and the
application of their principles to education, politics, social life,
and the arts in general” (p.185). It provided the philosophical
backbone of the Renaissance and reformation in Europe. With a
renewed sense of interest in ancient cultural roots and
traditions, the people of the Renaissance in Europe desired a
separation from the more recent medieval past. This recent past
was perceived as a period of less cultural value, and the reliance
upon religious texts and sacred traditions that had proven
integral to the medieval period lessened in importance. An
appreciation for self-determination—the ability of the
individual to choose his or her path—lead to a greater value
being applied to human life. The importance of the individual
within society was acknowledged. Some individuals who had
the ability to do so financially served as patrons, supporting the
work of writers, artists, and other artisans during this period.
Reference
Sayre, H. M. (2010). Discovering the Humanities. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall-Pearson.
Imagine an illness so powerful that people who go to bed
healthy do not live until dawn. It kills up to 95% of the people
exposed to it, depending on the particular strain. Imagine a

4. plague that kills an estimated 35% of the entire population of
Europe in a matter of three short years (Cartwright, n.d.). Now
imagine that you are living in the Middle Ages. Modern
medicine does not exist, modern means of communication are
not available, modern transportation options have not been
developed, and modern scientific processes that could explain
where the disease comes from and how it is transmitted are
beyond the horizon. This is the situation in which the people of
Europe found themselves in the mid 1300s, as the plague that
became known as the Black Death began its decimation of the
continent.
Bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, was an often
deadly disease introduced to Europe that was carried by fleas
and rats. There were distinct forms of the plague, but bubonic
was the most commonly seen and therefore lent its name to the
epidemic as a whole. The name itself comes from the swelling
and blackening of the lymph glands of the groin, armpits, or
neck of the infected individual. These black lumps were known
as buboes. The infected person might also carry the disease in
the bloodstream, resulting in the septicemic version of the
plague. These forms of the illness were fatal most of the time.
The third subtype of the plague, pneumonic, was the most
deadly, taking the lives of nine of every ten of those afflicted.
The plague, in its various forms or phases, caused the telltale
boils, which could ooze pus and blood, and also caused a fever,
chills, vomiting, general malaise, or respiratory ills manifested
through coughing and sneezing. Physical contact with an
infected individual’s bodily fluids could also pass on the
disease.
From late 1347 until 1350, the Black Death ravaged Europe. It
was most active in the spring, summer, and fall months and less
active in the cold winter months, and people of all ages were
affected. Children, the elderly, women, men, and otherwise
healthy individuals were at risk of infection. The plague took
the lives of more than 60% of the inhabitants of some cities
(Sayre, 2010). Peasants were found dead along roadsides, and

5. ships washed ashore when their crews perished at sea. Florence
lost 4% of its population in a two-day period (Ibeji, 2010). In
many cases, the deaths also came many at a time. Entire streets
or families would succumb to the illness seemingly overnight.
Historical records from the time are not complete, so
determining an exact number of victims is not possible.
However, many estimates put the death toll at or above 25% of
the European population during the height of the plague years
alone (Kreis, 2000).
All of Europe was impacted. No one could be assured of being
spared. Much of this was due to the fact that people did not
know how the disease was spreading, and they did not take
basic precautions that would be encouraged in modern times to
stop or slow the spread of disease. The Black Death was carried
by rats and fleas and transmitted by the bites of these animals.
Although rats and fleas are not part of modern daily life for
most, in the fourteenth century, these creatures were part of
day-to-day existence. Records show that there had been rumors
of a plague sweeping through areas to the east in the years
before it came to the European continent, but relatively little
attention was paid to the tales. It is widely believed that the
disease first appeared in Europe when ships coming from
trading ports on the Black Sea returned to Genoa, Italy in 1347.
Fleas, once their rat hosts died, would feed on other nearby
mammals. In the case of rats on ships, the sailors became the
victims. As the rats and their fleas literally jumped ship in
Genoa, the plague began a reign of terror that lasted beyond the
initial, and most deadly, three-year period. Small outbreaks of
the plague continued to hit pockets throughout Europe for many
years to come.
The people of Europe did not know how disease was spread or
what precautions to take to reduce its spread. Hand-washing and
frequent bathing were not commonly encouraged practices until
the last century. Isolating oneself from the general public or
large gatherings during times of disease was also an unknown
practice, as it relates to reducing one’s exposure to disease.

6. Likewise, isolating the ill from the well, and ensuring that the
well did not come into contact with bodily fluids of the ill were
not common practices. The treatment of the dead and the
handling of corpses were also different from what is done in
modern practice. The lack of knowledge about how the disease
was transmitted and what could be done to slow or stop the
spread contributed to the great number of deaths.
The impacts of the Black Death were many and varied. The
initial decimation of the European population lead to a
significant, but short-term reduction in crop production. This
also resulted in a decrease in the foods available at the market.
It is also reported that animals were likely affected by the
plague. Some reports note entire flocks of dead sheep in the
fields. However, with fewer people for whom food needed to be
produced, this temporary decrease was soon made up for as the
remaining population took over the farmland of those who had
perished.
Time-honored traditions of succession and land tenure were
interrupted. The land-owning nobles, accustomed to collecting
significant amounts of dues either in the form of crops or cash
payments, had fewer serfs on whom to depend for payments.
This decreased their power to demand payment for the privilege
of working the nobles’ lands. Eventually, serfdom was replaced
by a system in which the landowners paid those who worked
their lands. The sociopolitical structure that had existed prior to
the plague underwent significant changes.
Another effect of the Black Death was an increase in university
enrollments at institutions where medicine was a field of study.
Students who had seen the effects of the plague and survived
brought with them new ideas about how diseases could spread
or how they might be treated. At this time, there was also a push
for the translation of major medical texts into vernacular
languages from the more traditional Greek or Latin
presentations.
References

7. Cartwright, F. F. (n.d.) The Black Death. Retrieved from
http://www.insecta-inspecta.com/fleas/bdeath/Black.html
Ibeji, M. (2005). British history in depth: The Black Death.
Retrieved from the BBC Web site:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.sht
ml
Kreis, S. (2000). Satan triumphant: The Black Death. Retrieved
from History Guide Web
site: http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture29b.html
Sayre, H. M. (2010). Discovering the humanities. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
The Middle Ages
The Middle Ages span the fall of Rome in the 5th century and
last through the 15th century. Often called the Medieval Era,
the Middle Ages are often divided into the Early, High, and
Late Middle Ages. The Early Middle Ages are characterized by
sparse populations and basic agricultural cultivations. In
contrast, the High Middle Ages (1000–1300 CE) are
characterized by population growth, urbanization, and
commercial expansion facilitated by agricultural expansion and
production that supported such growth. Finally, the Late Middle
Ages are characterized by the destruction and loss of the spread
of the Black Plague that devastated Europe in the 14th century,
resulting in the loss of between one quarter and one half of the
population (Spielvogel, 1999).
Starting in Constantinople in 1347 CE, the Black Death (now
known to be bubonic plague) produced a near collapse of the
economic and social systems throughout Europe, resulting in the
destruction of trade and commerce and in some instances entire
villages or communities. Bubonic plague was spread by the
fleas that were found on black rats. The damage it did
throughout Europe was enormous in terms of the loss of life and
the overall destruction of economic, social, and political

8. systems (Levack, Muir,Veldman, & Maas, 2007).
In the era that followed the spread and devastation of the
plague, Europe experienced a remarkable recovery that would
produce the contours for what today represents the foundation
of Western civilization.
The Renaissance
Following the destruction wrought by the spread of the Black
Death in the 14th century, Europe experienced a remarkable
resurgence that is characterized by a flourishing of cultural,
economic, and political expansion. Centered in Italy and then
spread throughout the remainder of Europe, the focus of the
Renaissance (or rebirth) would result in the remarkable
expansion of the West that would produce global exploration
and expansion by the 15th century.
The explosion of artistic and technological innovations and
expressions that characterize the Renaissance include the works
of artists like Michelangelo and Rafael, the political
philosophies of Machiavelli, the religious thoughts of Martin
Luther, and the scientific breakthroughs of Leonardo da Vinci
and Galileo (Spielvogel, 1999).
Indeed, the influence of the Renaissance resonates today
because the Renaissance as an era is considered to mark the
birth of modern civilization. From the Renaissance comes the
foundation of modern education with a curriculum that focuses
on a breadth and depth of critical inquiry and emphasizes well-
rounded courses of study (Levack et al., 2007). Specifically,
there was a focus on creating well-rounded people who have the
ability to contemplate and master the world around them
(Spielvogel, 1999). The legacy of the Renaissance remains
visible today with the continued emphasis in education and an
effort to try to understand the world around us through
contemplation.
References
Levack, B. P., Muir, E., Veldman, M., & Maas, M. (2007). The
West: Encounters and transformations. New York: Longman.
Spielvogel, J. J. (2000). Western civilization. Belmont, CA:

9. Wadsworth.
Question 1: What sorts of labor systems were employed by the
Spanish colonists?
Answer 1:
The first system was the institutional labor system. The
encomienda or the entrustment required the Spanish
encomendero to instruct the Indians entrusted to him in the
Christian religion, in the various elements of European
civilization, and required him to defend and protect the Indians.
In return, the encomendero could demand tribute and labor from
them. The second system was the repartimiento, and it replaced
the encomienda. This system allowed for the temporary
allotment of Indians workers for a given task. Under this
institution, royal authorities, in effect, controlled and parceled
out Indians for a specific task. The third system entailed the
grouping of Indians into aldeias, or villages, where they could
be introduced to Christianity and European civilization more
easily. In return for this favor and their protection, the Indians
gave a portion of their labor to the Church and state. Finally,
the fourth labor system evolved after the Jesuits spoke out to
protect the Indians after their arrival in the New World in 1549.
In a progressive step, and to ensure a more dependable labor
system, Indians were contracted as wage laborers. The practice,
however, was quickly corrupted and soon the hacendados,
established a system where loans were made to Indians that
were to be repaid with labor. Of course, the labor never seemed
to suffice to pay off the loan, and it was passed from father to
son(s).
Question 2: What were some of the natural resources found in
South America?
Answer 2:
The natural resources of South America included gold, silver,
precious stones, sugar, Brazilwood, indigo, cacao, coffee,
tobacco, hides, fruits, rum, cotton, lumber, various minerals and
metals, chicle, textiles, wheat, corn, rice, as well as a variety of
drugs found in the vast rain forests. Large ranches were also

10. developed on which where cattle, horses, sheep, and goats were
raised.
Question 3: What was the role of the Church in settlement?
Answer 3:
The task of the Church in exploration was to evangelize the
Indians. This mission, however, was more than just converting
them to Christianity. The missionaries would also be
“Europeanizing” them by teaching the Indians trades, customs,
language, manners, and Iberian habits. The goal was twofold, to
offer them eternal salvation and to make them royal subjects to
the empire. In order to deal with the Indians more efficiently,
the Indians were grouped into small communities or villages.
They learned and practiced their trades and behaved as Iberians.
The village structure helped the Iberians to maintain control
over territories and defend against invasion. The Church also
provided job opportunities for women outside of the home. The
actions of the Church can be interpreted differently depending
on the situation and personal viewpoint.
Question 4: How did the Iberian monarchs feel about the
treatment of the Indians?
Answer 4:
As opposed to today, the Church and state were virtually
inseparable. The monarch received his/her legitimacy and
authority to rule through the recognition of the Catholic Church.
Religious leaders in the New World were often the
representatives of the Indians and petitioned the Church to get
involved when Indians were suffering ill treatment from the
Iberians. The missionary or the Pope would then turn to the
monarch and appeal for better laws protecting the Indians.
Isabel, for instance, expressed sincere concern over the welfare
of the Indians and warned the Spaniards to treat them well but
could not enforce punishment for abuses of the policy because
of the sheer distance between Spain and the New World. In
order to receive papal (from the Pope) approval of Iberian
territorial claims, however, the monarchs were charged with the
responsibility of converting the Indians to Christianity,

11. civilizing them, and protecting them. King Ferdinand passed the
Laws of Burgos in 1512, which was the first general code for
the government and instruction of the Indians. It stipulated the
humane treatment of the Indians and thereby limited and
supervised the power of the encomiendero.
As the geographic territory under Roman control grew, the use
of Latin as a common language also spread. In areas under
Roman control, Latin was the spoken and written language of
the courts and commerce, as well as the language of the
Christian church. As the Roman Empire expanded, Latin served
as a common language that allowed for people of diverse
linguistic backgrounds to be able to communicate.
Latin, like other languages past and present, had more than one
form and changed over time because it was both written and
spoken, and the educational level or social status of the writer
or speaker often determined the final form of the language.
Latin was also influenced by local languages spoken or written
within the larger territory under the influence of what later
came to be known as the Roman Empire.
During the Carolingian Renaissance, throughout the reign of
Charlemagne and his successors, the development of Latin
literacy was greatly promoted. Although reading and writing
were skills that some people had, literacy was not widespread
before that time. Literacy in Latin was generally limited to
people of the upper classes and members of the clergy.
Charlemagne invited Alcuin of York to become his personal
tutor and the head of his court school. Charlemagne charged
Alcuin with the development of a literacy curriculum for
children that would provide for their instruction in reading and
writing, as well as for further study in the liberal arts and
theology, thereby also furthering the Christian teachings that
Charlemagne’s court promoted.
The promotion of literacy impacted education and language
throughout the region. The demand for material relating to the

12. interests of the ruling military class increased. Over time,
vernacular languages, the languages commonly spoken, began to
be used by writers. Until the 12th century, Latin was the
primary language used by writers. French writers began the
trend of using vernacular language in the 12th century, and by
the end of that century, some government and legal documents
in England and France were composed in the vernacular.
In the 12th century, literacy among women was also increasing.
Though literacy in Latin was still somewhat limited to specific
social classes, literacy in local vernacular languages was
increasingly common. Eleanor of Aquitaine established the city
of Poiters as a center for a literary movement focused on the art
of courtly love. The troubadour and the female counterpart, the
trobairitz, used poetry to share stories of romantic longing and
unattainable love. This poetry represents the beginning of
written expressions of love in the way romantic love continues
to be perceived today. It focuses on the feelings associated with
romantic love: longing, suffering, loss of appetite, temptation,
loyalty, and a desire to do whatever possible to have the feeling
of love reciprocated. As the poetry of the troubadour or
trobairitz was recorded, it was written in the vernacular of the
day. In fact, the word romance derives from the word romans,
the old French term for the vernacular language specific to the
region. Having poetry and prose in the vernacular of the people
allowed a much wider audience to access this romantic
literature.
By the early 14th century, the trend toward the use of
vernacular language had spread throughout most of Europe. As
monarchies throughout the region began to consolidate, the use
of vernacular languages contributed to an increasing
nationalism, or feeling of pride in one’s own nation, and in this
case among people of similar linguistic backgrounds. People
began to feel more connected to local leaders than they did to
influences from afar. These sociopolitical shifts, along with the
development of moveable type (the printing press), helped to
ensure the success of the vernacular languages during the

13. Renaissance.
As the name implies, the Renaissance was a rebirth of culture
and learning that took place in Europe over a period of several
hundred years. Although it began in Italy during the 1300s and
ended in the late 1500s, it also spread northward, where it
peaked in the 16th century before dying out in the mid-1600s in
that area. During this period, scientific and geographic
discoveries were championed. It was discovered by Copernicus
that the sun was the center of the solar system and the planets,
including Earth, orbited the sun. Exploration of new trade
routes gained the support of ruling families. Major changes to
the long-standing authority of the Catholic Church were brought
about by challenges made by Martin Luther during this time.
The works of one of the best-known writers, William
Shakespeare, were composed and presented in England. The
Renaissance was a time in which the various possibilities for
human expression and discovery within the world were
championed.
Humanism is defined by Sayre (2010) as “the recovery, study,
and spread of the art and literature of Greece and Rome, and the
application of their principles to education, politics, social life,
and the arts in general” (p.185). It provided the philosophical
backbone of the Renaissance and reformation in Europe. With a
renewed sense of interest in ancient cultural roots and
traditions, the people of the Renaissance in Europe desired a
separation from the more recent medieval past. This recent past
was perceived as a period of less cultural value, and the reliance
upon religious texts and sacred traditions that had proven
integral to the medieval period lessened in importance. An
appreciation for self-determination—the ability of the
individual to choose his or her path—lead to a greater value
being applied to human life. The importance of the individual
within society was acknowledged. Some individuals who had
the ability to do so financially served as patrons, supporting the
work of writers, artists, and other artisans during this period.
Reference

14. Sayre, H. M. (2010). Discovering the Humanities. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall-Pearson.
Imagine an illness so powerful that people who go to bed
healthy do not live until dawn. It kills up to 95% of the people
exposed to it, depending on the particular strain. Imagine a
plague that kills an estimated 35% of the entire population of
Europe in a matter of three short years (Cartwright, n.d.). Now
imagine that you are living in the Middle Ages. Modern
medicine does not exist, modern means of communication are
not available, modern transportation options have not been
developed, and modern scientific processes that could explain
where the disease comes from and how it is transmitted are
beyond the horizon. This is the situation in which the people of
Europe found themselves in the mid 1300s, as the plague that
became known as the Black Death began its decimation of the
continent.
Bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, was an often
deadly disease introduced to Europe that was carried by fleas
and rats. There were distinct forms of the plague, but bubonic
was the most commonly seen and therefore lent its name to the
epidemic as a whole. The name itself comes from the swelling
and blackening of the lymph glands of the groin, armpits, or
neck of the infected individual. These black lumps were known
as buboes. The infected person might also carry the disease in
the bloodstream, resulting in the septicemic version of the
plague. These forms of the illness were fatal most of the time.
The third subtype of the plague, pneumonic, was the most
deadly, taking the lives of nine of every ten of those afflicted.
The plague, in its various forms or phases, caused the telltale
boils, which could ooze pus and blood, and also caused a fever,
chills, vomiting, general malaise, or respiratory ills manifested
through coughing and sneezing. Physical contact with an
infected individual’s bodily fluids could also pass on the
disease.
From late 1347 until 1350, the Black Death ravaged Europe. It
was most active in the spring, summer, and fall months and less

15. active in the cold winter months, and people of all ages were
affected. Children, the elderly, women, men, and otherwise
healthy individuals were at risk of infection. The plague took
the lives of more than 60% of the inhabitants of some cities
(Sayre, 2010). Peasants were found dead along roadsides, and
ships washed ashore when their crews perished at sea. Florence
lost 4% of its population in a two-day period (Ibeji, 2010). In
many cases, the deaths also came many at a time. Entire streets
or families would succumb to the illness seemingly overnight.
Historical records from the time are not complete, so
determining an exact number of victims is not possible.
However, many estimates put the death toll at or above 25% of
the European population during the height of the plague years
alone (Kreis, 2000).
All of Europe was impacted. No one could be assured of being
spared. Much of this was due to the fact that people did not
know how the disease was spreading, and they did not take
basic precautions that would be encouraged in modern times to
stop or slow the spread of disease. The Black Death was carried
by rats and fleas and transmitted by the bites of these animals.
Although rats and fleas are not part of modern daily life for
most, in the fourteenth century, these creatures were part of
day-to-day existence. Records show that there had been rumors
of a plague sweeping through areas to the east in the years
before it came to the European continent, but relatively little
attention was paid to the tales. It is widely believed that the
disease first appeared in Europe when ships coming from
trading ports on the Black Sea returned to Genoa, Italy in 1347.
Fleas, once their rat hosts died, would feed on other nearby
mammals. In the case of rats on ships, the sailors became the
victims. As the rats and their fleas literally jumped ship in
Genoa, the plague began a reign of terror that lasted beyond the
initial, and most deadly, three-year period. Small outbreaks of
the plague continued to hit pockets throughout Europe for many
years to come.
The people of Europe did not know how disease was spread or

16. what precautions to take to reduce its spread. Hand-washing and
frequent bathing were not commonly encouraged practices until
the last century. Isolating oneself from the general public or
large gatherings during times of disease was also an unknown
practice, as it relates to reducing one’s exposure to disease.
Likewise, isolating the ill from the well, and ensuring that the
well did not come into contact with bodily fluids of the ill were
not common practices. The treatment of the dead and the
handling of corpses were also different from what is done in
modern practice. The lack of knowledge about how the disease
was transmitted and what could be done to slow or stop the
spread contributed to the great number of deaths.
The impacts of the Black Death were many and varied. The
initial decimation of the European population lead to a
significant, but short-term reduction in crop production. This
also resulted in a decrease in the foods available at the market.
It is also reported that animals were likely affected by the
plague. Some reports note entire flocks of dead sheep in the
fields. However, with fewer people for whom food needed to be
produced, this temporary decrease was soon made up for as the
remaining population took over the farmland of those who had
perished.
Time-honored traditions of succession and land tenure were
interrupted. The land-owning nobles, accustomed to collecting
significant amounts of dues either in the form of crops or cash
payments, had fewer serfs on whom to depend for payments.
This decreased their power to demand payment for the privilege
of working the nobles’ lands. Eventually, serfdom was replaced
by a system in which the landowners paid those who worked
their lands. The sociopolitical structure that had existed prior to
the plague underwent significant changes.
Another effect of the Black Death was an increase in university
enrollments at institutions where medicine was a field of study.
Students who had seen the effects of the plague and survived
brought with them new ideas about how diseases could spread
or how they might be treated. At this time, there was also a push

17. for the translation of major medical texts into vernacular
languages from the more traditional Greek or Latin
presentations.
References
Cartwright, F. F. (n.d.) The Black Death. Retrieved from
http://www.insecta-inspecta.com/fleas/bdeath/Black.html
Ibeji, M. (2005). British history in depth: The Black Death.
Retrieved from the BBC Web site:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.sht
ml
Kreis, S. (2000). Satan triumphant: The Black Death. Retrieved
from History Guide Web
site: http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture29b.html
Sayre, H. M. (2010). Discovering the humanities. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
The Middle Ages
The Middle Ages span the fall of Rome in the 5th century and
last through the 15th century. Often called the Medieval Era,
the Middle Ages are often divided into the Early, High, and
Late Middle Ages. The Early Middle Ages are characterized by
sparse populations and basic agricultural cultivations. In
contrast, the High Middle Ages (1000–1300 CE) are
characterized by population growth, urbanization, and
commercial expansion facilitated by agricultural expansion and
production that supported such growth. Finally, the Late Middle
Ages are characterized by the destruction and loss of the spread
of the Black Plague that devastated Europe in the 14th century,
resulting in the loss of between one quarter and one half of the
population (Spielvogel, 1999).
Starting in Constantinople in 1347 CE, the Black Death (now
known to be bubonic plague) produced a near collapse of the
economic and social systems throughout Europe, resulting in the

18. destruction of trade and commerce and in some instances entire
villages or communities. Bubonic plague was spread by the
fleas that were found on black rats. The damage it did
throughout Europe was enormous in terms of the loss of life and
the overall destruction of economic, social, and political
systems (Levack, Muir,Veldman, & Maas, 2007).
In the era that followed the spread and devastation of the
plague, Europe experienced a remarkable recovery that would
produce the contours for what today represents the foundation
of Western civilization.
The Renaissance
Following the destruction wrought by the spread of the Black
Death in the 14th century, Europe experienced a remarkable
resurgence that is characterized by a flourishing of cultural,
economic, and political expansion. Centered in Italy and then
spread throughout the remainder of Europe, the focus of the
Renaissance (or rebirth) would result in the remarkable
expansion of the West that would produce global exploration
and expansion by the 15th century.
The explosion of artistic and technological innovations and
expressions that characterize the Renaissance include the works
of artists like Michelangelo and Rafael, the political
philosophies of Machiavelli, the religious thoughts of Martin
Luther, and the scientific breakthroughs of Leonardo da Vinci
and Galileo (Spielvogel, 1999).
Indeed, the influence of the Renaissance resonates today
because the Renaissance as an era is considered to mark the
birth of modern civilization. From the Renaissance comes the
foundation of modern education with a curriculum that focuses
on a breadth and depth of critical inquiry and emphasizes well-
rounded courses of study (Levack et al., 2007). Specifically,
there was a focus on creating well-rounded people who have the
ability to contemplate and master the world around them
(Spielvogel, 1999). The legacy of the Renaissance remains
visible today with the continued emphasis in education and an
effort to try to understand the world around us through

19. contemplation.
References
Levack, B. P., Muir, E., Veldman, M., & Maas, M. (2007). The
West: Encounters and transformations. New York: Longman.
Spielvogel, J. J. (2000). Western civilization. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Question 1: What sorts of labor systems were employed by the
Spanish colonists?
Answer 1:
The first system was the institutional labor system. The
encomienda or the entrustment required the Spanish
encomendero to instruct the Indians entrusted to him in the
Christian religion, in the various elements of European
civilization, and required him to defend and protect the Indians.
In return, the encomendero could demand tribute and labor from
them. The second system was the repartimiento, and it replaced
the encomienda. This system allowed for the temporary
allotment of Indians workers for a given task. Under this
institution, royal authorities, in effect, controlled and parceled
out Indians for a specific task. The third system entailed the
grouping of Indians into aldeias, or villages, where they could
be introduced to Christianity and European civilization more
easily. In return for this favor and their protection, the Indians
gave a portion of their labor to the Church and state. Finally,
the fourth labor system evolved after the Jesuits spoke out to
protect the Indians after their arrival in the New World in 1549.
In a progressive step, and to ensure a more dependable labor
system, Indians were contracted as wage laborers. The practice,
however, was quickly corrupted and soon the hacendados,
established a system where loans were made to Indians that
were to be repaid with labor. Of course, the labor never seemed
to suffice to pay off the loan, and it was passed from father to
son(s).
Question 2: What were some of the natural resources found in
South America?
Answer 2:

20. The natural resources of South America included gold, silver,
precious stones, sugar, Brazilwood, indigo, cacao, coffee,
tobacco, hides, fruits, rum, cotton, lumber, various minerals and
metals, chicle, textiles, wheat, corn, rice, as well as a variety of
drugs found in the vast rain forests. Large ranches were also
developed on which where cattle, horses, sheep, and goats were
raised.
Question 3: What was the role of the Church in settlement?
Answer 3:
The task of the Church in exploration was to evangelize the
Indians. This mission, however, was more than just converting
them to Christianity. The missionaries would also be
“Europeanizing” them by teaching the Indians trades, customs,
language, manners, and Iberian habits. The goal was twofold, to
offer them eternal salvation and to make them royal subjects to
the empire. In order to deal with the Indians more efficiently,
the Indians were grouped into small communities or villages.
They learned and practiced their trades and behaved as Iberians.
The village structure helped the Iberians to maintain control
over territories and defend against invasion. The Church also
provided job opportunities for women outside of the home. The
actions of the Church can be interpreted differently depending
on the situation and personal viewpoint.
Question 4: How did the Iberian monarchs feel about the
treatment of the Indians?
Answer 4:
As opposed to today, the Church and state were virtually
inseparable. The monarch received his/her legitimacy and
authority to rule through the recognition of the Catholic Church.
Religious leaders in the New World were often the
representatives of the Indians and petitioned the Church to get
involved when Indians were suffering ill treatment from the
Iberians. The missionary or the Pope would then turn to the
monarch and appeal for better laws protecting the Indians.
Isabel, for instance, expressed sincere concern over the welfare
of the Indians and warned the Spaniards to treat them well but

21. could not enforce punishment for abuses of the policy because
of the sheer distance between Spain and the New World. In
order to receive papal (from the Pope) approval of Iberian
territorial claims, however, the monarchs were charged with the
responsibility of converting the Indians to Christianity,
civilizing them, and protecting them. King Ferdinand passed the
Laws of Burgos in 1512, which was the first general code for
the government and instruction of the Indians. It stipulated the
humane treatment of the Indians and thereby limited and
supervised the power of the encomiendero.